Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Carbon Engineering

Carbon Engineering Ltd. is a Canadian clean energy company founded in 2009 by physicist David Keith to develop and commercialize direct air capture (DAC) technology, which uses chemical processes to extract carbon dioxide directly from atmospheric air for permanent storage or conversion into fuels and other products.^[1]^[2]^[3] The company's DAC system employs large fans to draw air over a solution of potassium hydroxide, which binds CO₂ to form carbonate compounds; these are then heated to release pure CO₂ for sequestration underground or synthesis via the proprietary AIR TO FUELS™ process, which combines captured CO₂ with hydrogen to produce low-carbon synthetic fuels such as diesel or jet fuel.^[4]^[5] Carbon Engineering demonstrated its technology at a pilot plant in Squamish, British Columbia, operational since 2015 and capable of capturing about one tonne of CO₂ per day, providing empirical validation of the process's scalability and energy requirements, which include natural gas or renewable electricity for regeneration steps.^[6]^[7] In August 2023, U.S. oil producer Occidental Petroleum acquired the company for $1.1 billion, integrating it into its 1PointFive subsidiary to deploy multiple gigatonne-scale DAC facilities aimed at offsetting emissions and supporting net-zero goals, with initial commercial projects targeting up to 500,000 tonnes of CO₂ removal annually per plant.^[8]^[8]

History

Founding and Early Development

Carbon Engineering was founded in 2009 by David Keith, a professor of applied physics at Harvard University (later at the University of Calgary and now at the University of Chicago) with expertise in climate science and energy systems, to develop and commercialize direct air capture (DAC) technology capable of extracting carbon dioxide from ambient air at scale.^[2]^[9] Keith, who had previously explored theoretical aspects of DAC and geoengineering, viewed the venture as a departure from his academic focus on risk assessment in climate interventions, aiming instead to engineer a practical solution for atmospheric CO2 removal using chemical absorption processes.^[2] The company was initially based in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, where early research emphasized liquid solvent-based capture methods, drawing on Keith's prior publications on air-to-fuel synthesis and CO2 scrubbing.^[10] From inception, Carbon Engineering secured backing from high-profile investors, including Microsoft co-founder Bill Gates through his climate-focused Breakthrough Energy Ventures precursor investments, enabling initial research and development without immediate commercial pressures.^[9] The founding team prioritized engineering feasibility over rapid deployment, iterating on core components like air contactors for CO2 absorption in alkaline solutions and regeneration systems to release pure CO2 streams, with prototypes tested in laboratory settings to validate thermodynamic efficiency and material durability.^[9] By 2013, these efforts had progressed to planning a demonstration-scale pilot, marking the transition from conceptual validation to operational prototyping, though full-scale challenges such as energy intensity remained unaddressed at this stage.^[10]

Pilot Plant Operations

Carbon Engineering constructed its first direct air capture (DAC) pilot plant in Squamish, British Columbia, with operations commencing in the latter half of 2015.^[9] The facility, designed as the world's first industrial-scale DAC pilot, featured integrated unit operations including an air contactor for CO₂ absorption using a potassium hydroxide solution in a liquid-sorbent system, a pellet reactor for causticization, a slaker for lime preparation, and an oxy-fired calciner for CO₂ release at temperatures exceeding 900°C.^[9] With a capture capacity of approximately 1 tonne of CO₂ per day, the pilot focused on validating process performance, acquiring operational data, and derisking integration rather than permanent sequestration, as captured CO₂ was initially vented back to the atmosphere.^[9]^[11] During initial commissioning and testing phases extending into early 2016, the plant achieved target performance metrics across all major unit operations, confirming the feasibility of the DAC process at pilot scale.^[9] Key operational data included efficient air contactor performance, with pilot measurements supporting energy requirements of about 8.7 GJ thermal per tonne of CO₂ captured on a commercial scale projection.^[9] The facility demonstrated continuous CO₂ removal from ambient air, leveraging large fan-driven contactors to process high volumes of air despite low atmospheric CO₂ concentrations (around 400 ppm).^[12] In December 2017, the pilot plant advanced to demonstrate "air-to-fuels" synthesis, capturing CO₂ from the air and combining it with hydrogen to produce a hydrocarbon mixture of gasoline and diesel via Fischer-Tropsch synthesis, marking a milestone in integrating DAC with fuel production.^[12] This test campaign validated the full process chain, from capture to fuel output, using only atmospheric CO₂, hydrogen, and electricity, with the resulting fuels meeting standard specifications for transportation use.^[12] Ongoing operations through the late 2010s provided datasets for scaling, informing designs for commercial plants targeting 500,000 to 1 million tonnes of CO₂ capture annually.^[13] The Squamish pilot's success in eliminating technical integration risks supported subsequent expansions, including the 2021 Innovation Centre for further R&D.^[14]

Technology

Direct Air Capture Process

Carbon Engineering's direct air capture (DAC) process employs a liquid solvent-based system utilizing an aqueous potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution as the primary sorbent to extract CO2 from ambient air.^[15] Large industrial fans draw atmospheric air into contactor units, structurally similar to cooling towers, where the air flows across a plastic packing material coated with the KOH solution; CO2 reacts with KOH to form potassium carbonate and bicarbonate, effectively scrubbing the gas from the dilute atmospheric concentration of approximately 420 ppm.^[6]^[15] This absorption step operates continuously in a closed-loop configuration, with the sorbent solution recirculated after regeneration, achieving capture efficiencies influenced by air flow rates and solution alkalinity.^[9] The CO2-rich sorbent then proceeds to the pelletization stage, where calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂, or slaked lime) is added to precipitate calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) pellets, separating the captured CO2 from the bulk solution and concentrating it into a solid form.^[15] These pellets are filtered and dehydrated before entering an oxy-fuel calciner, where they are heated to over 900°C in an oxygen-rich environment fueled by natural gas, decomposing the CaCO₃ into pure CO2 gas, quicklime (CaO), and water vapor; the high-purity CO2 stream (>99%) is then compressed for storage or utilization.^[16]^[15] Regeneration of the process chemicals occurs via a caustic recovery loop: the quicklime is slaked with water to reform Ca(OH)₂, which is recycled to the pellet reactor, while the potassium carbonate solution is causticized using the calcium oxide to regenerate KOH for reuse in the contactor.^[15] This integrated calcium looping minimizes chemical losses and enables scalable operation, with pilot demonstrations confirming the process's viability under continuous conditions.^[9] The system is designed for modular deployment, targeting facilities capable of capturing up to 1 million tonnes of CO2 annually, though actual energy inputs include 5.25–8.81 GJ of thermal energy (primarily natural gas) and 366 kWh of electricity per tonne of CO2 captured, highlighting thermodynamic challenges due to the low atmospheric CO2 partial pressure.^[15]

Regeneration and CO2 Utilization

In Carbon Engineering's direct air capture (DAC) process, regeneration begins after CO2 absorption into an aqueous potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution, forming potassium carbonate (K2CO3).^[15] The carbonate-rich solution is directed to a pellet reactor, where slaked lime (calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2) is added, precipitating calcium carbonate (CaCO3) as small pellets while regenerating the KOH sorbent for reuse; this step adapts water treatment technology to achieve efficient phase separation.^[4]^[15] The CaCO3 pellets are then fed into a calciner, an oxygen-fired kiln operating at approximately 900°C, where thermal decomposition occurs: CaCO3 → CaO + CO2.^[17]^[18] The use of pure oxygen combustion, sourced from an air separation unit, minimizes nitrogen dilution, yielding a high-purity CO2 stream (>99% after dehydration and compression to 15 MPa).^[15] The resulting quicklime (CaO) is hydrated back to Ca(OH)2 for the pellet reactor cycle. Natural gas provides the calcination heat, consuming about 8.81 GJ per tonne of CO2 captured, though hybrid configurations with electricity can reduce gas use to 5.25 GJ/t while adding 366 kWh/t.^[15]^[18] The purified CO2 supports utilization pathways, including synthesis of carbon-neutral hydrocarbon fuels via reaction with renewable hydrogen (e.g., producing gasoline or diesel at scales targeting 1,000 barrels/day, with lifecycle emissions as low as 30 g CO2e/MJ).^[9]^[15] Alternatively, it enables enhanced oil recovery (EOR), injecting CO2 into reservoirs to extract additional crude (lift ratio of ~2 barrels per tonne CO2), yielding "low-carbon" oil with emissions around 45 g CO2e/MJ; this approach leverages existing infrastructure but depends on oil market viability.^[9] Following Occidental Petroleum's 2023 acquisition, emphasis has shifted toward geological storage for permanent sequestration, though utilization for fuels remains a demonstrated strategy from pilot operations.^[15]^[9] These options position the CO2 for either circular economy applications or net removal, contingent on end-use emissions accounting.

Energy Inputs and Thermodynamic Challenges

Carbon Engineering's direct air capture (DAC) process requires substantial energy inputs, primarily in the form of electricity for air handling and compression, and low-grade thermal energy for sorbent regeneration via calcination. Electricity consumption totals approximately 1.78 GJ per tonne of CO₂ captured (equivalent to 490 kWh/t), with major components including 0.63 GJ/t for absorber fans to drive large air volumes through contactors, 0.07 GJ/t for liquid pumping, 0.55 GJ/t for air separation, and 0.42 GJ/t for CO₂ compression. Thermal energy demands are higher, netting 6.1 GJ/t after heat recovery, but requiring an input of 8.1 GJ/t assuming 75% boiler efficiency, dominated by 4.5 GJ/t for calcining calcium carbonate to release pure CO₂ at temperatures exceeding 900°C, alongside 2.2 GJ/t for heating and 0.9 GJ/t for drying.^[19] These inputs reflect the process's reliance on natural gas for combined heat and power in early designs, though shifts to low-carbon sources like renewables or waste heat are necessary for net-negative emissions, as fossil fuel use can emit up to 0.5 tonnes of CO₂ per tonne captured. For a 1 Mt/year plant, total energy provision reaches 273 MW, underscoring the scale of demands for processing vast air quantities—equivalent to fanning through millions of cubic meters daily due to atmospheric CO₂ at ~400 ppm.^[20]^[21] Thermodynamically, DAC confronts fundamental limits from the entropy of mixing and low CO₂ partial pressure, mandating a minimum separation work of approximately 0.663 GJ/t (445 MJ/t for capture plus 218 MJ/t for compression at 50% recovery from 500 ppm air, derived from Gibbs free energy changes for concentrating dilute CO₂ to purity. Practical efficiencies fall short, achieving only 7.8% second-law efficiency in analyzed liquid-sorbent systems akin to Carbon Engineering's, with exergy destruction totaling 252 MW in a 1 Mt/year facility—primarily from chemical dissipation as low-grade heat in the air contactor and irreversible losses in high-temperature calcination and preheat stages. This 15-19-fold excess over the minimum stems from strong sorbent binding energies, unavoidable heat transfer irreversibilities, and the need to manage co-absorbed water vapor, amplifying overall energy penalties beyond post-combustion capture methods.^[19]^[20]^[22] Mitigating these challenges requires innovations in sorbent chemistry for milder regeneration conditions or advanced heat integration, yet current designs highlight causal trade-offs: enhanced capture kinetics demand higher regeneration energies, while scaling amplifies fan power proportional to air throughput squared, potentially offsetting gains if not paired with site-specific low-entropy energy sources. Empirical pilots confirm these hurdles, with no demonstrated path to sub-minimum efficiencies without violating second-law constraints.^[20]^[19]

Business and Commercialization

Funding and Partnerships

Carbon Engineering secured early funding through grants and investments starting from its founding in 2009. Initial support included a $3 million grant from the Canadian government via Sustainable Development Technology Canada in 2011 to develop its pilot plant. By 2015, the company raised seed funding from investors such as First Round Capital and Natural Resources Canada.^[3] A pivotal equity round in March 2019 raised $68 million, the largest private investment in direct air capture technology at the time, backed by entities including Bill Gates through Breakthrough Energy Ventures, BHP, Chevron Technology Ventures, and Murray Edwards.^[23] Subsequent investments included Airbus Group's participation in November 2022 to support research and development of DAC facilities.^[24] Overall, prior to its acquisition, Carbon Engineering raised approximately $117 million across multiple rounds from over 15 investors, including Air Canada and the British Columbia Ministry of Economic Development.^[25] In partnerships, Carbon Engineering collaborated with Greyrock Energy in October 2016 to develop air-to-fuels systems, integrating captured CO2 with renewable hydrogen for synthetic fuels.^[26] In July 2021, it partnered with LanzaTech to produce sustainable aviation fuel from DAC-derived CO2, aiming to demonstrate commercial viability.^[27] An MoU with Air Canada in November 2021 explored aviation decarbonization opportunities using DAC technology.^[28] Engineering collaborations included SPX Cooling Technologies for contactor cooling systems and TechnipFMC for plant design, as acknowledged in 2018.^[29] These alliances focused on technology integration and commercialization rather than equity stakes.

Acquisition by Occidental Petroleum

On August 15, 2023, Occidental Petroleum Corporation announced a definitive agreement for its wholly owned subsidiary, Oxy Low Carbon Ventures, to acquire all outstanding equity of Carbon Engineering Ltd. for approximately $1.1 billion in cash.^[8]^[30] The deal valued Carbon Engineering at over $1 billion, marking one of the largest acquisitions in the direct air capture sector to date.^[31] The transaction built on Occidental's prior involvement with Carbon Engineering, including a $1 million investment in 2019 and subsequent partnerships to develop pilot-scale direct air capture projects. Occidental stated the acquisition would accelerate the commercialization and global deployment of Carbon Engineering's modular direct air capture technology, with plans to deploy up to 100 facilities worldwide, each capable of capturing up to one million tonnes of CO2 annually.^[8]^[30] The move aligned with Occidental's strategy to leverage U.S. Inflation Reduction Act incentives for carbon capture, storage, and utilization, aiming to position the company as a leader in net-zero technologies amid growing demand for carbon removal.^[32] The acquisition closed on November 3, 2023, following approvals from Canadian courts, U.S. and Canadian regulatory bodies, and other customary conditions.^[33] Post-closing, Carbon Engineering operated as a wholly owned subsidiary of Occidental, retaining its Squamish, British Columbia headquarters and focus on technology development.^[34] This integration enabled Occidental to combine Carbon Engineering's air capture expertise with its existing subsurface storage capabilities and Permian Basin operations for end-to-end carbon management.^[8]

Planned Facilities and Scale-Up

Occidental Petroleum, following its 2023 acquisition of Carbon Engineering, has prioritized the development of the STRATOS facility in Ector County, Texas, as its flagship direct air capture (DAC) project. This plant, managed through Occidental's subsidiary 1PointFive, is designed to capture up to 500,000 metric tons of CO2 annually upon full operation, with potential scalability to 1 million metric tons per year through modular expansion. Construction groundbreaking occurred in April 2023, and as of February 2025, the project was 94% complete, with commercial operations and full ramp-up targeted for late 2025. The facility received a $550 million investment from BlackRock in November 2023 via a joint venture to support its development as the world's largest DAC plant to date.^[35]^[36]^[37] To enable scale-up, Occidental and Carbon Engineering have pursued modularization and standardization of DAC plant designs, aiming to mass-produce units for rapid deployment. In June 2022, they announced plans to deploy up to 70 such facilities by 2035, each capable of capturing up to 1 million metric tons of CO2 per year, potentially totaling 70 million metric tons annually across the network. This approach leverages Carbon Engineering's solvent-based, calcium-loop technology licensed to 1PointFive for commercial projects. Additionally, in October 2023, Occidental partnered with ADNOC for a preliminary engineering study on a megaton-scale DAC facility in the UAE, marking the first such project outside the United States.^[38]^[39]^[40] Supporting technological advancement for broader scale-up, Carbon Engineering completed design and planning in July 2025 for a new Research and Development campus in Squamish, British Columbia, focused on enhancing DAC processes and integration with CO2 utilization pathways. Recent off-take agreements, such as a 50,000 metric ton carbon removal deal with JPMorgan Chase announced in June 2025, underscore commercial momentum, though actual deployment remains contingent on securing further financing, regulatory approvals, and grid-scale renewable energy sources.^[41]^[42]

Criticisms and Challenges

Cost Estimates and Economic Feasibility

Early estimates from Carbon Engineering indicated levelized costs of CO2 capture ranging from $94 to $232 per metric ton for a hypothetical 1 million tonne per year plant, based on engineering models incorporating liquid contactor and pellet reactor processes with natural gas-fired regeneration.^[43] These figures assumed economies of scale, low-cost energy inputs, and integration with CO2 utilization pathways like enhanced oil recovery, but relied on optimistic assumptions about capital expenditures and operational efficiencies not yet demonstrated at commercial scale. Independent analyses have questioned these projections, estimating current pilot-scale costs closer to $600–1,000 per tonne due to higher-than-modeled energy penalties and equipment durability issues.^[44] Following Occidental Petroleum's 2023 acquisition of Carbon Engineering, updated economic assessments project costs of $450 per tonne at 10 million tonnes per annum deployment, declining to $400 per tonne at 30 million tonnes and $300 per tonne at 50 million tonnes, contingent on modular plant replication and supply chain optimizations.^[45] These targets incorporate tax credits under the U.S. Inflation Reduction Act, which provide up to $180 per tonne for sequestered CO2, potentially improving net economics but not eliminating the premium over point-source capture methods costing under $60 per tonne.^[46] Feasibility hinges on revenue from carbon markets or utilization; without sustained high-value off-take for fuels or storage incentives, return on investment remains marginal, as evidenced by Occidental's pivot toward enhanced oil recovery integration over pure removal.^[47] Broader techno-economic studies forecast direct air capture costs stabilizing at $230–540 per tonne by 2050 even at gigatonne scales, limited by thermodynamic inefficiencies requiring 8–9 GJ per tonne of thermal energy—far exceeding point-source alternatives—and persistent capital intensity from large air contactor arrays.^[48] Critics argue that Carbon Engineering's aqueous solvent approach exacerbates water and energy demands in arid deployment sites, undermining claims of rapid cost parity with $100 per tonne benchmarks, which presuppose unproven learning rates and ignore deployment bottlenecks like land use and grid constraints.^[49] Economic viability thus appears constrained to niche, subsidized applications rather than broad decarbonization, with skepticism from engineering assessments highlighting over-optimism in company-sponsored models versus real-world pilots.^[50]

Scalability and Energy Demands

Carbon Engineering's direct air capture (DAC) process demands significant energy, primarily for the thermal regeneration of the potassium hydroxide sorbent solution and air handling via large fans. Analysis of a 1 Mt CO₂/year plant indicates a total power requirement of 273 MW, with approximately 252 MW attributed to thermal energy for calcination and pelletization steps. This equates to roughly 2.4 MWh per tonne of CO₂ captured, far exceeding the theoretical minimum of 0.14-0.21 MWh/t dictated by thermodynamic limits for separating CO₂ at ambient concentrations (around 420 ppm).^[20]^[51] The energy profile underscores reliance on high-temperature heat (around 900°C for calcination), which, if sourced from natural gas as in early designs, incurs lifecycle emissions of about 0.5 t CO₂e per t CO₂ captured unless offset by oxy-fuel combustion or electrification. Scaling necessitates co-location with low-carbon energy sources like renewables or nuclear to achieve net-negative emissions, but intermittency requires substantial storage or overbuild capacity, amplifying infrastructure demands. Company estimates target 8.8 GJ/t (equivalent to ~2.4 MWh/t), with fans alone consuming 0.3-0.9 MWh/t due to the low CO₂ partial pressure necessitating high airflow volumes.^[52]^[53] Scalability from the Squamish pilot plant, operational since 2015 and capturing ~1 t CO₂/day, to commercial 1 Mt/year facilities involves modular replication but faces engineering hurdles in sorbent deployment, supply chain for chemicals like KOH, and construction of vast air contactors (each potentially spanning kilometers in fan arrays). Plans announced in 2022 envision 100 such plants via partnership with 1PointFive, targeting ~70-100 Mt/year collectively, yet global gigatonne-scale deployment—required for meaningful climate impact—would demand thousands of facilities, equivalent to building an industry rivaling current global electricity generation in energy footprint if not paired with abundant dispatchable low-carbon power.^[9]^[54]^[55] Key bottlenecks include material sourcing (e.g., limestone for pelletization) and land use for distributed plants to minimize local environmental disruption, alongside capital-intensive replication amid unproven long-term sorbent stability at scale. While pilot data validates techno-economic feasibility for individual units, systemic risks persist in synchronizing with energy grids and avoiding competition for renewables, potentially delaying Gt-scale realization beyond 2050 without breakthroughs in process efficiency or energy abundance.^[56]^[57]

Environmental and Ethical Debates

Direct air capture (DAC) technologies, including those developed by Carbon Engineering, face scrutiny over their environmental footprint due to high energy demands. Carbon Engineering's liquid solvent-based process requires approximately 2,000-2,500 kWh of electricity and 5.25-8.81 GJ of low-temperature heat per tonne of CO2 captured, potentially leading to indirect emissions if sourced from fossil fuels.^[58] However, life cycle assessments indicate net negative greenhouse gas emissions when powered by low-carbon sources such as renewables or waste heat, with one study estimating -0.84 to -1.20 tonnes CO2-equivalent per tonne captured across configurations.^[59] Water consumption for cooling and regeneration poses additional concerns, estimated at 1.5-2.7 tonnes per tonne of CO2 in some DAC systems, though Carbon Engineering's design minimizes this relative to alternatives.^[60] Land use remains low, requiring 30-100 times less area than bioenergy or afforestation methods for equivalent capture.^[61] Critics argue that scaling DAC could exacerbate environmental trade-offs if energy demands strain renewable infrastructure or rely on natural gas, as in early Carbon Engineering pilots, emitting up to 0.5 tonnes CO2 per tonne captured before offsets.^[62] Environmental advocates, including the Center for International Environmental Law, contend that unproven large-scale deployment risks unintended consequences like chemical sorbent pollution or seismic activity from storage injection, though empirical data on these remains limited.^[63] Proponents counter that DAC's modularity allows co-location with renewables, mitigating impacts, but debates persist over opportunity costs versus direct emission cuts.^[64] Ethically, Carbon Engineering's 2023 acquisition by Occidental Petroleum, a major oil producer, has sparked concerns of moral hazard, where carbon removal offsets enable continued fossil fuel extraction rather than phase-out.^[65] Occidental plans to use DAC for enhanced oil recovery, injecting captured CO2 to extract more crude, which critics like those in Atmos Earth label as greenwashing that prolongs emissions-intensive activities.^[66] Studies on carbon removal highlight risks of mitigation deterrence, where reliance on offsets reduces urgency for decarbonization, potentially delaying net-zero transitions.^[67] Fossil fuel involvement in DAC, as noted by Reuters, alarms environmentalists fearing industry capture of removal credits to maintain "social license" for expansion, though Occidental asserts integration supports permanent storage.^[68] These debates underscore tensions between technological optimism and skepticism of profit-driven motives in climate solutions.^[69]

Impact and Broader Context

Role in Carbon Removal Strategies

Carbon Engineering's direct air capture (DAC) technology addresses a critical gap in carbon dioxide removal (CDR) strategies by extracting CO₂ directly from ambient atmospheric concentrations, bypassing the limitations of point-source capture methods that depend on emission hotspots. Unlike bio-based approaches such as afforestation or bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS), which compete for land and water resources, DAC offers location flexibility, enabling deployment near storage sites or utilization hubs without geographic constraints tied to biomass availability. When paired with geologic sequestration, Carbon Engineering's process delivers verifiable, permanent CDR, supporting net-zero pathways that require removing 5–15 gigatons of CO₂ annually by mid-century to align with 1.5°C warming limits, as modeled in IPCC scenarios.^[6] The company's modular DAC plants, each capable of capturing up to 1 million metric tons of CO₂ per year, integrate into diversified CDR portfolios by providing a scalable, technology-driven complement to natural methods, which face uncertainties from ecological variability and saturation limits. Carbon Engineering's approach has been validated through operational pilots since 2015, demonstrating energy-efficient chemical regeneration using lime-based cycles, and supports dual-use applications: pure CDR for atmospheric drawdown or CO₂ supply for synthetic fuels, enhancing economic viability in strategies emphasizing carbon utilization. Partnerships, such as with Occidental Petroleum's 1PointFive subsidiary, target deploying 100 such facilities globally, potentially removing over 100 million tons annually by the 2030s, contributing to corporate and national offsets for residual emissions in sectors like aviation and cement.^[54]^[39] In broader policy contexts, Carbon Engineering's DAC exemplifies engineered CDR's role in bridging mitigation shortfalls, where emission reductions alone cannot reverse cumulative atmospheric buildup exceeding 420 ppm CO₂. Climate assessments highlight DAC's potential for high-integrity credits under frameworks like the voluntary carbon market, though scalability hinges on policy incentives such as the U.S. 45Q tax credit, which subsidizes storage-linked removal at $180 per ton as of 2025 updates. Critics note that while DAC avoids land-use trade-offs, its current energy intensity—requiring low-carbon sources like renewables or nuclear—necessitates integrated energy planning, yet empirical data from Carbon Engineering's systems confirm feasibility with net-negative outcomes when powered renewably.^[70]^[71]

Relation to Geoengineering and Policy

Direct air capture (DAC) technologies pioneered by Carbon Engineering are classified by multiple analyses as a subset of geoengineering, particularly carbon dioxide removal (CDR), which involves intentional large-scale manipulation of atmospheric CO2 levels to counteract anthropogenic emissions. Unlike solar radiation management techniques that reflect sunlight to cool the planet, DAC employs chemical sorbents to bind and extract dilute CO2 from ambient air, followed by release and purification for storage or utilization, offering a mechanism for negative emissions. This aligns with definitions of geoengineering as deliberate interventions in the climate system, though DAC is distinguished by its potential for verifiable, permanent sequestration when paired with geological storage, as emphasized in Carbon Engineering's process design.^[72]^[73]^[6] Policy frameworks have increasingly incorporated DAC as a tool for achieving net-zero emissions targets, with governments providing financial incentives to overcome high capital and operational costs. In the United States, the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law and Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 expanded the 45Q tax credit to $180 per metric ton of CO2 sequestered via DAC, spurring private investment and deployment; the Department of Energy announced up to $1.8 billion in 2024 for regional DAC hubs to scale capture to gigaton levels annually.^[57]^[74] In Canada, Carbon Engineering's home country, the federal government issued a dedicated DAC protocol in February 2025 to standardize measurement, reporting, and verification for carbon credits, alongside funding for projects like those in British Columbia aimed at heavy-industry decarbonization.^[75]^[76] These policies reflect a strategic emphasis on CDR in national climate plans, with the U.S. and Canada positioning DAC as complementary to emission reductions rather than a substitute, amid calls for international coordination to address transboundary atmospheric effects. Occidental Petroleum's 2023 acquisition of Carbon Engineering has aligned its technology with U.S. policy incentives, enabling planned facilities like the Texas DAC plant targeting 500,000 tons of annual CO2 removal by 2025. However, regulatory hurdles persist, including requirements for permanent storage verification and debates over public funding for technologies tied to fossil fuel extension via enhanced oil recovery.^[57]^[77]

References

[1]
Carbon Engineering | Direct Air Capture of CO2 | Home
Carbon Engineering is a team of innovators from around the globe with a shared mission and commitment of advancing large-scale Direct Air Capture technology.Who We Are · Careers · Insights · Contact
[2]
Carbon engineering - David Keith
I founded Carbon Engineering (CE) in 2009 to develop technology for capturing CO₂ from ambient air. This was an unusual choice for me because I'd spent my ...
[3]
Carbon Engineering - Crunchbase Company Profile & Funding
Carbon Engineering is a clean energy company that commercializes the Direct Air Capture technology to capture CO2 directly from the atmosphere.
[4]
Direct Air Capture Technology - Carbon Engineering
Direct Air Capture is a technology that captures carbon dioxide directly from the air with an engineered, mechanical system.
[5]
AIR TO FUELS™ Technology - Carbon Engineering
Step 1: Direct Air Capture technology captures and concentrates CO2 from atmospheric air. Step 2: Hydrogen is produced by splitting water into hydrogen and ...
[6]
Direct Air Capture and Storage of CO2 - Carbon Engineering
Designed to capture up to 500,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide annually once fully operational, it is expected to be the largest in the world. Learn more about ...
[7]
Resources - Carbon Engineering
In 2009, a passionate group of engineers and climate experts founded Carbon Engineering (CE) with an early and unwavering understanding of how important large- ...<|separator|>
[8]
Occidental Enters into Agreement to Acquire Direct Air Capture ... - Oxy
Aug 15, 2023 · Occidental is acquiring Carbon Engineering for $1.1 billion to improve cost efficiencies, advance DAC technology, and accelerate its deployment.
[9]
[PDF] Carbon Engineering – Direct Air Capture Pilot Plant Demonstration
Carbon Engineering is a Canadian company founded in 2009 by leading environmental scientist David Keith and backed by investors Bill Gates (Microsoft) and ...<|separator|>
[10]
A pilot plant, Carbon Engineering, may be operational by next summer
Jun 17, 2013 · David Keith founded a company, Carbon Engineering, in 2009, while he held the Canada Research Chair in energy and the environment at the ...
[11]
Building the world's largest direct air capture facility
Oct 3, 2025 · In comparison, Carbon Engineering's pilot in British Columbia handled 1 tonne per day. Most processes scale up gradually through multiple ...
[12]
Carbon Engineering Demonstrates AIR TO FUELS
Dec 13, 2017 · Last week, the Carbon Engineering team demonstrated “AIR TO FUELS” by directly synthesizing a mixture of gasoline and diesel using only CO2 ...
[13]
CE expanding capacity of commercial Direct Air Capture plant
Sep 17, 2019 · The plant is expanding from 500,000 to 1 million tons of CO2 removed annually, enabling customers to permanently remove CO2 from the atmosphere.
[14]
Innovation Centre - Carbon Engineering
At the core of our work, we deliver data-driven improvements validated and derisked at various lab, bench, and pilot scales in Squamish (Sḵwx̱wú7mesh).
[15]
A Process for Capturing CO2 from the Atmosphere - ScienceDirect
Aug 15, 2018 · Carbon Engineering (CE) has been developing an aqueous DAC system since 2009. ... Figure 3 shows selected pilot plant air contactor data ...
[16]
DAC Technology - 1PointFive
Direct Air Capture (DAC) removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Using high-powered fans, air is drawn into a processing facility where the CO2 is ...
[17]
Direct Air Capture: Climate Solution or Distraction? — Pardalote
Dec 28, 2023 · Carbon Engineering, for example, transforms their calcium carbonate into pellets. These pellets are then heated to approximately 900 degrees ...
[18]
Chapter: 5 Direct Air Capture - The National Academies Press
In particular, for the regeneration of Carbon Engineering's capture material, the heat is sourced by burning natural gas in an oxygen-fired kiln in which CO2 is ...
[19]
[PDF] Direct Air Capture of CO2 with Chemicals - Carbon Engineering
Apr 15, 2011 · As both DAC and PCC share similar process steps, particular challenges and opportunities associated with DAC are described, with the ...
[20]
Thermodynamic loss analysis of a liquid-sorbent direct air carbon ...
With the amount of CO2 in atmospheric air being very dilute, DAC requires massive amounts of energy per unit of CO2 captured, incurring significant energy costs ...
[21]
Techno-economic assessment of CO2 direct air capture plants
Jul 1, 2019 · One of Carbon Engineering (2018c) DAC technologies fully powered by natural gas would release 0.5 ton of CO2 per ton of atmospheric CO2 captured ...4. Results · 4.2. Economics Of Co Dac · 4.3. Estimates For Dac...
[22]
Overcoming the Entropy Penalty of Direct Air Capture for Efficient ...
Jan 23, 2023 · In this work, the challenge of removing gigatonnes of CO 2 is described via the scale of effort and the thermodynamics of collecting and reducing this diffuse ...Introduction · Results and Discussion · Conclusions · Supporting Information
[23]
Carbon Engineering concludes USD$68 million investment round
Mar 21, 2019 · Carbon Engineering today announced the completion of an equity financing round of USD$68M, the largest private investment into DAC.
[24]
Airbus invests in climate solutions company, Carbon Engineering ...
Nov 17, 2022 · Airbus invests in climate solutions company, Carbon Engineering Ltd. to support world's largest direct air carbon capture R&D facility. Share.
[25]
Carbon Engineering 2025 Company Profile - PitchBook
Carbon Engineering General Information Provider of clean energy services aimed at delivering affordable and reliable energy while reducing carbon emissions.
[26]
New Partnership: Carbon Engineering and Greyrock Energy
Oct 5, 2016 · Carbon Engineering and Greyrock Energy today announced a partnership to develop commercial air-to-fuels (A2F) systems, converting ambient CO 2 and renewable ...Missing: collaborations | Show results with:collaborations<|control11|><|separator|>
[27]
Carbon Engineering and LanzaTech partner to advance jet fuel ...
Jul 26, 2021 · LanzaTech UK, and cleantech company Carbon Engineering (CE), have partnered on a first-of-a-kind project to create sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) out of ...
[28]
Air Canada and Carbon Engineering Sign MoU to Explore ...
Nov 10, 2021 · Air Canada and CE today announced a Memorandum of Understanding to identify potential opportunities to advance aviation decarbonization.
[29]
Carbon Engineering thanks partners and vendors
Sep 6, 2018 · Carbon Engineering collaborates with SPX Cooling Technologies, Royal HaskoningDHV, TechnipFMC, and Greyrock Energy for their DAC and AIR TO ...
[30]
Occidental buys carbon air capture tech firm for $1.1 billion | Reuters
Aug 15, 2023 · U.S. oil and gas producer Occidental Petroleum on Tuesday agreed to pay $1.1 billion for technology supplier Carbon Engineering Ltd to help ...
[31]
The Big Deal: Carbon capture's first billion-dollar acquisition -
Aug 18, 2023 · Occidental's $1.1bn purchase of Carbon Engineering is a landmark moment for carbon capture startups, but who could be next to be bought?
[32]
Occidental Petroleum to Acquire Carbon Capture Technology ...
Aug 16, 2023 · Occidental Petroleum will purchase tech firm Carbon Engineering Ltd. for $1.1 billion with plans to build 100 plants, using incentives from ...
[33]
Occidental Petroleum completes US$1.1 billion acquisition of ... - BLG
Nov 3, 2023 · Occidental Petroleum completes US$1.1 billion acquisition of Carbon Engineering Ltd. On November 3, 2023, Occidental (NYSE: OXY) announced that ...
[34]
Canadian firm Carbon Engineering being bought by Occidental for ...
Aug 17, 2023 · The plant under construction is expected to capture up to 500,000 metric tonnes of carbon dioxide per year with the capacity to scale up to 1 ...
[35]
Ector County DAC - STRATOS - 1PointFive
It is designed to capture up to 500,000 tonnes of CO2 per year and is expected to be commercially operational in 2025.Missing: details | Show results with:details
[36]
Occidental and BlackRock Form Joint Venture to Develop Stratos ...
Nov 7, 2023 · BlackRock (NYSE: BLK) will invest $550 million on behalf of clients in the development of STRATOS, the world's largest Direct Air Capture (DAC) facility, in ...Missing: details | Show results with:details
[37]
Oxy's STRATOS Update: The Future of Direct Air - decarbonfuse.com
Feb 25, 2025 · STRATOS is a Direct Air Capture facility, 94% complete, designed to remove CO₂ from the atmosphere, with full ramp-up expected by year-end.
[38]
Carbon Engineering and Occidental Petroleum to mass-produce ...
Jun 11, 2022 · ... plan to standardize, modularize, and mass-produce DAC plants as a way to quickly scale up CE's solvent-based, calcium-loop DAC technology.
[39]
Direct Air Capture Global Deployment Approach - Carbon Engineering
Jun 7, 2022 · 1PointFive has announced a scenario of deploying 70 DAC facilities by 2035, each with an expected capacity of up to 1 million tonnes per year, ...
[40]
Occidental and ADNOC to commence preliminary engineering study ...
Oct 3, 2023 · The study will assess the feasibility of building the first megaton-scale DAC facility outside the United States, using the same carbon dioxide ...Missing: planned | Show results with:planned
[41]
Carbon Engineering to invest in technology development and ...
Jul 10, 2024 · UPDATE | JULY 2025 Carbon Engineering has completed the design and planning work for our new Research and Development (R&D) Campus in Squamish.
[42]
1PointFive Announces 50,000 Metric Ton Carbon Removal ... - Oxy
Jun 24, 2025 · 1PointFive Announces 50,000 Metric Ton Carbon Removal Agreement with JPMorganChase. Transaction advances Direct Air Capture as a decarbonization ...
[43]
Cost plunges for capturing carbon dioxide from the air - Science
In 2015, Carbon Engineering launched its first pilot plant for capturing CO2 in British Columbia in Canada. After capturing the CO2 in solution, the plant ...<|separator|>
[44]
Carbon Capture Costs Needs Reassessment, Engineers Say - ASME
Apr 8, 2025 · The costs of direct-air carbon capture may be underestimated, MIT ... for carbon removal, reports have estimated it to be about $1,000 a ton.
[45]
Occidental Dives Headfirst into Direct Air Capture, Analyst Raises ...
Nov 13, 2023 · “[Occidental] estimates CDR costs of $450/ton at 10 million tonnes per annum (mtpa), $400/ton at 30 mtpa and $300/ton at 50 mtpa,” Read said.
[46]
Occidental Petroleum Quietly Abandons Biggest Carbon Capture Plant
Oct 25, 2023 · Oxy's new billion-dollar DAC plant Stratos aims to rapidly scale carbon capture by absorbing up to 500,000 metric tons of CO2 each year once it ...Missing: details | Show results with:details
[47]
[PDF] Oxy Climate Report 2024
Oct 31, 2024 · In 2023, Oxy acquired 100% of Carbon Engineering, the DAC technology provider behind the. STRATOS facility. In July 2024, Oxy's Board of ...
[48]
New Study Places Future Direct Air Capture Costs In A $230
Mar 5, 2024 · The researchers suggest the cost of a ton of captured CO2 via DAC technologies could likely fall in the range of $230 – $540.
[49]
Debunking the $100 fallacy: What does direct air capture CO2 ...
The $100/tonne target is unrealistic; a 2024 study estimates $230-$540/tonne by 2050. The $100 target was based on ideal conditions.
[50]
Direct Air Capture: Reaching a Capture Cost of US$100/Tonne of CO2
May 2, 2025 · However, direct air capture costs demonstrated so far are closer to US$1000/tonne of CO2. This article explores possible pathways to lower ...
[51]
Energy Consumption of Direct Air Capture - Stanford University
Nov 17, 2024 · The theoretical minimum energy consumption for DAC is 0.5-0.76GJ per ton of CO 2 (or approximately 140-210kWh per ton of CO 2 ).
[52]
'The amount of energy required by direct air carbon capture proves it ...
Sep 14, 2021 · Indeed, Climeworks' rival, US-based Carbon Engineering, believes it will require 8.8GJ per tonne of captured CO2, rather than the 14GJ-per-tonne ...
[53]
The energy and cost dynamics of direct air carbon capture
Jul 9, 2024 · The energy consumption of fans in DAC plants can range from 300 to 900 kWh per ton of CO2 captured. This represents a significant portion of the ...
[54]
Direct Air Capture - Energy System - IEA
Direct air capture (DAC) technologies extract CO2 directly from the atmosphere at any location, unlike carbon capture which is generally carried out at the ...<|separator|>
[55]
[PDF] Scaling Direct Air Capture (DAC): A moonshot or the sky's the limit?
Dec 1, 2023 · This paper discusses scaling Direct Air Capture (DAC), asking if it's a moonshot or if the sky's the limit. Authors are Peter Webb, Hasan ...
[56]
Current status and pillars of direct air capture technologies - PMC
The second plant in study, the one million tons per year DAC plant by Carbon engineering will be using a liquid sorbent and the thermal needs being met by ...
[57]
Direct Air Capture: 6 Things To Know | World Resources Institute
Sep 2, 2025 · Direct air capture (DAC) is a promising carbon removal approach that uses chemical reactions to pull CO2 from the air, helping to mitigate ...
[58]
[PDF] A life cycle assessment of greenhouse gas emissions from direct air ...
Apr 13, 2020 · the air has a long history.8 The earliest proposals involved stripping CO2 from the air to produce hydrocarbon fuels (using nuclear energy) ...
[59]
Environmental trade-offs of direct air capture technologies in climate ...
Jun 25, 2022 · DACCS achieves net negative greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions across all technologies and heat sources investigated per metric tonne (1t) of ...
[60]
Direct Air Capture: Assessing Impacts to Enable Responsible Scaling
Carbon removal will be needed, likely at a large scale, to limit global temperature rise to 1.5°C, which is necessary to avoid the worst impacts of climate ...<|separator|>
[61]
Direct Air Capture: Costs, Benefits, and the Future - Wharton Impact
Aug 6, 2021 · While DAC technology faces several challenges including resource limitations and risks such as over-reliance, carbon storage costs and safety, ...
[62]
Direct air capture (DAC) vs. Direct ocean capture (DOC)
Oct 1, 2024 · It requires 200–300 kWh/ton of CO2 captured primarily consumed by the fans and control systems as well as an additional 1,500–2,000 kWh of ...
[63]
[PDF] Direct Air Capture - Center for International Environmental Law
Nov 10, 2023 · Direct air capture (DAC) is an energy- and emissions-intensive technology, unproven at scale, that aims to vacuum carbon dioxide directly ...
[64]
Co-assessment of costs and environmental impacts for off-grid direct ...
Jan 16, 2024 · To guide decision-making, a combined assessment of costs and environmental impacts for DACS systems is necessary.
[65]
An oil firm wants to pull CO2 from the sky — to keep selling crude
Dec 27, 2023 · A technology that could help combat climate change is being championed by an unlikely proponent: Occidental Petroleum, a big oil company.Missing: ethical | Show results with:ethical
[66]
The Hijack and Reclamation of Direct Air Capture - Atmos Earth
Dec 5, 2023 · Their most glaring critiques are that DAC is small in scale, expensive, and energy intensive. “If you use fossil fuel energy to fire these ...
[67]
Is carbon removal delaying emission reductions? - Carton - 2023
Jan 24, 2023 · Carbon removal could lead to a reduction or delay in near-term emission reductions. Reviewing the literature, we argue that assessments of this moral hazard/ ...
[68]
Fossil-fuel industry embrace raises alarm bells over direct air capture
Oct 12, 2023 · DAC touted as 100 times land-efficiency of reforestation and to sequester carbon for centuries · Just 18 DAC facilities currently in operation, ...
[69]
The false hope of carbon capture and storage - Canadian Dimension
May 30, 2022 · Carbon Engineering and its DAC technologies make it abundantly clear that private investment in carbon removal is subject to moral hazard. We ...
[70]
[PDF] Carbon Dioxide Removal: Purpose, Approaches, and ...
Jan 31, 2025 · Carbon dioxide removal (CDR) is the process of directly removing CO2 from the atmosphere, crucial for meeting climate targets and addressing ...
[71]
Carbon Dioxide Removal: A Key Strategy for Fighting Climate Change
Carbon dioxide removal (CDR) is a key strategy using methods like direct air/ocean capture, bioenergy, and soil sequestration, but faces high costs and energy- ...
[72]
Direct Air Capture | Carbon Dioxide Climate Engineering
Direct Air Capture (DAC) is a geoengineering or climate engineering approach that extracts carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air or atmosphere and compresses it ...
[73]
Direct Air Capture - Geoengineering Monitor
Direct Air Capture (DAC) schemes aim to extract carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases from the atmosphere by chemical and mechanical means.
[74]
OCED Issues Notice of Intent for up to $1.8 Billion to Fund ...
Sep 20, 2024 · DAC is a process that separates CO2 from the air, helping to reduce legacy CO2 in the atmosphere. The separated CO2 can then be safely and ...
[75]
New direct air capture protocol demonstrates Canadian leadership
Feb 3, 2025 · The Government of Canada released a new direct air capture (DAC) protocol to support the development of DAC projects.What Does The Dac Protocol... · Why Is The Protocol Focused... · What's Next?
[76]
Government of Canada Takes Strides to Advance Decarbonization ...
Nov 28, 2024 · The federal government's support for projects like Carbon Engineering's air-capture technology shows our province's shared commitment to ...
[77]
Opportunities for US States to Scale Direct Air Capture
Sep 18, 2025 · Federal policies supporting CDR technologies have been foundational to U.S. leadership in this space. They have supported the full technology ...