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Collared peccary

The collared peccary (Pecari tajacu), also known as the javelina, is a medium-sized, pig-like mammal belonging to the family Tayassuidae, which is native exclusively to the Western Hemisphere.^[1] It is characterized by a coarse, grizzled dark grayish-brown coat, a distinctive whitish "collar" of longer, lighter hairs encircling the neck and shoulders, and a prominent dorsal scent gland on the rump used for territorial marking and communication.^[1] Adults typically measure 84–106 cm in head-body length, with a short tail of 1–10 cm, stand 30–50 cm at the shoulder, and weigh 15–28 kg, though individuals in some populations can reach up to 42 kg.^[1]^[2] This species exhibits one of the broadest distributions among New World ungulates, ranging from the southwestern United States (Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas) southward through Mexico and Central America to northern Argentina and southern Brazil, including the Amazon Basin.^[3]^[2] Highly adaptable, it occupies a wide array of habitats from arid deserts and thorn scrub to tropical rainforests, savannas, and wetlands, spanning elevations from sea level to 3,000 m.^[1]^[3] Its tolerance for diverse climatic conditions—from dry semi-arid zones to humid tropics—has enabled population expansions, such as northward into parts of the U.S. in recent decades.^[1]^[2] Collared peccaries are social and gregarious, forming stable herds of 5–15 individuals (occasionally up to 50), with groups maintaining territories of 24–800 hectares marked by scent glands and vocalizations.^[1] They are primarily diurnal or crepuscular foragers, relying on an omnivorous diet dominated by fruits (over 60% in many areas), supplemented by roots, tubers, seeds, insects, and small vertebrates, which positions them as important seed dispersers and ecosystem engineers through wallowing and foraging activities.^[3]^[2] Breeding is often year-round with seasonal peaks, featuring a gestation of 141–151 days and litters of 1–2 young (rarely up to 4), reaching sexual maturity at 8–18 months.^[1] Assessed as Least Concern by the IUCN in 2016 due to its stable and widespread populations, the species nonetheless faces localized threats from habitat fragmentation, overhunting for meat and hides, and human-wildlife conflicts.^[3]

Taxonomy

Classification

The collared peccary is classified in the order Artiodactyla, the even-toed ungulates, which includes diverse herbivores such as deer, cattle, and camels, characterized by an even number of toes on their feet.^[4] Within this order, it belongs to the family Tayassuidae, known as the New World peccaries, a group endemic to the Americas that diverged from the Old World Suidae (pigs) approximately 29 million years ago despite superficial resemblances in body form and omnivorous habits; key distinctions include peccaries' straight dorsal scent glands, three-toed hind feet, and lack of a gall bladder.^[5]^[6] The family Tayassuidae comprises three extant genera: Dicotyles (collared peccary), Tayassu (white-lipped peccary), and Catagonus (Chacoan peccary), with the collared peccary being the most widespread and adaptable.^[7] The binomial name of the collared peccary is Dicotyles tajacu (Linnaeus, 1758), first described by Carl Linnaeus in Systema Naturae based on specimens from South America, initially placed in the genus Sus before reassignment to peccaries.^[8] The genus name Dicotyles, established by Georges Cuvier in 1816, derives from the Greek words di- (two) and kotylē (hollow or cavity), referring to the two hollows in the animal's jaw structure.^[9] The specific epithet tajacu originates from the Tupi-Guarani language of indigenous South Americans, where taiaçu denotes a type of wild pig-like animal.^[9] Historically, the taxonomy of the collared peccary has seen shifts in generic placement, with early classifications using Pecari or Tayassu based on morphological traits; however, genetic and nomenclatural analyses resolved it firmly in Dicotyles in 2020, confirming the type species as D. torquatus Cuvier, 1816, synonymous with D. tajacu. This nomenclatural change to Dicotyles has been adopted by the American Society of Mammalogists as of 2025.^[9]^[4] In 2007, a purported "giant peccary" (Pecari maximus van Roosmalen et al.) was described as a distinct species from the Brazilian Amazon based on larger size and preliminary mitochondrial DNA divergence of 1–2% from P. tajacu, suggesting a split of 1–1.2 million years ago.^[10] Subsequent DNA studies in 2011, incorporating broader mitochondrial control region and nuclear sequences from multiple specimens, demonstrated that P. maximus clusters within the South American clade of D. tajacu, indicating it represents a large-bodied morphological variant rather than a separate species.^[11]

Subspecies

The collared peccary (Dicotyles tajacu) is divided into 14 recognized subspecies, delineated primarily on the basis of geographic isolation leading to slight variations in body size, coat coloration, and skull morphology.^[1] These differences reflect adaptations to diverse environments across the species' broad range, from arid deserts to tropical forests, though inheritance patterns remain unsubstantiated by genetic data.^[1] Representative subspecies include D. t. tajacu, the nominate form distributed in northern South America; D. t. angulatus, occurring in Central America and extending into southern Texas; D. t. sonoriensis, inhabiting the southwestern United States and northern Mexico; and D. t. torvus, found in southern South America.^[1] For instance, D. t. sonoriensis displays paler pelage suited to desert conditions, while D. t. nanus from Cozumel Island exhibits dwarfism with reduced body size.^[1]^[12] The validity of some subspecies, such as D. t. nanus, has been debated due to morphological overlap with mainland populations and limited genetic distinction.^[1] Post-2000 genetic studies, including mitochondrial and nuclear sequence analyses, support clinal variation rather than sharp boundaries in certain areas, revealing two primary phylogenetic clades: one encompassing North and Central America, and another in South America.^[13]

Physical characteristics

Morphology

The collared peccary (Pecari tajacu) is a medium-sized artiodactyl with a stocky build supported by short legs, enabling agile movement in varied terrains. Adults typically measure 80–105 cm in head-body length (excluding the tail) and stand 30–50 cm at the shoulder, with weights ranging from 14–31 kg.^[14] Sexual dimorphism is minimal, though males are slightly larger on average and possess more prominent tusks.^[15] The body features a large head comprising up to one-third of the total length, dominated by an elongated, pig-like snout tipped with a cartilaginous disc adapted for rooting.^[16] The coarse fur is grizzled gray-brown, often darker on the upperparts with lighter underparts, and juveniles exhibit a reddish-brown hue that transitions to adult coloration by three months.^[15] A distinctive "collar" of pale, yellowish-white fur encircles the neck and shoulders, contrasting with the overall pelage. The tail is short, measuring 2–5 cm, and sparsely haired.^[14] As part of its anatomy, the collared peccary possesses a dorsal scent gland located on the rump, which secretes a musky substance.^[16] Prominent upper canines form straight, self-sharpening tusks that protrude downward, reaching lengths of 3–3.5 cm and aiding in foraging and defense.^[17] The dentition includes a formula of I 2/3, C 1/1, P 3/3, M 3/3 = 38 teeth, with molars suited for grinding tough vegetation and occasional animal matter.^[16]

Sensory and defensive features

The collared peccary possesses a prominent dorsal scent gland located on the rump, anterior to the tail base, which measures approximately 75 mm in diameter and 125 mm thick. This gland, composed of sebaceous and sudoriferous tissues, secretes a pungent, musky odor containing around 20 volatile components that serves for territorial marking and intra-group communication, including mutual rubbing behaviors among herd members. The odor is skunk-like in character but generally milder, aiding in signaling social bonds and group cohesion. In terms of sensory adaptations, collared peccaries exhibit poor eyesight, with limited ability to detect or distinguish objects beyond about 3 meters, relying instead on other senses for environmental awareness. Their sense of smell is exceptionally acute, facilitated by a highly mobile, elongated snout that allows them to detect roots and bulbs buried up to 3 inches underground and to navigate using olfactory cues. Hearing is also well-developed, enabling detection of distant sounds and contributing to group coordination, while their laterally positioned eyes provide a broad field of peripheral vision suited for spotting approaching predators despite overall visual limitations. For defense, collared peccaries employ charging attacks using their sharp, interlocking tusks, capable of reaching speeds up to 35 km/h to inflict serious injuries on threats. They also engage in group mobbing, where herds cooperatively confront predators by circling, vocalizing, and displaying raised hackles to deter attacks, leveraging the safety of numbers. Their thick, tough skin and coarse, bristly hair offer minor protection against bites and scratches during confrontations. Vocalizations play a key role in defense and signaling, including deep grunts for general communication, teeth-clacking or chattering as a rattling alarm signal when disturbed, and sharp "woof" or barking calls to alert the group to danger. These sounds are often integrated with scent marking to reinforce intra-group warnings and maintain social structure.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The collared peccary (Pecari tajacu) is native to the southwestern United States, encompassing Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas, and extends continuously southward through Mexico and all countries of Central America into northern South America east of the Andes, reaching as far south as northern Argentina, Bolivia, and southern Brazil.^[15] The species is absent from the eastern and central United States, central Mexico (specifically the region between the U.S. border and southern Guanajuato, acting as a major distributional gap), and southern portions of South America such as Chile and Uruguay.^[15] The species also occurs natively in Trinidad and Tobago and has been introduced to other parts of the Caribbean.^[15] Fossil evidence from the Pleistocene epoch reveals a historically broader distribution across North America, where the species was more widespread before post-glacial extirpations reduced its northern extent; modern populations represent a recolonization of the southwestern U.S. over the past few centuries.^[18] In recent decades, the collared peccary has exhibited a northward range expansion within the United States, particularly in New Mexico and Arizona, driven by milder winters linked to climate change and decreased hunting pressure. Populations in Texas have remained stable or increased since the early 1900s, benefiting from similar environmental and human-related factors that have alleviated historical pressures.^[19] Population densities vary widely across the range but are generally highest in Mexico and Central America, attaining up to 16 individuals per km² in optimal tropical and subtropical habitats, whereas northern populations in the U.S. are more fragmented and lower in density (typically 1–5 individuals per km²) due to habitat fragmentation and aridity.^[20] Major barriers to dispersal include the arid central Mexican highlands and large river systems like the Rio Grande, which have long impeded gene flow and population connectivity between northern and southern ranges.^[15] For instance, the subspecies P. t. sonoriensis predominates in the fragmented U.S. and northern Mexican populations, while P. t. tajacu occupies the more continuous Central and South American extents.^[15]

Habitat types

The collared peccary (Pecari tajacu) exhibits remarkable versatility in habitat selection, inhabiting a wide array of environments across its range, including arid and semi-arid deserts such as the Sonoran Desert, semi-arid thorn scrub, tropical and subtropical forests, grasslands, savannas, and even human-altered areas like pasturelands and plantations.^[15]^[1]^[16] These preferences are driven by the availability of food resources and cover, with the species requiring access to free-standing water sources, typically in close proximity within their home ranges to support daily needs.^[21] In terms of microhabitat use, collared peccaries seek daytime shelter in rocky outcrops, caves, burrows, or dense vegetation to escape heat and predators, often resting in groups under shaded tree bases or even near human structures.^[15] Foraging occurs primarily in open areas featuring understory cover, such as scrublands or forest edges, where they can access roots, tubers, and vegetation while maintaining vigilance.^[15]^[1] The species demonstrates key adaptations for tolerating arid conditions, including efficient water conservation through metabolic water derived from food moisture, particularly from succulents like cacti in desert habitats.^[15] This physiological trait allows persistence in water-scarce environments, with the collared peccary occupying altitudinal ranges from sea level to 3,000 meters.^[15] Habitat fragmentation, primarily driven by agricultural expansion, poses significant threats by reducing contiguous suitable areas and increasing isolation, though the collared peccary shows adaptability by utilizing edges of human-modified landscapes, such as cropland borders and disturbed scrub, in certain regions.^[15]^[16]

Evolutionary history

Fossil record

The fossil record of the collared peccary (Pecari tajacu) and its ancestors reveals a deep history within the family Tayassuidae, with early relatives appearing in North America during the Miocene. The genus Platygonus, an extinct relative, is documented from the late Miocene (approximately 11.6–5.3 million years ago), with species such as P. pollenae known from sites in the High Plains region, including Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, and Texas. These fossils, characterized by primitive features like subzygodont cheek teeth and a rounded zygomatic process, represent the earliest stages of flat-headed peccary evolution in the continent. Direct fossils of P. tajacu itself first appear in the Pleistocene epoch (2.5 million to 11,700 years ago), indicating the species' persistence alongside larger relatives. Key fossil sites provide evidence of P. tajacu's distribution during the Pleistocene, including caves in Yucatán, Mexico, such as Loltún and Actún Spukil, where remains date to the late Pleistocene–Holocene boundary. A purported new species, Muknalia minima, described from late Pleistocene–early Holocene remains in Yucatán caves, was later synonymized with P. tajacu based on morphological and metric analyses, confirming the species' persistence into the Holocene.^[22] In the United States, specimens from Florida's Peace River sites (e.g., partial dentaries and molars from De Soto County, dated to the Rancholabrean land mammal age, ~126,000–11,600 years ago) confirm its presence in southeastern North America. The Rancho La Brea tar pits in California yield abundant peccary remains, primarily of the extinct Platygonus compressus, but also contextualize the northward expansion of tayassuids during Pleistocene interglacials, when warmer climates allowed southern species like P. tajacu to migrate into temperate zones. These migrations are evidenced by faunal assemblages showing tropical elements in northern deposits during interglacial stages. Many Pleistocene peccary species, including large forms like P. compressus and Mylohyus, underwent extinction around 10,000 years ago, coinciding with the end of the last glacial period. This mass extinction event affected approximately 35 genera of North American megafauna, driven by a combination of rapid climatic shifts from glacial to interglacial conditions and the arrival of human hunters as early as around 21,000–23,000 years ago, which disrupted ecosystems through habitat alteration and direct predation.^[23] The collared peccary survived this event, likely due to its smaller size and adaptability as the smallest extant tayassuid species. Fossils indicate morphologic evolution toward larger body sizes in ancestral peccaries, with P. compressus averaging 44 kg and exhibiting a more cursorial build than modern forms. In contrast, the modern morphology stabilized in the post-Pleistocene, reflecting adaptation to contemporary habitats.

Phylogenetic relations

The family Tayassuidae, which includes the collared peccary (Pecari tajacu), diverged from the pig family Suidae approximately 40 million years ago during the Eocene epoch, marking a deep evolutionary split within the Suoidea superfamily.^[24] Within Tayassuidae, the collared peccary occupies a basal phylogenetic position, serving as the sister taxon to the more derived clade formed by the white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari) and the Chacoan peccary (Catagonus wagneri).^[25] This arrangement is supported by chromosomal analyses, which indicate that the collared peccary retains a more primitive autosomal karyotype with greater constitutive heterochromatin diversity compared to its relatives.^[26] Genetic studies utilizing mitochondrial DNA sequences, including the cytochrome b gene and control region, as well as partial nuclear loci like GPIP, confirm the collared peccary's distinct clade within Tayassuidae, with the Pecari lineage diverging from the Tayassu/Catagonus branch 3.4–7.4 million years ago in North America.^[25] These analyses reveal internal phylogenetic structure in collared peccaries, clustering into two major clades—North-Central American and South American—with divergence levels comparable to or exceeding those between recognized species of other peccaries or even Suidae genera; evidence of introgression appears in Colombian populations.^[13] Hybridization with the white-lipped peccary is rare in the wild but documented in sympatric zones and captivity, yielding fertile hybrids that underscore close genetic compatibility despite distinct clades.^[27] Although collared peccaries and pigs share convergent traits such as rooting foraging behavior and omnivorous diets adapted to diverse vegetation, their digestive and locomotor anatomies diverge markedly: peccaries feature a three-chambered foregut-fermenting stomach for enhanced fiber breakdown, in contrast to the monogastric hindgut-fermenting stomach of pigs, and hind feet with three functional toes rather than four.^[28] A proposed "giant peccary" (Pecari maximus), described in 2007 from the Brazilian Amazon based on morphology and limited mitochondrial D-loop sequences suggesting divergence 1–1.2 million years ago, was later resolved through expanded molecular phylogenetics as a synonym of the collared peccary, clustering tightly within P. tajacu specimens from Brazil and Argentina.

Ecology

Diet

The collared peccary (Pecari tajacu) is omnivorous, with a diet that is primarily herbivorous, consisting of approximately 80-90% plant matter such as cactus pads, roots, tubers, fruits, seeds, grasses, and forbs.^[29]^[30] In arid regions like South Texas, cacti—particularly prickly pear (Opuntia spp.) pads and fruits—form the bulk of the diet, comprising 24-81% of stomach contents, supplemented by woody browse (8-36%), forbs (0-55%), and grasses (3-12%).^[29]^[30] In more humid Neotropical forests, fruits dominate at about 77% of the diet, including palm fruits (Socratea exorrhiza, Iriartea deltoidea) and figs (Ficus colubrinae), with leaves (20%) and flowers (3%) as secondary items from at least 38 plant species.^[31] Opportunistic consumption of animal matter accounts for 5-10% or less, including insects (0-9%), grubs, worms, snails, small reptiles, and occasionally eggs or carrion.^[30]^[15] Foraging involves using the muscular snout to root and push through soil and leaf litter to unearth buried foods like roots and tubers, aided by a keen sense of smell despite limited vision; tusks assist minimally in digging but primarily serve other functions.^[32] Daily intake averages 2-3% of body weight, roughly 24-53 g per kg of metabolic body weight, enabling survival on low-quality forage.^[33] Diets shift seasonally with resource availability: in dry seasons, fibrous items like cactus pads and browse predominate, while wet seasons feature more fruits and seeds, reflecting opportunistic adaptation to local abundance.^[29]^[30]^[34] Nutritional adaptations include a complex fore-stomach supporting microbial fermentation by symbiotic gut bacteria, allowing efficient digestion of high-fiber plants with digestibility rates comparable to or exceeding those of non-ruminants and domestic pigs.^[35]^[36] In arid habitats, up to 88.5% of water needs are met through preformed water in foods like succulent cacti, reducing reliance on free water; a 20-25 kg individual requires about 1.54 kg of wet cactus daily for hydration.^[30] As ecosystem influencers, collared peccaries aid seed dispersal by passing viable seeds through scat after consuming fruits, promoting plant recruitment and distribution for species like palms and figs, while their insect consumption helps regulate local invertebrate populations.^[15]^[37]^[38]

Predators

The collared peccary (Pecari tajacu) is preyed upon by a variety of large carnivores across its range in the Americas. Primary predators include jaguars (Panthera onca), pumas (Puma concolor), and coyotes (Canis latrans), which target both adults and juveniles depending on opportunity.^[15] In North America, bobcats (Lynx rufus) also pose a threat, particularly to smaller individuals, while in Central and South America, ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) and American crocodiles (Crocodylus acutus) occasionally prey on them.^[15] Juveniles face additional risks from raptors, such as harpy eagles (Harpia harpyja), which have been documented ambushing and killing infants, and large reptiles like boa constrictors (Boa constrictor), which can constrict and consume young peccaries.^[39]^[40] Predation impacts vary significantly by age class and location. Juveniles experience the highest mortality, with piglet losses approaching 40% primarily due to predation, alongside other factors like abandonment.^[41] Adult peccaries benefit from group living, which dilutes individual risk and facilitates escape, though solitary individuals remain more vulnerable; overall, predation success on grouped adults is low due to collective vigilance and evasion tactics.^[42] Regionally, in the southwestern United States, coyotes and pumas (mountain lions) constitute the main threats, often ambushing individuals in arid habitats.^[43] In South America, particularly in tropical forests like the Pantanal, jaguars account for a larger proportion of kills, with documented increases in peccary predation rates over multi-year studies correlating to prey availability and rainfall patterns.^[44] To counter these threats, collared peccaries exhibit a suite of anti-predator behaviors shaped by evolutionary pressures for group cohesion and physical defenses. Upon detecting danger, they emit alarm calls including huffs, grunts, and foot stomping to rally the herd, often fleeing en masse to dense cover or forming tight defensive clusters where outer individuals face outward.^[15] Vulnerable juveniles may freeze or play dead amid vegetation while adults distract predators, and groups sometimes launch bluff charges or counter-attacks using their sharp tusks, which have evolved as key weapons against assailants.^[45] Their agile speed further aids evasion, particularly in rugged terrain, reducing overall capture rates for pursuing carnivores.^[42]

Behavior

Collared peccaries are highly social animals that live in stable, cohesive herds typically comprising 5 to 15 individuals, though group sizes can expand to 25 or even 50 members in resource-rich environments such as tropical forests. These herds maintain a roughly 1:1 adult sex ratio and are characterized by female philopatry, where related females form the stable core of the group, fostering high mean relatedness (around 0.12–0.15) among members. While matriarchal tendencies arise from this kinship network among females, a dominant male usually leads breeding efforts and plays a central role in group cohesion.^[46]^[47] Within herds, dominance hierarchies are linear and relatively stable, influenced by age, body size, and tusk length, with older, larger individuals—often the dominant male—occupying top positions. Females also exhibit their own hierarchies, frequently outranking males, and enforce positions through agonistic interactions such as displacements, charges, body lowering, and infrequent fights, though severe aggression remains rare in wild populations. This structure promotes cooperative behaviors, with the female kin core facilitating amicable associations and minimal internal conflict.^[48]^[49]^[46] Herds are semi-territorial, defending home ranges of 1 to 10 km² that vary with habitat type and resource density, showing minimal overlap with neighboring groups to reduce competition. These ranges are primarily marked via scent rubbing with dorsal glands on trees or the ground, a behavior that not only delineates boundaries but also reinforces intra-group bonds through mutual rubbing.^[50]^[47] Interactions between herds are typically limited, with occasional mergers occurring if groups include related individuals, though such events are rare and often met with initial rejection or hostility over months. Conflicts arise during encounters, potentially escalating to aggressive displays or fights, but herds generally remain closed units with low emigration rates. Allomothering enhances group stability, as non-maternal females like aunts contribute to rearing young via cross-nursing and shared vigilance.^[47]^[46]

Reproduction

Collared peccaries exhibit a polygynous mating system, in which a dominant male within the social group typically monopolizes access to 2-4 females for breeding.^[51] Breeding occurs year-round in tropical regions, while in temperate zones it shows seasonal peaks from November to March, often resulting in births during the spring rainy season.^[20] This timing aligns with resource availability to support offspring survival.^[52] The gestation period lasts 142-151 days, after which females typically give birth to litters of 1-4 young, with an average of 2 per litter.^[15] Newborns weigh approximately 0.5-1 kg and are precocial, born with eyes open, fully furred, and capable of following the mother shortly after birth.^[32] Females usually isolate themselves from the group for about a day prior to parturition to protect the young, before rejoining the herd.^[53] Parental care involves communal nursing by multiple females within the group, which enhances protection and nourishment for the young.^[54] Offspring are weaned at 2-3 months of age but remain with the mother for up to a year.^[55] Sexual maturity is reached at 8-14 months for females and about 11 months for males.^[14] In the wild, collared peccaries have a lifespan of 7-10 years.^[52] Females produce 1-2 litters per year under favorable conditions, with juvenile survival rates around 70% to weaning, largely due to group defense against predators.^[56]

Activity patterns

Collared peccaries (Pecari tajacu) exhibit primarily crepuscular activity patterns, with peaks of foraging and movement at dawn and dusk, though they display cathemeral tendencies—being active sporadically throughout the day and night—in certain environments. In hotter regions, such as the northern Pantanal, their activity shifts toward nocturnal periods during peak temperatures exceeding 35°C to avoid thermal stress, while they rest in shaded areas during midday heat. Daily foraging travels typically cover 1-3 km, allowing groups to exploit dispersed food resources like roots, tubers, and fruits without excessive energy expenditure.^[57]^[58]^[59]^[60] Seasonally, collared peccaries adjust their routines in response to environmental pressures, particularly water availability. During dry seasons, they migrate toward reliable water sources, increasing crepuscular or nocturnal activity to access these sites while minimizing exposure to heat and potential competitors. Breeding peaks, often from November to March in tropical ranges, coincide with heightened group cohesion but do not markedly alter core activity rhythms beyond occasional elevated alertness.^[57]^[2] Communication among collared peccaries relies on a multimodal system to maintain group coordination and signal threats. Vocalizations include soft grunts emitted during foraging to keep herd members in contact, and sharp barks or woofs as alarm calls when detecting potential dangers, which can carry up to half a mile. Olfactory cues involve reciprocal rubbing of dorsal scent glands against conspecifics or objects for greeting, bonding, and territorial marking. Tactile interactions, such as nuzzling or snout rubbing on flanks and necks, reinforce social ties, while a freezing posture—standing motionless with ears perked and head angled—serves as a vigilant response to uncertain stimuli, lasting 5-30 minutes before fleeing or investigating.^[61]

Conservation

Status and threats

The collared peccary (Pecari tajacu) is classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, with this assessment conducted in 2011.^[3] The global population size is unknown but estimated in the millions, and overall trends are considered stable or increasing across much of its range from the southwestern United States to northern Argentina.^[3]^[62] Despite this status, regional declines occur due to localized pressures, with no evidence of severe fragmentation or ongoing mature individual declines at a global scale.^[3] Major threats to collared peccary populations include habitat loss and fragmentation from agricultural expansion and deforestation, which have impacted substantial portions of their range in the Neotropics.^[63]^[2] Overhunting for meat and skins remains a significant pressure, particularly in Mexico and South America, where annual harvests can exceed tens of thousands in some countries.^[15] In the United States, roadkill contributes to mortality, especially in urbanizing areas of the Southwest.^[62] Disease transmission, such as swine brucellosis (Brucella suis) from coexisting feral pigs, poses health risks in overlap zones.^[64]^[65] Regional vulnerabilities are pronounced for isolated populations, such as those in the U.S., where habitat fragmentation limits dispersal and genetic exchange.^[66] Climate change exacerbates these issues by reducing water availability in arid habitats, potentially straining resource-dependent groups.^[62] Population trends show increases in protected U.S. areas, with approximately 200,000 individuals in Texas alone.^[67] In contrast, some Central American populations have experienced localized declines driven by habitat conversion and hunting.^[2]

Management and protection

The collared peccary (Pecari tajacu) is listed under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which regulates international trade to prevent overexploitation, with the listing effective since October 22, 1987, excluding populations in Mexico and the United States.^[68]^[15] In the United States, where the species is native to southwestern states, hunting is permitted under state-managed quotas to maintain sustainable populations; for example, in Texas, the annual bag limit is two individuals per license holder, with open seasons varying by zone but including year-round access in the southern zone.^[69]^[50] Within protected areas, such as national parks in the Gran Chaco region of Argentina and Paraguay, collared peccaries benefit from prohibitions on hunting and habitat safeguards, contributing to their persistence in forested reserves like El Impenetrable National Park.^[70]^[71] Management practices for collared peccaries emphasize sustainable utilization and habitat restoration. In South America, particularly Brazil, commercial ranching systems raise the species in large enclosures for meat production, providing an alternative protein source while reducing pressure on wild populations through controlled breeding and harvest.^[72]^[73] Reintroduction programs address habitat fragmentation by releasing captive-bred individuals into restored areas; notable efforts include the 2015 release of seven collared peccaries into Argentina's Iberá Natural Reserve to bolster ecosystem connectivity and the 2004 reintroduction at Texas's Mason Mountain Wildlife Management Area to enhance local biodiversity.^[74]^[75] In Brazil, anti-poaching patrols in protected subtropical forests, such as Iguaçu National Park, monitor and deter illegal hunting that threatens peccary populations, integrating community involvement to enforce regulations.^[76] Human-wildlife conflicts arise primarily from collared peccaries raiding agricultural crops like maize and sugarcane in rural South American landscapes, leading to their classification as pests and subsequent culling by farmers to protect livelihoods.^[15]^[77] Conversely, ecotourism initiatives in Costa Rica promote conservation by highlighting peccaries as charismatic species in reserves like Corcovado National Park, where guided tours and camera-trapping programs generate revenue that funds anti-poaching and habitat protection efforts.^[78]^[79] Culturally, collared peccaries are hunted for bushmeat across Central and South America, serving as a vital protein source for indigenous and rural communities, with meat often consumed fresh or traded locally in markets like those in the Brazilian Amazon.^[80]^[81] Historically, in the United States, javelinas (the common name for collared peccaries) have appeared in folklore as resilient desert dwellers, and there has been limited informal pet trade, though domestication attempts remain experimental due to their social and territorial behaviors.^[82] Sustainable harvest models, including community-based quotas and wildlife farming, aim to curb illegal trade by legalizing controlled extraction, as seen in Peruvian Amazon programs that certify bushmeat sales to incentivize conservation.^[83]^[84]

References

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Pecari tajacu (Linnaeus, 1758) - GBIF
Habitat. The Collared Peccary is the most widely distributed of the three extant species. It has wide climatic tolerance and is adapted to a variety of habitats ...
[2]
(PDF) Collared Peccary Pecari spp. (Linnaeus, 1758) - ResearchGate
2011). Habitat. e collared peccary has the most extended distribution range. of the three species and is the most adaptable; it lives in a wide. array of ...
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The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
**Summary of Collared Peccary (Pecari tajacu) from IUCN Red List:**
[4]
Dicotyles tajacu - NatureServe Explorer
Class: Mammalia ; Order: Artiodactyla ; Family: Tayassuidae ; Genus: Dicotyles ; Scientific Name Reference: American Society of Mammalogists (ASM). 2025. Mammal ...
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Suidae and Tayassuidae (Wild Pigs, Peccaries) - PMC
The families Suidae (swine) and Tayassuidae (peccaries) are nonruminating ungulates belonging to the Suina clade or suborder within the order Artiodactyla.
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Dicotyles tajacu • Collared Peccary - Mammal Diversity Database
Collared Peccary. Taxonomy. Subclass, : Theria. Infraclass, : Placentalia. Magnorder ... Zootaxa, 4851(1), 60-80. IUCN Red List status. Not Evaluated. Species ...
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Taxonomy browser Taxonomy Browser (Dicotyles tajacu) - NCBI - NIH
current name. Dicotyles tajacu (Linnaeus, 1758). Genbank common name: collared peccary. NCBI BLAST name: even-toed ungulates & whales. Rank: species. Genetic ...
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[9]
None
### Summary of DNA Analysis and Conclusion on Species Status of Pecari maximus Relative to Dicotyles tajacu
[10]
Revisiting the species status of Pecari maximus van Roosmalen et ...
Some specimens of Dicotyles tajacu found in the eastern part of the Amazon region have a slightly larger size than those from other localities (Table 1), ...Missing: giant synonym
[11]
Cozumel Collared Peccary (Subspecies Pecari tajacu nanus)
Pecari tajacu nanus is a subspecies of mammals with 27 observations.Missing: debate | Show results with:debate
[12]
Phylogenetic divisions among Collared peccaries (Pecari tajacu ...
The Collared peccary (Pecari tajacu) is one of the three extant recognised species of the family Tayassuidae, living in the Americas.Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology<|separator|>
[13]
Collared peccary, Javelina - Ultimate Ungulate
Type locality: Mexico, designated by Thomas (1911; however, Linnaeus's name Sus tajacu is evidently based on the tajacu of Marcgraf, from Pernambuco, Brazil.
[14]
Pecari tajacu (collared peccary) | INFORMATION
Conservation Status Collared peccaries are listed as a species of "Least Concern" on the IUCN Red List and are listed under Appendix II of CITES, which ...
[15]
A species account of the Collared peccary (Pecari tajacu) | TTU
Pecari tajacu (Linnaeus 1758). Order Artiodactyla : Family Tayassuidae. DESCRIPTION. These pig-like creatures are characterized by the presence of four hoofed ...
[16]
AGLS 6502 Lecture 20.1 - The Javelina or Quenk - OSTASP
The collared peccary has the dental formula: Incisors 2-2/3-3, Premolars 3-3 ... They are modified into tusks but are small and grow to a length of 30 - 35 mm.
[17]
Ancient DNA analysis of the extinct North American flat-headed ...
The flat-headed peccary's Pleistocene fossil record suggests a widespread distribution from the east to west coast of the United States of America, south to ...
[18]
Demography of a Collared Peccary Population in South Texas - jstor
Although density-independent. (e.g., precipitation) factors are important, we hypothesize that density-dependent factors also are operating in peccary ...Missing: scientific | Show results with:scientific
[19]
Collared Peccary Pecari spp. (Linnaeus, 1758) (Chapter 24)
Recent genetic research shows that collared peccaries cluster in a separate lineage from the other modern species.
[20]
Occupancy and habitat correlates of javelinas in the southern San ...
The javelina (Pecari tajacu) has been increasing its range in New Mexico (Albert et al. 2004) following population declines early in the 1970s (Bellinger 1985).<|control11|><|separator|>
[21]
[PDF] Suiformes orthologous satellite DNAs as a hallmark of Pecari tajacu ...
Suidae (pigs) and Tayassuidae (peccaries) are supposed to have shared a common ancestor some 40 Mya. The comparison of the pig chromosomal architecture with ...<|separator|>
[22]
PHYLOGENETIC RELATIONSHIPS OF PECCARIES BASED ON ...
Our results support the classification of extant species of peccaries into three genera. Key words: Catagonus, Dicotyles, Pecari, Tayassu, Tayassuidae, Suidae, ...
[23]
Chromosomal evolution and phylogenetic analyses in Tayassu ...
Aug 20, 2007 · The mammalian family Tayassuidae (peccaries) is confined to the New World and comprises three recognized extant species, white-lipped ...
[24]
[PDF] Molecular phylogenetics of the white-lipped peccary (Tayassu ...
May 22, 2015 · Recently, Van Roosmalen et al. (2007) claimed the discovery of a new peccary species, P. maximus (giant peccary), in the area of the Aripuanã ...Missing: synonymy | Show results with:synonymy
[25]
DIGESTIVE EFFICIENCY OF COLLARED PECCARIES AND WILD ...
Dec 1, 2005 · No differences were found for digestive performance between the 2 species, although pigs excreted 95% of chromium-marked fiber sooner than ...
[26]
[PDF] Food Habits of the Collared Peccary on South Texas Rangelands
Abstract. The food habits of the collared peccary (Pecari tajacu) were determined from three locations in south Texas. From September.
[27]
[PDF] PHYSIOLOGICAL ECOLOGY OF THE COLLARED PECCARY IN ...
In most of these studies prickly pear was said to be a preferred food, however, its use as a major food item contributing substantially to the nutritive value ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[28]
[PDF] Contribution to the knowledge on the diet of the collared peccary ...
The diet of the collared peccary (Dicotyles tajacu) in the Neotropics is poorly known, although palm fruits are frequently reported. This.
[29]
Peccary | San Diego Zoo Animals & Plants
But the Suina is divided into two very different families: the Suidae (pigs, or swine) and the Tayassuidae (peccaries). They share a common ancestor, which ...
[30]
(PDF) Developing diets for collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu) from ...
We identified 20 foodstuffs potentially useful for feeding collared peccaries, and their specific nutritional content and digestibility coefficients were ...
[31]
[PDF] Relationships between El Niño Southern Oscillation and ...
Peccaries living in seasonal rain forest habitats have been reported to change their diets to consume less fruits and more fibrous foods during seasons of fruit ...
[32]
Intake and digestion of non-traditional feedstuffs by farmed collared ...
(2005) . Collared peccaries in this study showed digestibility of dietary fiber comparatively higher than that of wild and domestic pigs. To make these ...
[33]
[PDF] 1 Function, size and form of the gastrointestinal tract of the collared ...
Dyson (1969, cited in Sowls (1997, p77)) on the other hand concluded that “fiber digestion in the collared peccary is higher than in most nonruminants but ...
[34]
Review of Peccary-Palm Interactions and Their Ecological ...
I examine both negative effects, including seed predation and herbivory, and positive effects, comprising seed dispersal and trampling, of peccaries on palms.
[35]
Seed predation and dispersal by peccaries throughout the ...
... The collared peccary plays an important role as a seed disperser and influences the recruitment, demography, and spatial distribution of plants (Beck, 2005) .
[36]
Predation of an Infant Collared Peccary by a Harpy Eagle in Eastern ...
An adult Harpy Eagle (Harpia harpyja) attacked and killed an infant collared peccary (Pecari tajacu) at a site in eastern Amazonia. The eagle appeared to ...
[37]
Captive-born collared peccaries learning about their predators
The collared peccaries responded appropriately to training against predators, showing alert, escape and predator avoidance behaviors after anti-predator ...
[38]
[PDF] The Javelina in Texas
Javelinas, also called collared peccaries, are pig-like animals with a collar around their neck and shoulder. They are found in Texas, and are about 18 inches ...
[39]
[PDF] Ecology and Social Behavior of the Collared Peccary in Big Bend ...
Vocalizations were (1) aggressive; (2) submissive; and (3) alert. Calls have three fundamental characteristics: (1) pitch; (2) intensity; and (3) continuity.
[40]
South Texas Natives: Javelina - San Antonio River Authority
Jan 17, 2024 · Javelinas are 40-60 pound mammals, native to South Texas, with a white collar, short teeth, and a scent gland. They don't root like wild boars.
[41]
Kill rates and predation patterns of jaguars (Panthera onca) in the ...
Jaguar kill rates on peccaries steadily increased over the 4-year study. In contrast, kill rates on cattle decreased during the same period. Rainfall, and ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[42]
Anti-Predator Strategies of, and Possible Thanatosis in, Juvenile ...
Aug 7, 2025 · ... While rare, the behaviour of collared peccaries to counter-attack predators has also been recorded against coyotes and pumas (Sowls, 2013).
[43]
https://www.sariverauthority.org/blog-news/south-texas-natives-javelina/
[44]
[PDF] Social, Spacing, and Cooperative Behavior of the Collared Peccary ...
Nov 20, 1981 · Tayassu tajacu is a tropical rainforest species that, at the northern extreme of its range, retains a pelage, temperature and water-balance ...
[45]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321351322_Anti-Predator_Strategies_of_and_Possible_Thanatosis_in_Juvenile_Collared_Peccaries_Pecari_tajacu
[46]
Male-male aggression in free-ranging collared peccaries, Pecari ...
The dominant male is the focal member of the social unit in the collared peccary, because it displays higher frequency of behaviors for the group cohesion.<|control11|><|separator|>
[47]
[PDF] Collared Peccary (Pecari tajacu)
Water is a key feature of quality habitat. Javelinas are omnivores and eat prickly pears, roots, mesquite beans, forbs, and insects. FUN FACT: Javelinas ...Missing: distance sources
[48]
Progeny Sex Ratio in a Sexually Monomorphic Ungulate, the ...
Our study model was the collared peccary (Pecari tajacu), a polygynous ungulate that lives in mixed-sex herds of 5–50 individuals. Collared peccaries are ...
[49]
Javelinas - Big Bend National Park (U.S. National Park Service)
On average, javelina live 7 years in the wild. Javelina live in groups (or bands), but do not form long-term pair bonds. Band size ranges from five to ...
[50]
(PDF) Reproductive performance of captive collared peccaries ...
Aug 7, 2025 · The average litter size was 1.85 newborns per parturition. Collared peccary females had a newborn sex ratio of 52.6% females and 47.4% males.
[51]
A comparative analysis of non-offspring nursing - ScienceDirect
BabbittK.J. et al. Suckling behaviour in the collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu) ... To nest communally or not to nest communally: A review of rodent communal ...
[52]
Collared Peccary (Pecari tajacu) | about animals
Jan 15, 2016 · They have distinct calls to express submission, aggression and alarm. Vocalisations are an integral part of the collared peccary community.Missing: vocalizations | Show results with:vocalizations<|control11|><|separator|>
[53]
Reproductive performance of captive collared peccaries (Tayassu ...
The average litter size was 1.85 newborns per parturition. Collared ... Mortality rate in newborns less than 2 months old was 26.9% of the total ...Missing: frequency juvenile
[54]
Implications of climatic seasonality on activity patterns and resource ...
Aug 6, 2025 · We investigated collared peccary (Pecari (Dicotyles) tajacu) activity patterns ... The activity of animals is related to their circadian rhythms.
[55]
The influence of climate and the presence of predators on the daily ...
The daily activity periods of collared peccaries and their predators were evaluated and the animals classified as diurnal, nocturnal, crepuscular, or cathemeral ...Missing: rhythm | Show results with:rhythm
[56]
Ethogram and time-activity budget of the collared peccary ( Pecari ...
Wild populations of collared peccaries (Tayassu tajacu) present a predominantly diurnal activity pattern in the tropics. In captivity, this pattern may be ...
[57]
Activity changes of the first collared peccary (Pecari tajacu) group ...
Nov 28, 2018 · The semi-variogram home range size was 55.2 km2. We observed a maximum daily movement distance of 3.8 km, and a preferential use of forest ...
[58]
[PDF] SOCIAL BEHAVIOR OF THE COLLARED PECCARY (PECARI ...
caries raised away from members of their own species rubbed their heads against objects. It seemed to be a carry over from nursing head movements. Scent ...Missing: vocalizations | Show results with:vocalizations
[59]
(PDF) Family Tayassuidae (Peccaries). - ResearchGate
Apr 20, 2016 · Two of the peccaries, D. tajacu and T. pecari, have large geographical distributions spanning 65 and 50° of latitude, respectively, ranging ...References (1) · Recommended Publications · Über Das Gehirn Des...<|separator|>
[60]
[PDF] Natural Die-Offs of Large Mammals: Implications for Conservation
Mar 4, 2005 · Collared Peccary. 64 ? Mule Deer. 42 starvation (winter). Moose. 50-87 ... mortality were disease and starvation due to drought or severe ...Missing: lifespan longevity<|separator|>
[61]
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
Current population trend · Number of mature individuals · Population severely fragmented · Continuing decline of mature individuals.
[62]
https://institutoasis.com/collared-peccary-pecari-tajacu/
[63]
Preparing Collared Peccary (Pecari tajacu Linnaeus, 1758) for ... - NIH
Jan 3, 2024 · In this study, we report the diversity and variety of parasites in captive collared peccaries before their reintroduction to the wild. The ...
[64]
A health evaluation in a colony of captive collared peccaries ...
Results from serology for different infectious diseases showed that 4.9% (2/41) collared peccaries had antibodies against Brucella spp. and 9.8% (4/41) ...
[65]
[PDF] Brucellosis: Brucella suis
May 19, 2018 · become established in feral pigs in some areas, and a biovar 1 organism was found in collared peccaries (Tayassu tajacu). Wild boar are the ...
[66]
Seasonal changes in occupancy and activity patterns in native ...
Jan 31, 2025 · We examined co-occupancy and activity pattern overlap of collared peccaries, wild pigs, and warthogs across 3 seasons (fall, winter, and spring)
[67]
Not Wild Pigs: In Appreciation of Javelinas, Iconic Native Wildlife of ...
Nov 4, 2020 · According to the Texas Parks & Wildlife Department, which has conducted aerial surveys of javelina populations, Texas harbors about 200,000 ...
[68]
Precipitous decline of white-lipped peccary populations in ...
Our analysis revealed declining and highly isolated populations of peccaries across Mesoamerica, with a range reduction of 87% from historic distribution.
[69]
Group dynamics, behavior, and current and historical abundance of ...
Collared peccaries are generally perceived to have increased in density in recent years, to the extent that they may be negatively impacting the forest (Michel ...
[70]
Collared Peccary - CITES
Common name: Collared Peccary Scientific name: Pecari tajacuSynonym:Tayassu tajacu. Distribution: Central and South America, Mexico
[71]
Javelina — Texas Parks & Wildlife Department
Javelina Bag Limits. Two per license year. Javelina Hunting Zone Map. Map of Texas counties with javelina hunting seasons. Back to Top. ∧ Back to Top.
[72]
El Impenetrable National Park - Tompkins Conservation News
Notable wildlife species include giant armadillo, tapir, giant anteater, puma, Chacoan peccary, maned wolf, seriema, black-bodied woodpecker, and Chaco owl.Missing: collared | Show results with:collared
[73]
Distribution and relative abundance of peccaries in the Argentine ...
There are three species of peccaries: the collared (Tayassu tajacu) occurs from Southern United States to Northern Argentina, the white-lipped peccary (Tayassu ...
[74]
Commercial farming of collared peccary / Genetic and Biodiversity ...
Apr 30, 2007 · This paper presents a technical description of a commercial collared peccary production system in large enclosures, which illustrates, to our knowledge, the ...
[75]
(PDF) A large-scale commercial farming of collared peccary ...
This paper presents a technical description of a commercial collared peccary production system in large enclosures, which illustrates, to our knowledge, the ...
[76]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249944158_Decline_of_peccaries_in_a_protected_subtropical_forest_of_Brazil_Toward_conservation_issues
[77]
[PDF] home range and habitat use of a reintroduced population of
Nov 14, 2012 · Collared peccaries were reintroduced to Mason Mountain Wildlife Management Area in the Llano Uplift region of Texas in 2004.Missing: fragmentation | Show results with:fragmentation
[78]
(PDF) Decline of peccaries in a protected subtropical forest of Brazil
Aug 10, 2025 · To assess the conservation status of white-lipped and collared peccaries in INP and surrounding areas, we recorded encounter rates from 1997 to ...
[79]
A review on crop-raiding by native wildlife in the Neotropics
The review confirms that crop-raiding is a widespread problem in the region. Almost three hundred Neotropical vertebrate species are involved, affecting at at ...
[80]
Camera trap study shows conservation efforts 'are working' on Costa ...
Dec 13, 2021 · This group of collared peccaries (Pecari tajacu) wades through a river outside of Corcovado National Park. Photo captured by Osa Safaris camera ...
[81]
Habituation of wildlife to ecotourism: A COVID‐19 lockdown ...
May 20, 2024 · ... collared peccary ... (2011) Assessing the importance of ecotourism as a development and conservation tool in the Osa Peninsula, Costa Rica.
[82]
Use of wildlife as an alternative protein source: Collared peccary meat
Collared peccary meat has excellent nutritional value due to its high protein levels (18.25%), unsaturated fatty acids (51.6–57.8%), and tenderness.Missing: ranching | Show results with:ranching
[83]
Use of wild vertebrates for consumption and bushmeat trade in Brazil
Dec 19, 2023 · Hunting is a practice considered successful in the exploitation of faunal resources; bushmeat, for example, is an important faunal resource used ...
[84]
New Book on the History and Mystery of the Collared Peccary
Of all of the stereotypically "Southwestern" animals, the javelina (or collared peccary) is probably the one that is least likely to be encountered by humans.
[85]
Sustainability of Hunting in Community-Based Wildlife Management ...
The broader question is whether sustainable wildlife use plans that allow Amazonian communities to sell a limited amount of wild meat can help change illegal ...
[86]
Wildlife farming: Balancing economic and conservation interests in ...
Jan 19, 2024 · Wildlife farming: Balancing economic and conservation interests in the face of illegal wildlife trade. Dominic Meeks,.