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Combat arms

Combat arms, also known as fighting arms, refer to the branches or units within a military force that are primarily responsible for engaging in direct tactical ground combat against enemy forces.^[1] These elements form the vanguard of offensive and defensive operations, employing weapons systems and maneuvers to close with, defeat, or neutralize adversaries through fire, movement, and shock action.^[2] Traditionally, combat arms have included infantry for close-quarters fighting, cavalry or armor for mobile assaults, and artillery for indirect fire support, though modern definitions may encompass aviation and special operations forces depending on the military doctrine.^[3] In the United States Army, combat arms branches are formally classified as those whose personnel are directly involved in conducting actual fighting, designated by branch codes 10 through 19 in the officer classification system.^[2] Key branches include Infantry (code 11), which specializes in dismounted or mechanized assaults to seize and hold terrain; Armor (code 19), encompassing tank and cavalry units for rapid, armored maneuvers; Field Artillery (code 13), providing long-range fires to suppress or destroy enemy positions; Air Defense Artillery (code 14), focused on countering aerial threats; and Aviation (code 15), operating rotary- and fixed-wing aircraft for close air support and reconnaissance.^[3] Special Forces (code 18) are also categorized as combat arms due to their role in unconventional warfare and direct action missions.^[3] These branches operate under the Combat Arms Regimental System (CARS), established in 1957 to preserve unit histories and traditions amid reorganizations for more flexible, firepower-intensive divisions.^[4] The role of combat arms extends beyond isolated engagements to integrated operations within combined arms teams, where they coordinate with combat support (e.g., engineers, military intelligence) and combat service support units to achieve operational objectives.^[2] Physical and tactical standards for combat arms personnel emphasize exceptional fitness, marksmanship, and combat proficiency, as highlighted in recent Department of Defense directives mandating mission-focused, sex-neutral physical requirements to ensure lethality in evolving warfare environments.^[5] Across militaries worldwide, the combat arms concept underscores the enduring need for specialized forces capable of decisive battlefield action, adapting from historical formations like Roman legions to contemporary mechanized units.^[1]

Definition and Scope

Core Definition

Combat arms denote the military branches or units tasked with direct engagement in tactical ground combat against enemy forces, primarily through kinetic means such as firepower, maneuver, and shock effect to destroy, capture, or repel adversaries. This core function distinguishes them as the frontline elements responsible for closing with the enemy to achieve physical dominance on the battlefield.^[6] Key characteristics of combat arms include their inherent high-risk exposure to hostile fire and proximity to combat zones, necessitating specialized training for offensive advances, defensive holds, and fluid tactical shifts. These units bear the primary accountability for delivering decisive outcomes in engagements, often determining the success of broader operations through their ability to seize terrain, neutralize threats, and exploit weaknesses.^[7] Universal elements encompass ground maneuver forces that conduct close-quarters assaults and fire support assets that deliver suppressive or destructive barrages to enable those maneuvers.^[6] The term "combat arms" solidified in 20th-century military doctrine, particularly following World War I, to formalize and categorize roles centered on direct combat efficacy amid evolving tactics and mechanization.^[8] This standardization arose as armies restructured branches like infantry and artillery into cohesive combat-focused entities, reflecting lessons from industrialized warfare that emphasized integrated kinetic action over isolated arm performances.^[7] Its origins trace briefly to ancient formations of warriors in direct melee, but modern usage prioritizes doctrinal precision in professional militaries.^[8]

Distinctions from Support Branches

Combat arms branches are distinguished from combat support branches primarily by their direct involvement in kinetic engagements with enemy forces, such as infantry assaults or artillery barrages that close with and destroy adversaries, whereas combat support focuses on enabling these actions through operational assistance without direct combat roles. For instance, combat arms units like infantry execute assaults to seize objectives, while combat support elements, such as military intelligence or military police, provide critical enablers like reconnaissance or security to facilitate those assaults. This boundary ensures that combat arms maintain a focus on maneuver and firepower, avoiding dilution from ancillary tasks.^[2]^[9] In contrast to combat service support, which emphasizes non-kinetic sustainment functions like medical care, logistics, and supply distribution to maintain force readiness over time, combat arms prioritize immediate destructive capabilities in the tactical fight. Combat service support roles, exemplified by quartermaster units delivering rations or ordnance corps managing ammunition resupply, operate primarily in rear areas to sustain ongoing operations rather than engaging in frontline kinetic activities. This separation underscores combat arms' core emphasis on direct lethality versus the logistical backbone provided by service support.^[2]^[9] Post-World War II military doctrines, such as the U.S. Army's Field Manual 100-5 Operations (1982 edition), formalized these distinctions to integrate forces effectively under AirLand Battle concepts, defining combat arms as those branches (e.g., infantry, armor, field artillery) tasked with primary offensive and defensive combat, while delineating combat support (e.g., military intelligence, signal corps) and service support (e.g., transportation, finance) to avoid overlap in task organization. Similar delineations appear in Department of the Army Pamphlet 600-3 (2022), which assigns branch codes to enforce these lines, emphasizing that misclassification—such as deploying logistics personnel in direct assault roles—can disrupt operational tempo by exposing non-combat-trained units to undue hazards or overburdening combat arms with sustainment duties.^[10]^[2] Maintaining these distinctions enhances command efficiency by allowing commanders to tailor task organizations for specific missions, optimizing resource allocation such as prioritizing firepower assets for combat arms while reserving logistics for support branches, thereby improving overall force cohesion and reducing operational friction in joint maneuvers. This clarity, as outlined in Army doctrinal publications, supports scalable responses in large-scale combat operations, where blurred roles could lead to delays in decision-making or inefficient use of personnel.^[9]^[6]

Historical Development

Ancient and Medieval Origins

The concept of combat arms originated in ancient civilizations, where heavy infantry formed the backbone of military forces. In ancient Greece, hoplites emerged around the 8th century BCE as heavily armed infantry soldiers, equipped with large round shields (hoplon), long spears (about 12 feet), short swords, and extensive bronze armor including helmets, greaves, and corslets weighing 50-70 pounds.^[11] These citizen-soldiers, often middle-class farmers, fought in the phalanx formation—a dense, shield-to-shield array typically eight ranks deep that emphasized collective pushing (othismos) to shatter enemy lines, marking an early specialization in close-quarters infantry tactics.^[11] This structure prioritized solidity and mutual protection over individual maneuvers, laying foundational principles for disciplined ground forces. The Roman legions further refined heavy infantry as the core combat arm, evolving from Greek influences into a more flexible system by the 1st century CE. Each legion comprised approximately 5,280 infantrymen organized into 10 cohorts of 480 men, subdivided into centuries of 80, all serving as heavy infantry armed with two javelins (pila) for initial volleys, short swords (gladius, 16-22 inches), iron helmets, large rectangular shields (scutum), and segmented plate armor (lorica segmentata).^[12] Unlike the rigid phalanx, legions employed adaptable formations for maneuverability in varied terrain, supported by minimal cavalry (120 per legion) for scouting, underscoring infantry's primacy in direct engagement.^[12] The Battle of Thermopylae in 480 BCE exemplifies the dominance of heavy infantry in ancient warfare, where 300 elite Spartan hoplites, alongside about 4,000 Greek allies, defended a narrow pass against a vastly larger Persian force estimated at hundreds of thousands.^[13] Led by King Leonidas, the Spartans formed an impenetrable phalanx of bronze-armored hoplites, leveraging the terrain to repel Persian assaults for three days through disciplined shield walls and spear thrusts, despite eventual betrayal revealing a rear path.^[13] This engagement highlighted infantry's strategic value in holding defensive positions, where superior formation and training outweighed numerical odds, influencing Greek military doctrine. In medieval Europe, combat arms developed informally through distinctions between elite knightly cavalry and mass levies, emerging around the 10th century CE in response to invasions and feudal needs. Knights evolved as mounted heavy cavalry from Frankish traditions, clad in chain mail and later plate armor, wielding lances and swords from horseback to deliver shock charges, contrasting with poorly equipped peasant levies used for garrisons or auxiliary roles.^[14] This elite class, bound by vassalage and chivalric codes regulated by the Church, represented a specialized striking force, often ransoming fellow knights while decimating common infantry, thus establishing cavalry as a high-status combat element separate from foot soldiers.^[14] Siege warfare introduced precursors to artillery, with trebuchets serving as pivotal engines from the 12th century CE onward. Evolving from earlier traction models, counterweight trebuchets used a pivoting arm and heavy slung weights to hurl 300-pound stones up to 275 meters, far outranging tension-based ballistae or twisted-rope catapults, enabling attackers to breach castle walls and fortifications.^[15] These machines, often requiring teams of engineers, marked an early technical specialization in ranged bombardment, complementing cavalry and infantry in prolonged assaults without formal branch structures.^[15] The Hundred Years' War (1337–1453) accelerated armored evolution, particularly for cavalry, as French knights adopted advanced fluted plate armor and visored bascinets for enhanced protection and mobility against English longbows.^[16] Initially favoring mounted charges, French tactics shifted as war hammers—concussive weapons with spikes and flat faces (2-4 kg)—emerged to counter impenetrable armor by dismounting or traumatizing riders, reflecting adaptive refinements in cavalry roles amid rising infantry and early gunpowder threats.^[16] These pre-modern developments—distinguishing heavy infantry phalanxes, elite cavalry knights, and siege engines—foreshadowed modern combat arms by emphasizing specialized roles in combined operations, though without institutionalized branches.

Modern Era Evolution

The Napoleonic Wars (1799–1815) marked a pivotal shift toward standardizing infantry and artillery within structured formations, as Napoleon Bonaparte organized his Grande Armée into corps that integrated infantry divisions, artillery reserves, and cavalry brigades for combined arms operations. This approach emphasized massed artillery fire using the Gribeauval system with mobile gun batteries to support infantry assaults, enhancing battlefield coordination and firepower. Infantry tactics evolved from linear formations to more flexible divisions capable of independent action, laying the groundwork for modern branch integration.^[17] The American Civil War (1861–1865) further advanced combat arms through early industrial mechanization, with rifled muskets extending the effective small-arms range to 200–400 meters and prompting tactical shifts toward skirmish lines and entrenchments to counter enhanced defensive firepower. Railroads revolutionized operational mobility, enabling rapid troop deployments and supply lines that supported large-scale infantry and artillery maneuvers, such as those in the Peninsula Campaign, and foreshadowed mechanized warfare by integrating transportation with combat elements. These developments highlighted the growing interdependence of infantry, artillery, and emerging logistical arms in industrialized conflict.^[10] World War I's trench warfare profoundly elevated the infantry's role within combat arms, as advancements in rifles and machine guns extended killing zones, forcing armies into static defenses along a 475-mile Western Front where infantry held the line through prolonged rotations in forward trenches, reserves, and rest areas. This stalemate underscored infantry's centrality, requiring close integration with artillery for suppressive fire and counter-battery roles, while exposing soldiers to monotonous attrition that demanded resilience and tactical innovation. Artillery barrages became essential precursors to infantry assaults, solidifying the branches' symbiotic relationship in defensive postures.^[18] In World War II, the integration of tanks formalized armored branches as a distinct combat arm, with the U.S. Army establishing its Armored Force in 1940 in response to European blitzkrieg tactics, creating the first armored divisions and separate tank battalions equipped with vehicles like the M4 Sherman. This evolution enabled combined arms maneuvers, where tanks provided mobile firepower to support infantry breakthroughs, as seen in operations like Cobra in 1944, though initial training challenges diluted gunnery proficiency amid rapid expansion. Postwar, these structures influenced Allied doctrines emphasizing armor-infantry synergy for offensive operations.^[19]^[20] Following World War II in 1945, Allied forces codified combat arms doctrines through lessons from combined operations, incorporating infantry, armor, and artillery coordination into manuals that stressed flexibility and joint integration, as evidenced in early U.S. Army field manuals adapting WWII experiences for mechanized warfare. These codifications, building on campaigns like the Battle of the Bulge, emphasized rapid redeployment and close air support to enhance branch interoperability in fluid battles.^[20] Post-1945 developments during the Cold War specialized combat arms, particularly artillery, for the nuclear era, with the U.S. Army introducing tactical nuclear weapons like the 280mm "atomic cannon" in 1953, capable of firing 17-mile-range nuclear warheads from towed platforms, and the "Davy Crockett" recoilless gun for short-range delivery. Facilities such as Picatinny Arsenal and Watervliet Arsenal advanced nuclear-compatible howitzers and rocket systems, tested at Aberdeen Proving Ground, to deter Soviet threats through enhanced lethality and mobility. These adaptations maintained artillery's core fire-support role while integrating nuclear deterrence into conventional operations.^[21] In the 1990s, peacekeeping missions prompted adaptations in combat arms, as U.S. Army units like the 10th Mountain Division in Haiti and Somalia incorporated urban tactics, negotiation, and coordination with civil affairs into training at centers like the Joint Readiness Training Center, blending stability tasks with warfighting skills. These operations blurred traditional lines by requiring infantry and armor to handle humanitarian relief and rules-of-engagement restraint alongside combat readiness, yet retained core focus on decisive maneuver through updated doctrines like FM 7-98.^[22] Key doctrines, such as the U.S. Army's FM 3-0 (2001), defined combat arms within joint operations by establishing full-spectrum operations that integrated offensive, defensive, and stability missions, applying warfighting functions like maneuver and fires across branches to achieve synchronized effects in uncertain environments. This framework positioned combat arms—infantry, armor, and artillery—as essential to joint force dominance, balancing lethal actions with nonlethal support.^[23]

Primary Branches

Infantry

Infantry serves as the foundational combat arm in military forces, consisting of foot soldiers trained to engage the enemy in close-quarters combat through fire and maneuver. Their primary role involves closing with and destroying or capturing the enemy, or repelling assaults, while holding, seizing, or traversing terrain essential to operational objectives. As the only maneuver branch dedicated to this direct, human-centric ground engagement, infantry units employ individual small arms weapons or heavy anti-armor crew-served systems to achieve these aims. Infantry encompasses several sub-types tailored to specific operational needs, including light infantry for versatile, foot-mobile operations; mechanized infantry for integrated vehicular support; and airborne infantry for rapid aerial insertion behind enemy lines. Light infantry, often including airborne and air assault variants, emphasizes mobility in diverse terrains without heavy reliance on vehicles, while mechanized units enhance firepower and protection through armored carriers. Standard equipment includes assault rifles such as the M4 carbine (being transitioned to the M7 rifle under the Next Generation Squad Weapon program as of 2025), hand grenades for suppressive or disruptive effects, and body armor like the Improved Outer Tactical Vest (IOTV) (supplemented by the Modular Scalable Vest and new protection kits).^[24]^[25] Historically, infantry has formed the core of armies since antiquity, evolving from the heavily armored phalanxes of ancient Greece and Rome to disciplined manipular formations that enabled tactical flexibility in battles across empires. Roman infantry, for instance, relied on hastati, principes, and triarii lines to maintain cohesion and overwhelm foes in pitched combat, establishing principles of formation and endurance that influenced warfare for centuries.^[26] This enduring significance persisted into the modern era, exemplified by the infantry assaults during the D-Day landings at Normandy on June 6, 1944, where units like Company E, 16th Infantry Regiment of the 1st Infantry Division, stormed Omaha Beach to secure vital footholds against fortified defenses, suffering heavy casualties but enabling the Allied breakout from the invasion beaches.^[27] Infantry training prioritizes physical endurance to sustain prolonged marches and combat under load, often exceeding 70 pounds of gear, alongside proficiency in small-unit tactics for coordinated fire and movement in squads or platoons. Emphasis is placed on urban warfare skills, including room-clearing techniques and navigation in complex environments, to prepare soldiers for close-quarters battles where visibility and maneuver space are limited. These elements ensure infantry's adaptability in holding terrain against dynamic threats.^[28]^[29]

Armored and Cavalry Units

Armored and cavalry units represent the mechanized evolution of traditional mounted forces, transitioning from horse-mounted cavalry in the 19th and early 20th centuries to modern armored formations equipped with tanks and tracked vehicles. This shift began in the interwar period, particularly in the U.S. Army, where cavalry units experimented with mechanization starting in the 1920s, leading to the formal creation of the Armored Force in 1940 as horse cavalry was phased out in favor of tracked armored vehicles for enhanced mobility and firepower.^[30] The primary role of these units has been to conduct rapid breakthroughs in enemy lines, exploiting weaknesses through speed and shock to disrupt defenses and pursue retreating forces, a capability that replaced the charge of mounted lancers with the massed advance of tank columns.^[31] Armored personnel carriers (APCs) and later infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs) further integrated infantry support, allowing combined arms operations where dismounted troops could advance under vehicle protection to secure gains.^[32] Key equipment in contemporary armored units includes main battle tanks (MBTs) such as the M1 Abrams, a third-generation tank featuring a 120mm smoothbore gun, composite armor, and advanced fire control systems for engaging targets at ranges up to 4 kilometers while on the move.^[33] Complementing MBTs are IFVs like the M2 Bradley, which transport infantry squads while providing direct fire support through a 25mm chain gun and TOW anti-tank missiles, enabling armored units to deliver both mobility and offensive power in fluid battles.^[34] Crew training emphasizes combined arms proficiency, with gunnery exercises and simulations focusing on coordination between tank crews, IFV operators, and supporting infantry to execute synchronized maneuvers, often conducted at facilities like the National Training Center to simulate real-world threats.^[35] This training ensures crews can operate in networked environments, integrating sensors and communications for rapid decision-making in dynamic combat scenarios.^[36] Historical milestones underscore the transformative impact of armored units. During World War II (1939–1945), German Panzer divisions exemplified blitzkrieg tactics, using concentrated tank forces supported by motorized infantry and airpower to achieve rapid penetrations, as seen in the 1940 invasion of France where armored spearheads exploited the Ardennes breakthrough to encircle Allied forces.^[37] In the 1991 Gulf War, U.S. armored units demonstrated overwhelming superiority in tank battles, such as the Battle of 73 Easting, where M1 Abrams tanks of the 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment destroyed over 50 Iraqi armored vehicles with minimal losses, leveraging thermal sights and superior maneuverability to dominate open desert engagements.^[38] Tactical doctrines for armored and cavalry units prioritize shock action to overwhelm defenses, reconnaissance to identify enemy vulnerabilities, and countermeasures against anti-armor threats like guided missiles. Shock action involves massing armored forces for decisive assaults, as outlined in U.S. Army doctrine, to create breaches that infantry and artillery can exploit.^[39] Reconnaissance elements, often drawn from cavalry squadrons, use scout vehicles to screen advances and gather intelligence, enabling commanders to direct fires and maneuvers effectively.^[40] Anti-armor countermeasures include reactive armor plating, active protection systems, and tactical dispersion to counter threats from enemy tanks and portable missiles, ensuring unit survivability in high-intensity conflicts.

Artillery

Artillery serves as a core combat arm responsible for delivering indirect fire support to maneuver units, enabling long-range bombardment to suppress, destroy, or disrupt enemy positions, personnel, and materiel beyond line-of-sight. This function integrates cannon, rocket, and missile fires to shape the battlefield, providing responsive lethality that complements infantry and armored advances by neutralizing threats that direct engagement cannot reach efficiently. In modern militaries, such as the U.S. Army, the field artillery's mission explicitly includes destroying, neutralizing, or suppressing enemies through these means while synchronizing with joint fires for maximum effect.^[41]^[42] Key types of artillery systems encompass field guns for flatter trajectories suited to longer ranges against exposed targets, howitzers for high-angle indirect fire that can engage defilade positions behind cover, and multiple launch rocket systems (MLRS) for saturating area targets with precision-guided rockets over extended distances. Ballistics in these systems rely on principles of projectile motion, where elevation and charge determine the parabolic trajectory necessary for indirect fire, allowing rounds to arc over obstacles and impact with calculated accuracy based on meteorological data and targeting inputs. Representative examples include the M777 howitzer for mobile, towed operations and the M270 MLRS for rapid, high-volume rocket barrages, both emphasizing mobility and firepower projection in contemporary operations.^[43]^[44]^[45] Historically, artillery earned the moniker "King of Battle" during World War I (1914–1918), where massed barrages from field guns and howitzers played a decisive role in breaking stalemates on the Western Front, delivering millions of shells to pulverize trenches and fortifications in support of infantry assaults. By the Vietnam War era (1960s–1970s), operational doctrines shifted toward precision, with the introduction of improved fuzes and early guided munitions reducing collateral damage and enhancing responsiveness against elusive guerrilla forces, marking a transition from sheer volume to targeted effects.^[46]^[47]^[48] Operationally, artillery employs fire direction centers to compute firing data, coordinate multiple batteries, and ensure safe separation from friendly forces, while counter-battery fire uses radar and sensors to detect and neutralize enemy artillery positions preemptively. Integration with forward observers, embedded with maneuver units, is critical for real-time target acquisition and adjustments, allowing artillery to respond to dynamic threats through procedures like observed fire missions that refine impacts via spotter corrections. These elements form a layered system that synchronizes indirect fires with tactical maneuvers, maintaining artillery's role as a force multiplier in combined arms operations.^[49]^[50]^[51]

Organization in Militaries

British Commonwealth Forces

In the British Army, the combat arms are structured around three primary branches: the Infantry, the Royal Armoured Corps (RAC), and the Royal Artillery (RA), which together form the core of the Ground Close Combat capability under the Army 2020 reforms implemented in the 2010s to adapt to post-Afghanistan contingencies and force reductions.^[52]^[53] The Infantry provides dismounted close combat expertise through regiments organized into battalions, the RAC delivers armoured manoeuvre using tanks and reconnaissance vehicles via its regiments, and the RA supplies indirect fire support and air defence with artillery regiments, all integrated within brigade-level formations for combined operations.^[54]^[55]^[56] This "arms" terminology reflects the British military's traditional categorization of direct combat elements, distinct from combat support branches, and was refined in Army 2020 to emphasize scalable, expeditionary forces with a total regular army size reduced to around 82,000 personnel by 2020.^[57] Commonwealth forces, influenced by British doctrine, adopt similar combat arms models with adaptations for regional needs; for instance, the Australian Army integrates mechanized infantry battalions within its 1st Brigade, equipped with ASLAV armoured personnel carriers to enhance mobility in Indo-Pacific operations, while the Canadian Army organizes its combat arms into infantry regiments, the Royal Canadian Armoured Corps, and the Royal Canadian Artillery, emphasizing light and medium forces for NATO commitments.^[58]^[59] These variations maintain the tripartite structure but incorporate local equipment, such as Australia's focus on protected mobility for infantry to support amphibious and rapid deployment roles.^[60] Post-World War II evolutions in British Commonwealth combat arms were notably tested during the 1982 Falklands War, where integrated operations involving infantry assaults by units like 3 Commando Brigade, RA fire support from 29 Commando Regiment, and limited RAC elements in Scorpion light tanks demonstrated the challenges of expeditionary combined arms in austere environments, leading to doctrinal emphasis on joint manoeuvre.^[61]^[62] Today, drone integration enhances these arms, with the RA employing Watchkeeper unmanned aerial systems for reconnaissance and targeting, and infantry units incorporating tactical drones for surveillance to augment traditional roles amid evolving threats.^[63]^[64] Officer training for these combat arms occurs primarily at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, a 44-week commissioning course divided into three terms that instills leadership, tactical skills, and regimental traditions through rigorous field exercises and historical immersion, ensuring officers are bonded to their assigned arm's heritage upon graduation.^[65]^[66] This pipeline fosters the regimental system's emphasis on unit loyalty and esprit de corps, a hallmark of British Commonwealth militaries that distinguishes their combat arms culture.^[67]

United States Army

In the United States Army, combat arms branches include the Infantry, Armor, Artillery (Field Artillery and Air Defense Artillery), Aviation, and Special Forces, which are integral to maneuver, fires, and effects operations as outlined in Field Manual (FM) 3-90, Tactics (May 2023). These branches enable synchronized tactical actions across offensive, defensive, and enabling operations, emphasizing combined arms integration to achieve decisive effects against adversaries. The Infantry focuses on close combat and dismounted maneuver, Armor provides mobile protected firepower through tanks and armored vehicles, Field Artillery delivers indirect fires for suppression and destruction, Air Defense Artillery counters aerial threats, Aviation operates rotary- and fixed-wing aircraft for reconnaissance and support, and Special Forces conducts unconventional warfare. This doctrinal framework, evolved from the original FM 3-90 (2001), prioritizes adaptability in contested environments, with updates incorporating joint capabilities and layered defenses.^[68] The Army structures these branches through specialized schools and the Military Occupational Specialty (MOS) system for personnel assignments. The U.S. Army Infantry School and Armor School are co-located at Fort Moore, Georgia, where soldiers and officers receive branch-specific training, including One Station Unit Training (OSUT) that combines Basic Combat Training (BCT) with advanced individual training for roles like 11B Infantryman or 19K Armor Crewman. Field Artillery and Air Defense Artillery personnel train at the U.S. Army Fires Center of Excellence at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, focusing on MOS 13B Cannon Crewmember and fire direction skills. Aviation and air cavalry training falls under the U.S. Army Aviation Center of Excellence at Fort Novosel, Alabama, preparing MOS such as 15T UH-60 Helicopter Repairer and 19D Cavalry Scout for aerial operations in reconnaissance squadrons. The MOS system, managed via Army Human Resources Command, assigns personnel based on aptitude, needs, and career progression, ensuring combat arms units maintain proficiency in combined arms tactics.^[69] Key operations have demonstrated the effectiveness of these branches in combined arms contexts, notably during the Iraq War (2003–2011), where Infantry, Armor, and Artillery units executed urban clearances, armored thrusts, and fire support in battles like Fallujah, integrating aviation for reconnaissance to counter insurgent threats. In the 2020s, the Army has shifted toward multi-domain operations (MDO) under FM 3-0, Operations (March 2025), emphasizing cross-domain synchronization among combat arms to counter peer adversaries in contested spaces like the Indo-Pacific, with exercises testing layered fires and maneuver across land, air, cyber, and space.^[70] Recruitment and career paths for combat arms soldiers begin with 10-week BCT at locations like Fort Moore or Fort Sill, stressing physical conditioning, weapons handling, and basic tactics tailored to combat roles, followed by branch-specific advanced training. Enlistees selecting combat arms MOS undergo rigorous selection, including the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB), with career progression involving promotions, specialized schools like Ranger or Airborne, and rotations to operational units, fostering leadership in maneuver-focused assignments.^[71]

United States Marine Corps

The United States Marine Corps (USMC) integrates its combat arms within the Ground Combat Element (GCE) of the Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF), which encompasses infantry, artillery, armor, and supporting ground units tailored for rapid amphibious and expeditionary operations. This structure is outlined in Marine Corps Doctrinal Publication (MCDP) 1, Warfighting, which emphasizes maneuver warfare principles to achieve decisive effects through combined arms integration. The GCE is scalable, from reinforced rifle companies to Marine divisions, enabling versatile task organization for crises response, with infantry as the core supported by artillery for fire support and lighter armored units for mobility. A defining ethos of the USMC is "every Marine a rifleman," ensuring all personnel, regardless of specialty, receive foundational infantry training to maintain combat readiness and flexibility in fluid environments. This philosophy underpins the Corps' emphasis on lighter, more expeditionary equipment compared to the heavier, sustained-land-power focus of the U.S. Army, such as the mobile M777 howitzer for rapid deployment versus larger towed systems, and amphibious assault vehicles optimized for ship-to-shore transitions. These attributes allow the USMC to project power from naval platforms, prioritizing speed and adaptability over massed heavy armor. Historically, USMC combat arms demonstrated effective integration during the Battle of Iwo Jima in 1945, where infantry regiments advanced under coordinated naval gunfire and artillery support from the 5th Marine Division's 155mm howitzers, enabling the seizure of key terrain like Mount Suribachi despite fierce defenses.^[72] In more recent operations, such as those in Afghanistan from 2001 to 2021, Marine Expeditionary Units employed combined arms in Helmand Province, with infantry platoons supported by organic artillery and light armor to conduct counterinsurgency patrols and secure population centers. Under Force Design 2030, initiated in 2020, the USMC is reforming its combat arms to align with distributed maritime operations, divesting all tank battalions (approximately 180 M1A1 Abrams tanks) to reduce logistical footprints and reallocating resources to enhance rocket artillery capabilities, including the High Mobility Artillery Rocket System (HIMARS) for long-range precision fires. This shift transitions towed cannon batteries to mobile rocket and anti-ship missile units, fostering lighter, more dispersed forces capable of integrating with naval assets for littoral maneuver. The October 2025 annual update to Force Design 2030 continues to refine these changes, focusing on enhanced capabilities for contested maritime environments.^[73]

Other International Examples

In NATO allied forces, the French Army exemplifies infantry-armor fusion through its doctrinal emphasis on modular combined-arms units. These include company-sized tactical combined-arms groups (SGTIA) and battalion-sized battle groups (GTIA), which integrate infantry, armor, engineers, and fire support for adaptive operations, as demonstrated in Mali where armor provided shock effect and mobility over 500 km while supporting infantry consolidation. This approach centralizes decision-making but decentralizes execution to enhance autonomy and joint effects. Similarly, the German Panzertruppe underwent significant post-Cold War restructuring in the 1990s following reunification, absorbing East German forces and reducing overall strength to 370,000 personnel by 1994, shifting from heavy tank divisions optimized for Warsaw Pact defense to lighter, more versatile brigades focused on NATO interoperability and expeditionary roles.^[74]^[75]^[76]^[77] Non-Western militaries showcase distinct integrations of combat arms. In the Russian Ground Forces, motorized rifle troops form the core mechanized infantry, organized into brigades that combine infantry fighting vehicles (e.g., BMP series), tanks, and self-propelled artillery for battalion tactical groups (BTG), enabling rapid advances and defensive lines through echeloned attacks. Artillery is embedded at brigade level for direct support, emphasizing massed fire coordination. The Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA), through 2015 reforms, restructured into 13 group armies with approximately 82 combined-arms brigades by 2017, each featuring four integrated battalions of infantry, armor, and reconnaissance, plus dedicated artillery and air defense units to facilitate joint operations as the basic tactical entity. These changes prioritized modularity and realism in training via transregional exercises to support broader maritime campaigns.^[78]^[79] Key structural differences highlight specialized adaptations. The Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) employ a conscript-integrated model, mandating service for most citizens and assigning them across combat arms like infantry and armor battalions, with gender integration in roles to build draftee combat power through mixed units rather than isolated formations. This fosters a reserve-heavy force with universal branch exposure. In contrast, the Indian Army maintains ten mountain divisions specialized for high-altitude warfare, comprising infantry brigades trained in rugged terrain operations, supported by light artillery and minimal armor to prioritize mobility in Himalayan border contexts, differing from its 18 standard infantry divisions.^[80]^[81] The ongoing Ukraine conflict since 2022 has influenced Eastern European military structures, prompting reforms in nations like Poland and the Baltics to bolster combat arms resilience. These include expanding artillery and armored brigades for hybrid threats, integrating drones and electronic warfare into infantry tactics, and accelerating NATO-aligned combined-arms training to counter massed Russian-style assaults observed in Ukraine.^[82]^[83]

Modern Roles and Challenges

Tactical Integration

Combined arms doctrine emphasizes the synergistic integration of infantry, armor, and artillery to overwhelm enemy defenses through complementary capabilities, where infantry provides close assault and holding power, armor delivers mobility and shock, and artillery supplies suppressive fires and precision strikes.^[84] This approach creates dilemmas for adversaries by synchronizing effects across branches, ensuring no single arm operates in isolation but rather as part of a cohesive team that amplifies overall combat effectiveness.^[84] In practice, doctrine mandates mutual support, such as artillery barrages softening targets ahead of armored advances protected by infantry screens, fostering a layered offensive that exploits enemy weaknesses.^[85] A prominent example of this doctrine in action occurred during Operation Desert Storm in 1991, where coalition forces coordinated infantry, armor, and artillery to breach Iraqi defenses rapidly. The U.S. Army's Tiger Brigade, integrated with Marine units, used armored spearheads supported by artillery fires and infantry dismounts to disrupt Iraqi command structures and seal key routes north of Al Jahra, demonstrating how combined arms enabled swift exploitation of breakthroughs.^[84] This teamwork minimized prolonged engagements, as air and artillery dominance preceded ground maneuvers, collapsing Iraqi resistance with limited coalition exposure to direct fire.^[86] Command structures facilitate this integration through battle command posts, which serve as centralized hubs where staff from multiple branches synchronize operations via functional cells for intelligence, fires, and maneuver.^[87] These posts employ integrating cells for current and future operations, ensuring real-time coordination across infantry, armor, and artillery elements through standardized procedures and cross-functional working groups like targeting boards.^[87] Communication protocols underpin these structures, relying on joint systems such as satellite networks and frequency management to maintain interoperability, with centralized control via joint communications centers enforcing security, timeliness, and spectrum discipline during operations.^[88] NATO exercises like Defender-Europe, conducted in the 2010s and 2020s, rigorously test this interoperability by simulating large-scale deployments of combined arms forces across allied nations. In Defender-Europe 20, for instance, U.S. and NATO troops coordinated the movement of armor, infantry, and support units via multimodal transport, validating protocols for border crossings and host-nation integration to enhance collective response capabilities.^[89] These drills emphasize doctrinal alignment, revealing gaps in synchronization and refining tactics for multinational teamwork.^[90] Success in tactical integration is often measured by reduced casualties achieved through mutual support, as seen in Desert Storm where coordinated fires and maneuvers limited ground force vulnerabilities, preserving combat power while degrading enemy cohesion.^[86] This doctrinal emphasis on layered protection—infantry shielding armor from anti-tank threats, artillery suppressing counterattacks—consistently lowers risk exposure compared to isolated branch actions, validating combined arms as a cornerstone of modern operations.^[84]

Technological Influences

Technological advancements have profoundly reshaped the capabilities and organizational structures of combat arms, enabling greater lethality, survivability, and operational efficiency while introducing new vulnerabilities. Since the early 2000s, the integration of unmanned systems, precision-guided technologies, and artificial intelligence has shifted combat arms from reliance on sheer manpower and massed formations toward networked, data-driven operations that emphasize speed and accuracy. This evolution, driven by programs from the U.S. Department of Defense and DARPA, has allowed units to execute missions with reduced risk to personnel, though it demands continuous adaptation to counter emerging threats like electronic jamming.^[91] Drones and robotics have revolutionized reconnaissance and direct support roles within combat arms, particularly for infantry and armored units. The RQ-7 Shadow, a tactical unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) introduced in the early 2000s, provided near-real-time intelligence, surveillance, and target acquisition for Brigade Combat Teams, supporting operations day or night with up to six hours of flight endurance and live aerial imagery feeds until its retirement in March 2024. Deployed extensively in Iraq and Afghanistan, it enhanced force protection by identifying threats without exposing soldiers, influencing the structure of scout and cavalry elements to incorporate dedicated UAV operators. Complementing aerial systems, robotic exoskeletons are emerging to augment infantry physical capabilities; U.S. Army initiatives, such as those from the Combat Capabilities Development Command Soldier Center, focus on powered suits that reduce musculoskeletal injuries during load-bearing tasks like ammunition resupply, with prototypes tested since 2017 to improve mobility and endurance in close combat scenarios.^[92]^[93]^[94]^[95] Precision munitions have transformed artillery and armored fire support, minimizing collateral damage and enabling strikes from standoff distances. Post-1990s developments, including GPS-guided systems like the M982 Excalibur 155mm projectile—fielded by the U.S. Army in 2008—achieve sub-two-meter accuracy across extended ranges, revolutionizing field artillery by allowing precise targeting in urban or contested environments. Networked armor systems further amplify this precision; the Army's Armored Formation Network On-The-Move (AFN OTM) pilot, tested since 2022, integrates commercial 5G and tactical radios into vehicles like Bradleys and Abrams tanks, enabling real-time data sharing for coordinated fires and maneuver without fixed command posts. These technologies have streamlined artillery batteries and armored brigades, reducing the need for large ammunition stockpiles and forward observers.^[96]^[97]^[98]^[99] Integrations of cyber capabilities and artificial intelligence in the 2020s are pushing combat arms toward semi-autonomous operations, though they expose systems to electronic warfare (EW) threats. U.S. Army experiments, such as Project Shrike initiated in 2024, employ AI algorithms and drones to automate threat detection and fire support calls, accelerating artillery response times from minutes to seconds while integrating with existing systems like the Advanced Field Artillery Tactical Data System. Similarly, DARPA's Air Combat Evolution (ACE) program demonstrates AI pilots outperforming humans in simulated dogfights, informing ground-based autonomous fire support for infantry and armor. However, these advancements heighten vulnerabilities; Russian EW systems in Ukraine have jammed GPS signals, degrading Excalibur's accuracy and forcing reliance on inertial navigation, which underscores the need for resilient, multi-spectrum countermeasures in combat arms doctrine.^[100]^[101]^[102] Overall, these technological influences have driven a doctrinal shift from massed forces to precision effects, significantly reducing personnel requirements in certain branches. The U.S. Army's 2024 Force Structure Transformation Initiative, for instance, cuts end strength by about 24,000 soldiers across divisions while reallocating resources to AI, drones, and long-range precision fires, enabling smaller, more agile combat arms units to achieve equivalent or superior outcomes against peer adversaries. This transition enhances strategic flexibility but requires ongoing investment in training and spectrum dominance to mitigate EW risks.^[103]^[104]

Future Adaptations

Combat arms units are increasingly adapting to multi-domain operations, which integrate space, cyber, and ground forces to enable synchronized effects across domains. The U.S. Army's 2030 vision emphasizes this convergence, transforming capabilities to operate seamlessly on land, in the air, sea, space, and cyberspace, with Multi-Domain Task Forces (MDTFs) designed to fuse intelligence, cyber operations, and long-range precision strikes for asymmetric advantages in high-intensity conflicts.^[105]^[106] The Army Space Vision Supporting Multidomain Operations further outlines the integration of joint and coalition space capabilities to support ground commanders, including interdiction of adversary space assets alongside cyber efforts to disrupt enemy command structures.^[107] Climate change and rapid urbanization are driving adaptations in combat arms for extreme environments like the Arctic and megacities. In the Arctic, accelerating warming, melting permafrost, and receding sea ice are opening new strategic routes and resources, necessitating enhanced mobility and resilience; for instance, the U.S. Department of Defense's 2024-2027 Climate Adaptation Plan prioritizes infrastructure hardening and training for volatile weather to maintain operational readiness in these regions.^[108]^[109] NATO assessments highlight that these changes will amplify competition, requiring combat arms to develop specialized equipment for cold-weather logistics and surveillance amid unpredictable environmental volatility.^[110] For megacity combat, where populations exceed 10 million and urban density complicates maneuver, forces are shifting toward mission command and non-lethal technologies to isolate combatants from civilians, as outlined in analyses of urbanization's implications for the U.S. Army.^[111] This includes robotics and sensor networks to navigate complex terrain, reducing risks in scenarios projected to dominate future conflicts.^[112]^[113] Demographic shifts in Western militaries are exacerbating recruitment challenges, with declining eligibility pools due to health, education, and societal factors; in the U.S., nearly 77% of individuals aged 17-24 were ineligible for service in recent assessments, prompting discussions on incentives and potential draft reinstatement to sustain force levels.^[114] This scarcity is leading to greater reliance on allies in coalitions for future operations, where interoperability and shared burdens become critical; U.S. Army strategies stress strengthening partnerships to aggregate capabilities, as seen in global land power networks that distribute combat roles across nations.^[115] Analyses of Indo-Pacific scenarios underscore that allies could decisively influence outcomes in multi-domain fights, compensating for domestic shortfalls through joint training and resource pooling.^[116] Coalition operations, however, face strains from resource disparities, requiring larger partners to support smaller ones in logistics and planning.^[117] Ethical considerations surrounding autonomous weapons systems (AWS) are intensifying debates on their integration into combat arms, with UN discussions since the 2010s focusing on risks to human rights and international humanitarian law. The UN General Assembly's 2024 resolution, supported by 166 states, mandates 2025 consultations to advance regulations prohibiting or restricting AWS that select and engage targets without human intervention, citing concerns over accountability and error-prone decision-making; these informal consultations were held on May 12-13, 2025, in New York, where speakers, including the UN Secretary-General, described such machines as "politically unacceptable" and called for legally binding prohibitions.^[118]^[119] Reports highlight AWS's potential to infringe on rights through digital biases and lack of oversight, while proponents argue for benefits like reduced casualties; ongoing talks at the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons grapple with defining "meaningful human control" to balance military efficiency with ethical imperatives.^[120]^[121]^[122]

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Summary of each segment:
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eARMOR Combined Arms – Shaping Maneuver Operations Starts ...
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Army of 2030 | Article | The United States Army
Oct 5, 2022 · The Army is undergoing a once-in-a-generation transformation to develop the capability to converge effects on land, in the air, sea, space and cyberspace.
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U.S. Army 2030 – in search of a new asymmetric advantage on the ...
Feb 8, 2025 · In response to the demands of multi-domain operations, Multi-Domain Task Forces (MDTFs) are designed to integrate intelligence, cyber, ...
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Army Space Vision Supporting Multidomain Operations
The Army will integrate friendly joint and coalition space capabilities and interdict adversary space capabilities in support of ground force commanders.
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[PDF] Department of Defense 2024-2027 Climate Adaptation Plan
The Department continues to respond to climate change in two ways: adaptation to enhance resilience and mitigation to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This ...
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Implications of Climate Change for Military Operations in the Arctic
This chapter reviews some key immediate impacts of climate change on Arctic military operations, broader changes of relevance, and interconnections with ...
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2025 - ARCTIC - REPORT - FRIDBERTSSON - 022 STC - NATO PA
The Arctic is undergoing rapid transformation. Rising temperatures, melting ice, and thawing permafrost are already changing the region and will continue to do ...
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[PDF] Urbanization and Megacities: Implications for the U.S. Army - AUSA
Megacity warfare significantly increases the importance of mission command. Megacities planning informs each of the Army's six modernization priorities.
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The Future of Urban Warfare in the Age of Megacities - Ifri
This study traces the drivers behind this rise in urban violence and warfare, assesses the complex challenges military forces face in cities, and analyzes the ...
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Warfare in megacities: a new frontier in military operations - Army.mil
May 28, 2018 · Mega cities present a jarringly daunting obstacle to the future of world combat operations, Army senior leaders said at the 2018 LANPAC conference.
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Reinstate The Draft? An Alternative To The Military Recruitment Crisis
Feb 17, 2025 · The military now faces severe recruitment challenges that undermine its readiness and national security. Nearly 77% of Americans aged 17 to 24 ...
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Army Must Strengthen Its Relationships With Allies - AUSA
Aug 17, 2021 · The Army is a critical partner in a global land power network that relies on allies and partners to achieve collective security objectives.
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Could Allies Decide the Future of the Indo-Pacific? - CSIS
Apr 1, 2025 · In this Marshall Paper, Phillips P. O'Brien assesses the critical importance of allies in deciding major conflicts. O'Brien argues that the ...Missing: reliance | Show results with:reliance<|separator|>
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[PDF] Problems and Solutions in Future Coalition Operations
Dec 1, 1997 · Larger coalition partners often must support smaller allies, causing significant strains on resources. Logistics also must be considered from a ...
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161 states vote against the machine at the UN General Assembly
Nov 5, 2024 · 161 states voted for the UN resolution on autonomous weapons, while 3 voted against, with 13 abstentions. The resolution mandates talks in 2025.Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
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[PDF] Lethal autonomous weapons systems - General Assembly
Jul 1, 2024 · This report summarizes submissions on lethal autonomous weapons systems, including definitions, challenges, concerns, potential benefits, and ...Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
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A Hazard to Human Rights: Autonomous Weapons Systems and ...
Apr 28, 2025 · Autonomous weapons systems present numerous risks to humanity, most of which infringe on fundamental obligations and principles of international human rights ...Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
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Dilemmas in the policy debate on autonomous weapon systems
Feb 6, 2025 · This essay highlights some of those trade-offs and helps policymakers consider their potential implications for international efforts to regulate AWS.Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
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UN Moves to Expand Autonomous Weapons Discussions
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