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Double-stranded RNA viruses

Double-stranded RNA viruses (dsRNA viruses) are a diverse group of viruses that utilize double-stranded ribonucleic acid (dsRNA) as their genetic material, typically organized into one or more linear segments ranging from 1 to 12 in number.^[1] These viruses infect an exceptionally broad range of hosts, including bacteria, fungi, plants, protozoa, invertebrates, and vertebrates such as humans and other animals.^[2] Unlike most RNA viruses, their dsRNA genomes are stable and resistant to degradation, but replication requires a specialized viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) to transcribe and replicate within a protected intracellular environment.^[1] In the taxonomic framework established by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV), dsRNA viruses fall under the kingdom Orthornavirae within the realm Riboviria, encompassing at least 12 recognized families, including Reoviridae, Birnaviridae, Cystoviridae, Totiviridae, Partitiviridae, Chrysoviridae, Megabirnaviridae, Quadriviridae, Picobirnaviridae, Amalgaviridae, Hypoviridae, and Fusariviridae.^[3] These families vary in genome segmentation and host specificity, with Reoviridae featuring 10–12 segments and infecting animals, while Partitiviridae often have bisegmented genomes and target plants or fungi.^[2] Structurally, most dsRNA viruses are non-enveloped with icosahedral capsids exhibiting T=1 or pseudo T=13 symmetry, consisting of multiple concentric protein layers that encase the genome and enzymatic machinery.^[1] The innermost core layer houses the dsRNA segments and RdRp, providing a confined space for nucleic acid synthesis.^[2] Replication occurs exclusively in the host cell's cytoplasm, where incoming virions release mRNA transcripts through capsid channels for protein synthesis, followed by the synthesis of full-length dsRNA segments to assemble new virions.^[1] This process shields the dsRNA from host pattern recognition receptors that trigger innate immune responses, such as interferon production.^[2] The segmented genomes enable high rates of genetic reassortment during mixed infections, promoting rapid evolution and the emergence of novel variants with altered host range or virulence.^[2] Among human pathogens, rotaviruses (Reoviridae) stand out as a leading cause of severe dehydrating diarrhea in infants and young children, resulting in substantial global morbidity and mortality, particularly in low-resource settings.^[4] In veterinary and agricultural contexts, viruses like bluetongue virus (Reoviridae) cause economically devastating diseases in livestock, while fungal-infecting dsRNA viruses in families such as Hypoviridae can attenuate pathogen virulence, offering potential biocontrol applications.^[2]

Overview

Definition and characteristics

Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) viruses are classified as Group III in the Baltimore classification system, distinguished by their linear, double-stranded RNA genomes that serve as the primary genetic material. These viruses encompass a polyphyletic group with genomes that are either non-segmented or segmented into 1 to 12 discrete RNA molecules, with total genome sizes ranging from approximately 4 to 30 kilobase pairs (kbp). The dsRNA structure provides relative stability compared to single-stranded RNA, yet these viruses exhibit high mutation rates due to the error-prone nature of their viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), which lacks proofreading activity, leading to substitution rates of about 10^{-4} to 10^{-6} per nucleotide per replication cycle. Key characteristics of dsRNA viruses include their diverse virion architectures, which can be non-enveloped icosahedral particles or, less commonly, enveloped forms, with diameters typically around 60-100 nm. Replication and transcription occur exclusively in the host cell cytoplasm, often within specialized inclusion bodies known as viroplasms or viral factories, where the viral RdRp transcribes mRNA directly from the dsRNA genome while it remains encapsidated within the virion core to evade host defenses. This intracellular transcription mechanism is a hallmark, as the polymerase complex is packaged within the virion and initiates RNA synthesis without relying on host nuclear machinery. With few exceptions, such as those in the phylum Pisuviricota, all dsRNA viruses are unified under the phylum Duplornaviricota, reflecting shared RdRp homology across their lineages. They infect a broad spectrum of hosts, including animals, plants, fungi, bacteria, and protozoa, demonstrating remarkable ecological diversity. Capsids are frequently icosahedral, composed of 60 capsomeres arranged with T=1 symmetry in simpler forms or featuring an inner T=1 core surrounded by an outer T=13 layer in more complex structures like those in the Reoviridae family. This architectural variation underscores their adaptability, as seen in the segmented genomes of Reoviridae (10-12 segments) contrasting with the single-segment, non-segmented genomes of certain fungal viruses like totiviruses.

Historical background

The discovery of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) viruses began in the mid-20th century with the identification of reoviruses, initially isolated in 1953 from a child with respiratory and enteric symptoms by Stanley et al. in Australia. These agents were later classified as reoviruses in 1959 by Albert Sabin, who coined the term "respiratory enteric orphan viruses" to reflect their orphan status in disease causation at the time. In 1973, rotavirus was observed via electron microscopy in duodenal biopsies from children with acute gastroenteritis by Ruth Bishop and colleagues, marking the first link between a dsRNA virus and severe infantile diarrhea. That same year, the first dsRNA bacteriophage, Φ6, was isolated from Pseudomonas phaseolicola by Vidaver et al., expanding the known host range of dsRNA viruses to bacteria. Key milestones in the 1970s and 1980s solidified the understanding of dsRNA viral genomes and structures. The double-stranded nature of the reovirus genome was confirmed in 1962 through biochemical analysis by Gomatos and Tamm, revealing its segmented composition unlike typical single-stranded RNA viruses. In 1974, electron microscopy studies by Bartlett et al. first described protruding turret-like structures at the fivefold vertices of reovirus cores, which were later refined in the 1980s using cryo-electron microscopy to visualize their role in mRNA transcription. The 1990s saw advances in molecular characterization, including the sequencing of individual rotavirus genome segments, such as gene 11 in 1990, enabling insights into genetic diversity and reassortment potential. The 2010s marked a paradigm shift through metagenomics, dramatically expanding the known diversity of dsRNA viruses beyond cultured isolates. High-throughput sequencing efforts, such as those analyzing aquatic environments, doubled the recognized RNA virus diversity by identifying novel dsRNA clades in uncultured samples, revealing their prevalence in diverse ecosystems. For instance, a 2022 study using global ocean metagenomics identified cryptic and abundant dsRNA viruses at the evolutionary origins of Earth's RNA virome, further supporting their polyphyletic evolution and ecological significance in marine environments.^[5] This transition from viewing dsRNA viruses as rare anomalies to a major viral lineage underscored their ecological significance and facilitated the development of antiviral models leveraging their segmented genomes for studying reassortment and evolution. As of 2025, the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) has continued to refine dsRNA virus classification, with the Animal dsRNA Viruses Subcommittee ratifying various taxonomic updates based on genomic and phylogenetic analyses, including new species and genera in several RNA virus families. High-throughput sequencing has further highlighted dsRNA viruses in uncultured environments, such as environmental metagenomes, emphasizing their underappreciated roles in microbial communities.

Structural and genomic features

Genome organization

Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) viruses possess linear, double-stranded RNA genomes that lack a DNA intermediate in their replication cycle.^[1] These genomes are typically segmented, with the number of segments varying by family; for instance, viruses in the family Birnaviridae have two segments totaling approximately 6 kbp, while those in Sedoreoviridae and Spinareoviridae (formerly grouped under Reoviridae) feature 9–12 segments encompassing 18–29 kbp overall.^[6]^[7]^[8] Individual segments range from about 0.7 to 4.3 kbp in length, and conserved terminal sequences at the 5' and 3' ends, often including untranslated regions (UTRs) of 10–400 nucleotides, facilitate selective genome packaging into virions.^[9] Each genomic segment generally encodes one to three proteins via open reading frames (ORFs), with coding strategies primarily monocistronic, though rare ambisense arrangements occur in select members. In Sedoreoviridae and Spinareoviridae, larger segments typically encode core-associated proteins such as the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp, e.g., VP1) and capping enzyme (e.g., VP3), while smaller segments code for outer capsid components like VP4 (spike protein) and VP7, alongside non-structural proteins (NSPs) involved in replication and assembly, such as NSP2 and NSP4. Birnaviridae segment A encodes a polyprotein (VP2-VP4-VP3) and an accessory protein (e.g., VP5), whereas segment B directs the RdRp (VP1). RdRps across dsRNA viruses conserve key motifs, including the GDD active site essential for nucleotide incorporation during RNA synthesis.^[7]^[8]^[6]^[10] A distinctive feature of dsRNA virus genomes is the use of the negative-sense strand as the template for transcription, enabling capped mRNA production within the virion core without host nuclear involvement. Segmented genomes confer potential for reassortment during co-infection, generating genetic diversity as observed in natural isolates. Some fungal dsRNA viruses exhibit notably high G+C content (up to 63%), which may influence stability and host interactions. Recent ICTV updates as of 2025 have refined classifications within Sedoreoviridae, incorporating species with up to 12 segments, such as certain invertebrate pathogens, highlighting ongoing genomic diversity in this group.^[9]^[1]^[11]^[12]

Virion morphology

Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) viruses typically form non-enveloped icosahedral virions with diameters ranging from 60 to 100 nm, though enveloped forms exist in certain families.^[6] These particles consist of protein capsids that enclose the segmented dsRNA genome, providing structural stability and protection against environmental degradation.^[13] In the Reoviridae family, which includes major pathogens like rotaviruses and orthoreoviruses, virions exhibit a tri-layered capsid architecture: an outer layer often appearing fuzzy due to protruding proteins such as σ3 and μ1 in mammalian orthoreoviruses, an intermediate layer formed by proteins like VP6 in rotaviruses, and an inner core that houses the dsRNA segments and associated transcriptase complexes.^[14] The inner core displays T=1 icosahedral symmetry, assembled from 120 copies of a major capsid protein (e.g., λ1 in orthoreoviruses or VP2 in rotaviruses), while the outer capsid varies: in mammalian orthoreoviruses, it consists of 600 copies each of σ3 and μ1 in heterohexamers; in rotaviruses, the outer layer follows T=13 symmetry with 780 copies of VP7 and 120 copies of VP4 spikes.^[14]^[15]^[16] Unique morphological variations within Reoviridae include turreted forms, such as orthoreoviruses featuring 12 prominent λ2 spikes at icosahedral vertices for enzymatic functions, contrasted with non-turreted structures in other subfamilies.^[17] This multi-layered design enhances environmental stability by shielding the dsRNA from nucleases and harsh conditions.^[18] Birnaviridae virions, exemplified by infectious bursal disease virus, deviate with a single-shelled, non-enveloped icosahedral structure of approximately 70 nm diameter and T=13 symmetry, composed of 260 trimers of the major capsid protein VP2 forming prominent spikes.^[6]^[19] The capsid encloses two dsRNA segments along with viral polymerase, lacking the inner core typical of Reoviridae.^[20] Among bacterial dsRNA viruses, Cystoviridae such as Pseudomonas phage Φ6 possess enveloped virions about 85 nm in diameter, featuring a lipid bilayer outer envelope derived from host membranes, surrounding an isometric nucleocapsid containing the three RNA segments inside an icosahedral core composed of P1 protein shells and polymerase complexes.^[21]^[22] Fungal dsRNA viruses, often unclassified or in families like Totiviridae, typically form simpler isometric particles with T=1 symmetry and a single layer of 120 capsid protein subunits, without envelopes or multiple shells.^[13]

Replication cycle

Entry and uncoating

Double-stranded RNA viruses initiate infection by attaching to specific host cell receptors, a process that varies across families but often involves glycan or protein interactions. In the Reoviridae family, rotavirus employs its outer capsid protein VP4 to bind sialic acid-containing glycans, histo-blood group antigens, and integrins such as α2β1, αvβ3, and αxβ2 on the host cell surface, facilitating initial contact.^[23] Similarly, orbiviruses like bluetongue virus attach via sialic acids in mammalian hosts or integrins through an RGD motif in VP7 for insect cells.^[24] For Birnaviridae, attachment occurs through interactions with heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90), annexin II, and integrin α4β1, often involving an integrin ligand motif.^[24] In contrast, cystoviruses such as bacteriophage Φ6, which infects bacteria, bind to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or type IV pili on Pseudomonas syringae via the spike protein P3, highlighting host-specific adaptations like pilus-mediated retraction to the cell surface.^[25] Entry into host cells predominantly occurs via receptor-mediated endocytosis, with direct membrane fusion being rare among eukaryotic dsRNA viruses. Rotaviruses and orbiviruses utilize clathrin-mediated endocytosis, which is dynamin- and cholesterol-dependent, leading to internalization in early endosomes where low pH triggers further steps; some strains, like rhesus rotavirus (RRV), may employ clathrin-independent pathways involving RhoA, Cdc42, and actinin-4.^[23] Birnaviruses favor macropinocytosis in a Rab5-dependent manner within early endosomes.^[24] Bacterial cystoviruses like Φ6 exhibit an endocytic-like process after outer membrane fusion, where the nucleocapsid is internalized via voltage-dependent membrane invagination across the plasma membrane, requiring host respiration but independent of ATP or ion gradients.^[25] These pathways ensure delivery to intracellular compartments suitable for subsequent uncoating, often pH-dependent in endosomes for animal viruses. Uncoating of dsRNA viruses is a multi-step, partial disassembly that releases subviral particles (SVPs) or cores while preserving the viral transcriptase complex for immediate RNA synthesis. In rotaviruses, trypsin-mediated cleavage of VP4 into VP8* and VP5* during entry, combined with calcium ion loss and acidification in late endosomes, induces conformational changes that dissociate VP7 and expel double-layered particles (DLPs) into the cytoplasm; this process retains the inner core with RNA polymerase for transcription and also requires the host enzyme fatty acid 2-hydroxylase (FA2H), which facilitates endosomal escape by regulating ceramide composition and calcium levels.^[23]^[26] Orbiviruses undergo similar protease activation to form infectious SVPs, followed by pH-induced shedding of VP2 and membrane penetration by VP5.^[24] Birnaviruses release a capsid-associated peptide (pep46) that forms pores for genome delivery, deforming endosomal membranes.^[24] For Φ6, uncoating involves envelope protein P6-mediated fusion with the outer membrane, followed by P5 endopeptidase digestion of peptidoglycan and voltage-dependent endocytosis of the nucleocapsid, which partially disassembles to release the polymerase-containing core.^[25] This conserved multi-step uncoating protects the dsRNA genome and enzymatic machinery, distinguishing dsRNA viruses from those requiring full capsid removal. Recent structural studies, including cryo-EM analyses up to 2023, have elucidated acid-induced conformational shifts in rotavirus VP5 for membrane disruption during uncoating.^[23]

Transcription, replication, and protein synthesis

Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) viruses replicate exclusively in the cytoplasm and rely on their virally encoded RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) for all RNA synthesis, without involvement of host polymerases.^[27] The RdRp, packaged within the viral core, contains seven conserved structural motifs (A–G) that facilitate nucleotide binding, catalysis, and fidelity during transcription and replication.^[28] Transcription initiates upon entry of the viral core into the host cell, where the endogenous RdRp uses the negative-sense strand of the dsRNA genome as a template to synthesize positive-sense messenger RNAs (mRNAs).^[27] These mRNAs are monocistronic, corresponding to individual genome segments (typically 1–12 per virus), and are extruded through channels in the core capsid for export to the cytoplasm.^[27] Unlike many eukaryotic mRNAs, viral transcripts are capped at the 5' end by viral guanylyltransferase and methyltransferase activities within the core but lack a 3' poly(A) tail, instead featuring conserved terminal sequences that stabilize the RNA.^[29] Transcription proceeds sequentially, often starting with the largest genome segments, ensuring coordinated expression of viral proteins.^[30] Replication follows transcription and is semi-conservative, with the newly synthesized positive-sense RNAs serving as templates for negative-strand synthesis by RdRp, forming double-stranded progeny genomes within subviral particles.^[27] This process occurs in cytoplasmic viroplasms—dynamic, membraneless factories assembled by non-structural proteins (NSPs) such as σNS in reoviruses or NSP2/NSP5 in rotaviruses—that concentrate viral components and shield dsRNA intermediates from host defenses.^[31] The RdRp lacks proofreading activity, resulting in an error rate of approximately $10^{-4} mutations per nucleotide site, which contributes to genetic diversity but is constrained by the segmented genome structure.^[32] During co-infection, reassortment of genome segments can occur in viroplasms, generating novel viral progeny.^[33] Viral protein synthesis utilizes host ribosomes to translate the uncapped and non-polyadenylated mRNAs in the cytoplasm, with no production of subgenomic RNAs.^[29] NSPs not only organize viroplasms but also enhance mRNA stability and recruitment to ribosomes, ensuring efficient production of structural and non-structural viral proteins.^[34] This reliance on host translation machinery underscores the viruses' adaptation to cytoplasmic replication while minimizing interference with nuclear processes.^[30]

Assembly and release

In double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) viruses, genome packaging begins with the selective assortment of genomic segments, guided by specific terminal signals at the 5' and 3' untranslated regions (UTRs). These signals facilitate RNA-RNA interactions that ensure one copy of each segment is incorporated into nascent particles, a process critical for maintaining genome integrity in multi-segmented viruses like those in Reoviridae and Cystoviridae. For instance, in rotavirus (Reoviridae), the plus-sense RNA (+RNA) transcripts interact via UTR sequences up to 49 nucleotides long, forming complexes that are recruited to viroplasms for packaging. Similarly, in bacteriophage φ6 (Cystoviridae), packaging signals consist of an 18-nucleotide conserved 5' sequence followed by unique secondary structures, enabling sequential incorporation of the three +RNA segments into the procapsid. This selective mechanism achieves high packaging efficiency, with studies on φ6 demonstrating near-complete genome assortment in over 90% of progeny particles under optimal conditions.^[9] Packaging occurs in concert with the assembly of the viral core, where RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) is co-recruited to form transcriptionally active subviral particles (SVPs). In Reoviridae, such as bluetongue virus, RdRp (VP1) binds +RNAs early, integrating into the inner core shell formed by VP3 during viroplasm-mediated assortment; recent cryo-ET studies from 2024 have identified intermediate structures including a star-subcore (55 nm), pre-subcore, and subcore (68 nm) within viral inclusion bodies, where single-stranded RNA is encapsidated by threading through 18 Å tunnels, followed by dsRNA synthesis in the subcore.^[9]^[35] Cystoviridae procapsids, composed of P1 shell proteins and incorporating RdRp (P2), expand incrementally as each +RNA segment is packaged by the P4 helicase, generating intermediate SVPs before dsRNA synthesis. These SVPs serve as precursors for full core maturation, encapsidating the genome in a T=1 or T=2 icosahedral symmetry.^[9] Assembly of the mature virion proceeds layer-by-layer in the host cell cytoplasm, orchestrated within viroplasms scaffolded by non-structural proteins (NSPs). In Reoviridae, NSP2 and NSP5 drive liquid-liquid phase separation to form these membraneless factories, recruiting core proteins like VP1, VP2, and VP3 along with +RNA transcripts for initial core formation. The inner core (VP2 shell in rotavirus) assembles first, followed by the intermediate VP6 layer to yield double-layered particles (DLPs), and finally the outer capsid via VP4 and VP7. NSPs like NSP2, with its RNA-binding and NTPase activities, ensure spatial organization and prevent premature aggregation. Maturation often involves proteolytic cleavage; for example, in rotavirus, VP4 undergoes cleavage into VP5* and VP8* by host trypsin-like proteases, stabilizing the spike structure and enhancing infectivity.^[36]^[31] Virus release varies by family, with non-enveloped dsRNA viruses primarily exiting via host cell lysis, while enveloped members employ budding. In Reoviridae and Birnaviridae, such as rotavirus and infectious bursal disease virus, progeny virions accumulate in the cytoplasm until late-stage lysis disrupts the plasma membrane, releasing particles without specific host receptors. Cystoviridae, like φ6, acquire their lipid envelope by budding through the host inner membrane, incorporating viral glycoproteins (P3, P6, P9) before final lysis of the outer membrane facilitates extracellular release. This process requires no dedicated cellular receptors, relying instead on viral-induced membrane alterations. Recent cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) studies on Birnaviridae, including 2023 analyses of virus factories, highlight VP3's role in endosomal recruitment via PI3P interactions and VP5's contribution to non-lytic egress through membrane-wrapped arrays, underscoring efficient cytoplasmic maturation.^[37]^[38]

Taxonomy and classification

Baltimore classification

Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) viruses are assigned to Group III in the Baltimore classification system, which was proposed by David Baltimore in 1971 to categorize viruses based on their genome type and mRNA synthesis strategy.^[39] In this group, viruses package a dsRNA genome, typically linear and often segmented, that serves as a template for transcription into positive-sense mRNA exclusively by a virion-associated RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp).^[40] This mechanism ensures that mRNA production occurs without reliance on host DNA-dependent RNA polymerase, distinguishing Group III from single-stranded RNA viruses in Groups IV (positive-sense ssRNA, which use the genome directly as mRNA), V (negative-sense ssRNA, requiring RdRp for initial transcription), and VI (ssRNA reverse-transcribing viruses, involving reverse transcription to DNA).^[40] The replication strategy of Group III viruses has significant implications for their biology, as all stages—from transcription and replication to translation—occur in the host cell cytoplasm with no nuclear involvement, allowing complete independence from host nuclear processes.^[41] This cytoplasmic localization is facilitated by the packaging of the replication machinery within the virion, which also helps shield the dsRNA from host innate immune sensors like RNA interference pathways.^[40] Evolutionarily, dsRNA viruses share a common ancestry with other RNA viruses through conserved RdRp enzymes but appear polyphyletic, with evidence suggesting multiple origins from positive-sense ssRNA ancestors via dsRNA intermediates generated during replication cycles.^[42] ^[40] Group III viruses constitute a relatively small group among known viruses, comprising over 500 characterized species across diverse hosts, including both eukaryotes (such as animals, plants, fungi, and protists) and prokaryotes (exemplified by the bacterial-infecting Cystoviridae family).^[43] An exception to the typical dsRNA profile is seen in the phylum Pisuviricota, where certain dsRNA viruses exhibit ssRNA-like features, such as phylogenetic clustering with positive-sense ssRNA viruses and bipartite genomes that blur traditional boundaries.^[44] Historically, the dsRNA nature of these viral genomes was first confirmed in 1963 through electron microscopy studies on reoviruses, revealing the double-helical structure of their RNA segments.^[45]

ICTV phyla and classes

The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) classifies double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) viruses primarily within two phyla under the realm Riboviria and kingdom Orthornavirae, reflecting their evolutionary relationships inferred from RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) phylogeny and the monophyly of major dsRNA lineages.^[46] This higher-level taxonomy emphasizes shared replication machinery and capsid architectures, distinguishing dsRNA viruses from other RNA virus groups. The phylum Duplornaviricota encompasses the majority of segmented dsRNA viruses and is divided into three classes. Class Chrymotiviricetes includes the order Ghabrivirales, which comprises fungal dsRNA viruses such as those in the families Quadriviridae and Megabirnaviridae.^[47] Class Resentoviricetes contains the order Reovirales, featuring reoviruses that infect animals and plants, including families like Reoviridae and Sedoreoviridae.^[48] Class Vidaverviricetes is represented by the order Cystovirales, which includes bacterial dsRNA viruses such as those in the family Cystoviridae. A smaller subset of dsRNA viruses is classified in the phylum Pisuviricota, specifically within class Duplopiviricetes and order Durnavirales; this group includes unencapsidated or simply structured dsRNA viruses like partitiviruses (family Partitiviridae) that primarily infect fungi, plants, and protozoa.^[49] These assignments highlight the polyphyletic nature of some dsRNA viruses relative to +ssRNA counterparts in the same phylum, based on RdRp sequence similarities.^[50] In 2025, the ICTV Animal dsRNA and ssRNA(-) Viruses Subcommittee ratified proposals adding 9 new genera and 88 new species across dsRNA and negative-sense ssRNA viruses, expanding the taxonomy to accommodate newly sequenced genomes.^[51] Across dsRNA viruses, this contributes to a total of approximately 17 families, underscoring the phyla's role in organizing a diverse virome united by dsRNA genomes and RdRp-based monophyly.^[3]

Major families

Reoviridae

The order Reovirales represents the largest and most diverse group of double-stranded RNA viruses within the class Resentoviricetes.^[48] It comprises two families—Sedoreoviridae and Spinareoviridae—with 16 genera that collectively infect a broad spectrum of hosts, including vertebrates, invertebrates, and plants.^[48] In 2022, the ICTV elevated the former subfamilies of Reoviridae to family rank, reflecting their evolutionary divergence, with Sedoreoviridae encompassing non-turreted viruses and Spinareoviridae featuring those with prominent surface spikes or turrets.^[43]^[52] Genomes of Reovirales viruses consist of 10–12 linear double-stranded RNA segments, totaling approximately 18–30 kilobase pairs (kbp), with individual segments ranging from 0.7 to 5.8 kbp.^[48] These segmented genomes encode 11–12 proteins, including key non-structural components such as sigma NS, which facilitates viroplasm formation essential for viral replication.^[53] Virions exhibit a tripartite icosahedral structure, non-enveloped and spherical, with diameters of 70–100 nm; the innermost core protects the genome, while outer layers vary between families.^[54] Spinareoviridae members possess turreted capsids formed by the lambda 2 protein, which enable efficient capping and export of viral mRNA transcripts directly from the particle.^[55] Reovirales viruses are implicated in significant diseases, such as severe diarrhea from rotaviruses in humans and young animals, and bluetongue disease in ruminants caused by orbiviruses. Their diversity underscores adaptations to diverse ecological niches, with ongoing taxonomic expansions highlighting novel isolates from arthropod hosts.^[56]

Birnaviridae

The Birnaviridae family comprises double-stranded RNA viruses characterized by their bi-segmented genomes and specificity for non-mammalian eukaryotic hosts, distinguishing them from multi-segmented families like those in Reovirales. According to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV), Birnaviridae is placed in the kingdom Orthornavirae (realm Riboviria), currently unassigned to a phylum, class, or order; the family currently encompasses seven genera, including Avibirnavirus and Aquabirnavirus, though earlier classifications highlighted two primary genera infecting birds (Avibirnavirus) and fish (Aquabirnavirus).^[6] Members primarily infect birds, fish, and aquatic invertebrates such as molluscs and rotifers, with no known mammalian hosts, reflecting their ecological niche in aquatic and avian environments.^[6] This host specificity underscores their role in economically significant diseases in aquaculture and poultry farming.^[57] Birnaviruses possess a non-enveloped, single-shelled icosahedral virion approximately 60 nm in diameter, featuring T=13 symmetry and composed mainly of the capsid protein VP2.^[6] The genome consists of two linear dsRNA segments totaling about 6 kbp: segment A (~3.3 kbp) and segment B (~2.8 kbp).^[57] Segment B encodes the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase VP1, while segment A encodes a polyprotein precursor (pVP2-VP4-VP3) and, in many species, a small non-structural protein (VP5) from an overlapping open reading frame.^[6] Unlike the multi-layered capsids of Reovirales, the single shell facilitates direct cytoplasmic entry and replication.^[58] A key unique feature of Birnaviridae is the processing of the segment A polyprotein by the viral protease VP4, which performs cis-cleavage to generate mature structural proteins VP2 and VP3, as well as itself.^[6] VP2 serves as the major capsid protein and primary antigen, harboring virus-neutralizing epitopes essential for host immune recognition.^[59] For instance, the type species Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) in genus Avibirnavirus causes infectious bursal disease in chickens, leading to immunosuppression through B-lymphocyte destruction in the bursa of Fabricius.^[60] Replication occurs entirely in the host cell cytoplasm, forming discrete virus factories for RNA synthesis and assembly, without the viroplasm-like inclusions seen in other dsRNA virus families.^[20] This cytoplasmic strategy, combined with the compact bi-segmented genome, highlights their evolutionary adaptation for efficient propagation in diverse aquatic and avian hosts.^[58]

Cystoviridae

The Cystoviridae family comprises enveloped double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) bacteriophages that infect Gram-negative bacteria, primarily species of the genus Pseudomonas. According to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV), Cystoviridae is classified within the class Vidaverviricetes and phylum Duplornaviricota, with the family serving as the sole member of order Mindivirales; it includes a single genus, Cystovirus.^[61]^[37] These viruses are distinguished by their tri-segmented dsRNA genome, consisting of small (S), medium (M), and large (L) segments that together total approximately 13.4 kilobase pairs (kbp), encoding around 13 proteins involved in replication, structure, and host interaction.^[21] The virions are spherical, measuring about 75-85 nm in diameter, and feature a lipid envelope derived from the host cell membrane, which encloses a double-layered icosahedral nucleocapsid.^[62]^[63] Cystoviridae viruses were first identified with the discovery of bacteriophage Φ6 in 1973, marking the initial recognition of a dsRNA bacteriophage and establishing the family as a unique group among prokaryotic viruses due to their enveloped structure.^[64] The lipid envelope, composed of host-derived phospholipids, incorporates viral membrane proteins such as P6, P9, and P10, with the P3 protein forming attachment spikes anchored by the fusogenic P6 to facilitate host binding and entry.^[65]^[21] This enveloped architecture has positioned Cystoviridae as a key model for studying membrane fusion and entry mechanisms in enveloped viruses, highlighting parallels in how lipid bilayers mediate infection across viral taxa.^[62] The family exhibits limited but expanding diversity, with the type species Pseudomonas virus phi6 and six additional recognized species, including Pseudomonas virus phi8, Pseudomonas virus phi12, Pseudomonas virus phi13, Pseudomonas virus phi2954, Pseudomonas virus phiNN, and Pseudomonas virus phiYY, all sharing the characteristic tri-segmented genome and enveloped morphology.^[66] Recent metagenomic surveys have further broadened the known scope of cystovirus-like sequences, identifying related dsRNA elements in environmental samples that suggest potential pseudovirus forms and underscore the family's ecological role in bacterial communities.^[61] These viruses primarily target Pseudomonas species, contributing to their lytic cycles in bacterial populations without significant overlap to eukaryotic hosts.^[67]

Selected notable viruses

Rotavirus

Rotavirus is a significant pathogen within the family Reoviridae, classified in the genus Rotavirus and subfamily Sedoreovirinae according to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV).^[68] The virus primarily infects vertebrates, including a wide range of mammals such as humans, pigs, cattle, horses, rats, mice, and bats, as well as birds like chickens and turkeys, often causing diarrheal disease in young hosts.^[68] Its genome consists of 11 segments of double-stranded RNA, encoding six structural proteins (VP1–VP4, VP6, VP7) and five or six non-structural proteins (NSP1–NSP6), which facilitate replication and host interaction.^[68] The rotavirus virion is non-enveloped and features a triple-layered icosahedral capsid structure, approximately 100 nm in diameter, with the innermost layer formed by VP2, the intermediate layer by VP6, and the outermost layer by VP4 (spike protein) and VP7 (surface glycoprotein).^[69] VP6, the most abundant protein, constitutes the intermediate capsid and is used for group classification (e.g., group A, the most common in humans).^[68] During infection, rotavirus replicates in the intestinal epithelial cells, where non-structural protein 4 (NSP4) acts as an enterotoxin, disrupting calcium homeostasis, inducing secretory diarrhea, and contributing to the cytopathic effects observed in the gut.^[70] Strain diversity is characterized by genotyping of the VP7 (G types) and VP4 (P types) proteins, with G1P^[71] being a predominant human genotype globally, often associated with severe disease.^[72] Prior to widespread vaccination, rotavirus was the leading cause of severe dehydrating diarrhea in children under 5 years old, responsible for approximately 500,000 annual deaths worldwide, predominantly in low- and middle-income countries.^[73] As of 2025, despite vaccination, rotavirus still causes an estimated 128,500 deaths annually in children under 5 years globally.^[74] The introduction of oral rotavirus vaccines, such as Rotarix and RotaTeq, has substantially mitigated this burden; surveillance data indicate reductions in rotavirus-associated hospitalizations by a median of 70% in the first year post-introduction among children under 1 year, with sustained impacts up to 97% in subsequent years across vaccinated populations.^[75] Transmission occurs mainly via the fecal-oral route through direct person-to-person contact, contaminated food or water, or fomites, facilitated by the virus's environmental stability, which allows infectivity to persist for weeks to months in cooler conditions without proper disinfection.^[76]^[73]

Bluetongue virus

Bluetongue virus (BTV) belongs to the genus Orbivirus within the family Sedoreoviridae, and is characterized by a genome consisting of 10 segments of double-stranded RNA.^[77] It primarily infects ruminants, including sheep, cattle, and wild species such as deer, and is transmitted exclusively by arthropod vectors of the genus Culicoides, known as biting midges.^[78] As the type species of its genus, BTV exemplifies the orbivirus group's adaptation to vector-mediated lifecycle, with no evidence of direct transmission between hosts.^[79] The virion of BTV features a complex, non-enveloped structure with three concentric capsid layers surrounding the dsRNA genome, where the inner core provides stability and the outer layer facilitates host cell attachment.^[80] The outer capsid protein VP2 is the primary determinant of viral serotype, with more than 28 recognized serotypes influencing host immune recognition and vaccine design; antigenic variation in VP2 drives serotype-specific neutralization by antibodies.^[81] In susceptible hosts like sheep, BTV infection leads to endothelial cell damage, vascular permeability changes, and hemorrhagic manifestations, often resulting in a severe febrile illness with high morbidity but variable mortality rates.^[82] BTV's epidemiology is increasingly influenced by climate change, which expands the range of competent Culicoides vectors and enables overwintering in temperate regions; notable outbreaks of serotype 3 occurred across Europe in 2025, marking a northward shift from traditional endemic zones.^[83] Genome reassortment, where co-infecting strains exchange dsRNA segments within vectors, contributes to viral evolution and emergence of novel variants, enhancing adaptability to new hosts or environments.^[84] Globally, BTV imposes economic losses exceeding $3 billion annually, stemming from livestock mortality, reduced productivity, trade restrictions, and vector control efforts.^[85] Transmission relies on biological vectoring by female Culicoides midges, which acquire BTV during blood meals from viremic ruminants and transmit it after an extrinsic incubation period of 7–10 days at optimal temperatures.^[86] Overwintering strategies include persistent infection in adult midges surviving mild winters, vertical transmission to offspring, or low-level circulation in latently infected livestock, allowing re-emergence in spring when vector populations rebound.^[87]

Bacteriophage Φ6

Bacteriophage Φ6, classified as the species Pseudomonas virus phi6 within the genus Cystovirus of the family Cystoviridae, is a lytic bacteriophage that specifically infects the Gram-negative bacterium Pseudomonas syringae.^[88] Its genome consists of three linear double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) segments—large (L, approximately 6.4 kb), medium (M, approximately 4.1 kb), and small (S, approximately 2.9 kb)—totaling about 13.5 kb, which encode 10–12 proteins across the segments.^[89] As the type species of the Cystovirus genus, Φ6 exemplifies the family's characteristic features, including a lipid envelope surrounding a nucleocapsid with a double-layered protein shell.^[21] The virion structure of Φ6 features an icosahedral nucleocapsid encased in a lipid membrane derived from the host cell, with the polymerase complex forming the core.^[89] This complex, assembled from proteins P1 (major capsid shell), P2 (RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, or RdRp), P4 (packaging NTPase), and P7 (assembly cofactor), all encoded by the L segment, facilitates RNA replication, transcription, and packaging within the procapsid.^[90] The M segment encodes proteins for the viral membrane, including spike proteins P3 (host attachment) and P6 (membrane anchoring), while the S segment codes for the nucleocapsid surface protein P8 and non-structural proteins.^[88] The non-structural protein P12 plays a key role in envelope assembly by facilitating lipid recruitment around the nucleocapsid in the host cytoplasm.^[91] Infection begins with adsorption to the host's type IV pili via the P3 protein, followed by pilus retraction that positions the virion for outer membrane fusion, allowing the nucleocapsid to enter the periplasm and subsequently the cytoplasm for replication.^[92] Φ6 was the first enveloped dsRNA bacteriophage to be fully sequenced in the 1990s, revealing its segmented genome and enabling detailed studies of RNA virus assembly.^[88] Its packaging mechanism, involving sequential recognition of specific 5' packaging signals on plus-strand RNAs by the P4 hexamer in the polymerase complex, has made it a key model in synthetic biology for engineering RNA packaging systems and in vitro genome assembly assays.^[93] As a non-pathogenic surrogate for enveloped RNA viruses, Φ6 serves as a model for developing antiviral strategies targeting viral envelopes, such as testing surface coatings and antimicrobial peptides that disrupt lipid membranes, with efficacy demonstrated against Φ6 correlating to activity against viruses like SARS-CoV-2.^[94]

Pathogenesis and host interactions

Disease associations

Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) viruses are associated with a range of diseases across animal, plant, and fungal hosts, primarily through members of the Reoviridae family, though manifestations vary by host and virus species. In humans, rotaviruses (genus Rotavirus, family Reoviridae) are a leading cause of severe gastroenteritis, characterized by watery diarrhea, vomiting, fever, and dehydration, particularly in children under five years old. In the pre-vaccine era, rotavirus infections resulted in an estimated 111 million episodes of gastroenteritis annually worldwide, including about 25 million clinic visits and 2 million hospitalizations, with approximately 527,000 deaths per year, over 85% in low-income countries.^[95]^[96] Vaccination programs have significantly reduced the burden; as of 2023, global rotavirus mortality in children under 5 is estimated at around 128,500 deaths annually.^[97]^[98] In ruminants, orbiviruses such as bluetongue virus (BTV, genus Orbivirus, family Reoviridae) cause bluetongue disease, a hemorrhagic fever marked by fever, oral lesions, edema, lameness, and respiratory distress, with sheep being most severely affected. The disease is endemic in sub-Saharan Africa, where multiple serotypes circulate, but has emerged in Europe and other regions, leading to economic losses exceeding US$3 billion globally due to animal mortality and trade restrictions. Climate change has facilitated BTV's northward expansion by extending the range of its Culicoides vector.^[85]^[99]^[100] More recently, the 2024 outbreak of BTV serotype 3 in northern Europe has led to widespread infections in cattle and sheep, with economic losses potentially in the hundreds of millions of euros due to animal deaths and control measures.^[101] In poultry, infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV, genus Avibirnavirus, family Birnaviridae) induces infectious bursal disease (Gumboro disease), leading to immunosuppression through destruction of B-lymphocytes in the bursa of Fabricius, resulting in secondary bacterial and viral infections, reduced antibody production, and high mortality in young chickens aged 3-6 weeks. This immunosuppression compromises humoral and cellular immunity, exacerbating flock-wide disease susceptibility and causing substantial economic impacts in the poultry industry.^[102]^[103] Phytoreoviruses (genus Phytoreovirus, family Reoviridae) infect plants, particularly cereals like rice, causing stunting diseases such as rice dwarf disease (induced by rice dwarf virus) and rice gall dwarf disease (induced by rice gall dwarf virus), characterized by plant dwarfing, excessive tillering, chlorotic specks, and failure to produce seeds, leading to significant crop yield losses in Asia. These viruses are transmitted by leafhopper vectors and replicate in both plant phloem and insect cells, without mechanical plant-to-plant transmission.^[104]^[105] Fungal dsRNA viruses, or mycoviruses (primarily in families Totiviridae and Partitiviridae), often establish latent infections in their fungal hosts, with minimal or no overt disease symptoms; however, some attenuate fungal virulence (hypovirulence), potentially benefiting plant hosts by reducing pathogen aggressiveness, as seen in certain Cryphonectria parasitica strains. Unlike animal or plant dsRNA viruses, bacterial dsRNA viruses, such as those in Cystoviridae (e.g., bacteriophage Φ6), do not cause human diseases, as they specifically infect prokaryotic hosts like Pseudomonas species.^[106]^[107] Pathogenic mechanisms of dsRNA viruses frequently involve the formation of viroplasms—cytoplasmic inclusion bodies that serve as replication factories, disrupting host cell architecture and inducing cytopathic effects like cell rounding, vacuolization, and lysis through interference with cytoskeletal and membrane components. Additionally, non-structural proteins (NSPs), such as rotavirus NSP1, enable immune evasion by degrading interferon regulatory factors (IRFs) and inhibiting RIG-I signaling, thereby suppressing type I interferon production and facilitating viral persistence.^[108]^[109]

Host range and transmission

Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) viruses display remarkable host diversity, infecting both prokaryotes and eukaryotes across multiple kingdoms. In prokaryotes, dsRNA viruses are primarily represented by the family Cystoviridae, which target Gram-negative bacteria such as Pseudomonas syringae, with a relatively narrow host range limited to specific bacterial strains.^[50] In eukaryotes, these viruses span animals, plants, fungi, and protozoa; for example, members of the Reoviridae family exhibit a broad host range, infecting various vertebrate classes (including mammals, birds, and reptiles) as well as invertebrates like insects.^[110] In contrast, some dsRNA viruses show narrower specificity, such as rotavirus (also in Reoviridae), which primarily infects mammals, including humans and livestock.^[111] Transmission mechanisms among dsRNA viruses are equally varied, reflecting their ecological niches and host interactions. Rotavirus spreads predominantly through the fecal-oral route, facilitated by contaminated water, food, or direct contact in settings like households or daycare centers.^[76] Vector-borne transmission is common in certain Reoviridae members, such as bluetongue virus, which is propagated by biting midges (Culicoides species) from infected ruminants to susceptible hosts like sheep and cattle.^[112] Plant-infecting reoviruses, including those in the genera Phytoreovirus and Oryzavirus, are often transmitted vertically via infected seeds or eggs of vector insects, though horizontal spread via leafhoppers or planthoppers predominates in field conditions.^[113] Mycoviruses, which infect fungi, typically disseminate through cytoplasmic mixing during hyphal anastomosis or via spores, with environmental persistence in soil allowing indirect transfer between fungal hosts.^[114] In bacterial systems, bacteriophage Φ6 employs a unique pili-mediated adsorption mechanism, binding to type IV pili on Pseudomonas cells to initiate infection.^[88] Notable aspects of dsRNA virus ecology include their generally low zoonotic potential, with rare spillover events compared to single-stranded RNA viruses, as most lack efficient adaptation to human hosts beyond established pathogens like rotavirus.^[115] Recent metagenomic studies, particularly in 2024–2025, have uncovered uncultured dsRNA viruses in marine environments, including bisegmented genomes of paraxenoviruses associated with bacterial hosts, expanding known oceanic virome diversity.^[116] Co-infections by related strains can enable genomic reassortment in segmented dsRNA viruses, generating novel progeny with altered fitness, though this requires simultaneous cellular invasion by multiple viral types.^[117] Host restriction in dsRNA viruses often arises from mismatches between viral capsid proteins and host cell receptors, limiting attachment and entry; for instance, reovirus serotype-specific interactions with sialic acid or junctional adhesion molecule-1 determine tissue tropism and interspecies barriers.^[118]

Antiviral strategies

Current therapeutics

There are no FDA-approved antiviral drugs specifically targeting double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) viruses, with treatment primarily relying on supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent complications such as dehydration.^[119] For rotavirus, the most significant human pathogen in this group, oral rehydration therapy (ORT) remains the cornerstone of management, effectively reducing mortality from severe gastroenteritis by restoring fluid and electrolyte balance.^[120] Probiotics, such as Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, have been recommended as adjunctive supportive therapy to shorten diarrhea duration, though they do not directly inhibit viral replication.^[120] Nitazoxanide, a broad-spectrum thiazolide antiviral approved for parasitic infections, has demonstrated moderate efficacy against rotavirus in pediatric clinical trials by shortening the duration of diarrhea and reducing viral shedding, likely through interference with viroplasm formation and viral morphogenesis.^[121]^[122] However, it is not specifically indicated for rotavirus and is used off-label in severe cases. For reoviruses, including mammalian orthoreoviruses, favipiravir—an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) inhibitor—has shown in vitro and preclinical promise as a broad-spectrum agent against various RNA viruses, but clinical trials specific to reoviruses remain limited and inconclusive.^[123] Key mechanisms explored for dsRNA virus therapeutics include nucleoside analogs that disrupt RdRp activity by acting as chain terminators or false substrates, as seen with experimental inhibitors targeting the viral polymerase conserved across Reoviridae.^[124] Interferon inducers, such as synthetic dsRNA mimics (e.g., polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid), enhance innate immune responses by stimulating type I interferon production, offering broad but non-specific protection against cytoplasmic replication of dsRNA viruses.00266-9) Capsid stabilizers, including calcium-dependent compounds that maintain VP7 trimer integrity, have been investigated preclinically to prevent disassembly and uncoating, though none have advanced to approval.^[125] Development faces challenges from the cytoplasmic replication of dsRNA viruses, which evades nuclear-targeting drugs and complicates delivery, while their segmented genomes and relatively low mutation rates (compared to single-stranded RNA viruses) may facilitate sustained drug efficacy by reducing resistance emergence.^[126] In veterinary contexts, such as bluetongue virus (BTV) infections in ruminants, no dedicated antivirals exist, with care limited to anti-inflammatory agents and supportive measures to mitigate vascular damage.^[127] Ongoing research prioritizes RdRp-targeted nucleoside analogs for emerging reoviruses, but clinical translation remains slow due to host range specificity and safety concerns.^[124]

Vaccine development

Vaccine development for double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) viruses has primarily focused on major pathogens affecting humans and animals, leveraging the segmented nature of their genomes to engineer targeted immunity. Successful vaccines exist for several key dsRNA viruses, including rotavirus, bluetongue virus (BTV), and infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV). For rotavirus, two widely used oral vaccines are RotaTeq, a pentavalent reassortant vaccine derived from human and bovine strains, and Rotarix, a monovalent live attenuated human rotavirus vaccine; both demonstrate high efficacy against severe gastroenteritis, with protection rates of 85-98% in high-income settings and 51-64% in low-income regions.^[128]^[129] For BTV, an orbivirus affecting ruminants, inactivated vaccines provide serotype-specific protection, eliciting long-lasting neutralizing antibodies after two doses and effectively controlling outbreaks without causing viremia.^[130] In poultry, live attenuated vaccines against IBDV, a birnavirus, are routinely administered to protect against immunosuppression, with intermediate or mild strains used to induce immunity in young chicks despite maternally derived antibodies.^[102]^[131] Key approaches to dsRNA virus vaccines exploit the viruses' genomic segmentation for attenuation and multivalency while addressing safety concerns. Live-attenuated and reassortant strategies, such as the human-bovine hybrid in RotaTeq, allow for broad serotype coverage by mixing genome segments to reduce virulence while maintaining immunogenicity.^[128] Non-infectious alternatives like virus-like particles (VLPs) have shown promise, particularly for BTV, where bivalent VLPs incorporating core and outer capsid proteins confer protection against virulent challenge without replication risk.^[132] Emerging platforms, including mRNA-based vaccines, are being explored for rapid adaptation to dsRNA viruses, with trials demonstrating their potential for encoding viral antigens to elicit robust humoral responses, though specific applications to rotaviruses or orbiviruses remain in preclinical stages as of 2025.^[133] A major challenge in developing live vaccines for segmented dsRNA viruses is the potential for genome segment reassortment, which can generate unpredictable variants with altered pathogenicity during co-infection or vaccination.^[117] This risk is mitigated in inactivated or VLP formats but complicates broad-spectrum protection across the 24+ BTV serotypes. No vaccines have been developed for bacterial dsRNA viruses like bacteriophage Φ6, as they primarily infect bacteria and pose no direct threat to eukaryotic hosts. The global introduction of rotavirus vaccines since 2006 has significantly reduced childhood mortality, averting nearly 40% of rotavirus-associated deaths in children under 5 years through widespread immunization programs.^[134]

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Cystoviruses are lytic bacteriophages that induce host cell lysis at the end of the viral reproduction cycle. Natural hosts are gram negative plant pathogenic ...Genus Cystovirus · Virion Properties · Genome Organization And...
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Four oral, live, attenuated rotavirus vaccines, Rotarix™ (derived from a single common strain of human rotavirus); RotaTeq™ (a reassorted bovine-human rotavirus); ...
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