Florida Keys
The Florida Keys are a chain of over 1,700 limestone islands, islets, and reefs forming a coral cay archipelago that extends approximately 192 miles (309 km) southwestward from Virginia Key near Miami to the Dry Tortugas, constituting the southernmost extent of the continental United States.[1] Primarily composed of fossilized coral limestone in the upper keys and sandbars in the lower keys, these low-lying islands rise from the shallow waters of the Florida Platform and are surrounded by extensive coral reef systems, including the only barrier reef in the continental U.S.[2][3] The archipelago lies within Monroe County, whose resident population was estimated at 80,908 in 2024, with the vast majority inhabiting the keys. Stretching along a subtropical environment influenced by the warm Florida Current, the Florida Keys are connected by the Overseas Highway (U.S. Route 1), an engineering feat featuring 42 bridges, including the iconic Seven Mile Bridge, enabling vehicular access from the mainland.[3] The region's economy is predominantly driven by tourism, ocean recreation, and commercial fishing, with visitor spending supporting over 33,000 jobs—accounting for a substantial portion of local employment—and generating significant tax revenue through activities like diving, boating, and sportfishing amid the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, which encompasses 2,900 square nautical miles.[4] Ecologically vital for biodiversity, including endangered species such as the Key deer and diverse marine habitats, the keys face ongoing challenges from sea-level rise, hurricanes, and coral degradation, underscoring the tension between economic reliance on natural assets and environmental preservation.[2] Key settlements like Key Largo, Islamorada, Marathon, and Key West define the chain's cultural and historical character, with the latter historically serving as a maritime hub for salvaging and trade.[3]Geography and Geology
Geological Formation and Topography
The Florida Keys are composed primarily of Pleistocene limestone formations resulting from ancient coral reef systems and associated carbonate deposits on the submerged Florida Platform, a broad carbonate shelf extending from the mainland.[5] During interglacial periods, such as the Sangamonian stage approximately 120,000 years ago, elevated sea levels allowed coral reefs to flourish in shallow, warm waters, building up structures that later became exposed as sea levels dropped during subsequent glacial advances.[6] The upper and middle Keys consist mainly of the Key Largo Limestone, a fossilized coral reef deposit named in 1909, characterized by well-preserved skeletal remains of reef-building corals.[7] In contrast, the lower Keys are formed from oolitic sands and Miami Limestone, representing ancient sand bars and tidal deposits rather than reefs.[6] This geological history traces to the Miocene epoch, when the Florida Platform began accumulating thick sequences of carbonate sediments in a subtropical marine environment, with the Keys emerging as erosional remnants following eustatic sea-level fluctuations.[8] The limestones are highly porous and karstic, featuring solution holes, channels, and caves formed by freshwater dissolution during exposure phases.[9] Tectonic stability in the region, lacking significant faulting or uplift, has preserved these formations close to their depositional levels, with minimal overburden.[10] Topographically, the Keys form a linear archipelago stretching about 120 miles (193 km) from Key Largo to Key West, with over 1,700 islands characterized by extremely low relief.[11] Elevations rarely exceed 5 feet (1.5 m) above mean sea level across most islands, rendering them vulnerable to inundation, though isolated highs reach up to 18 feet (5.5 m) in areas like Windley Key.[11] The terrain is predominantly flat with irregular shorelines, mangrove-lined edges, and sparse ridges from relict dunes or cemented beach rock, shaped by ongoing marine erosion and sediment transport.[12] Subsurface features include a thin freshwater lens overlying saline groundwater, influenced by the permeable bedrock.[10]Major Islands and Archipelago Layout
The Florida Keys archipelago consists of over 1,700 low-lying coral and limestone islands arranged in a curved chain extending approximately 120 miles southwestward from the southeastern tip of the Florida peninsula, near Biscayne National Park, to Key West.[13] This layout traces the northern margin of the Florida Straits, separating the Atlantic Ocean to the south from the Gulf of Mexico and Florida Bay to the north, with the islands rising as remnants of fossilized coral reefs on the shallow Florida Platform.[13] The chain's orientation exposes eastern islands to oceanic swells and western ones to calmer bay waters, influencing local ecology and human settlement patterns.[3] The major inhabited islands, connected sequentially by the 113-mile Overseas Highway (U.S. Route 1) comprising 42 bridges and causeways, form three primary regions from east to west: the Upper Keys, Middle Keys, and Lower Keys.[14] In the Upper Keys, Key Largo stands as the easternmost significant island, spanning much of the initial stretch accessible from the mainland via the Card Sound Road or Jewfish Creek bridges. Westward, the Middle Keys encompass Islamorada—a consolidated village across several smaller keys including Upper Matecumbe Key and Windley Key—and Marathon, centered on Vaca Key with extensions to Knight's Key and Conch Key. Further west, the Lower Keys feature Big Pine Key, noted for its National Key Deer Refuge, followed by smaller islands like No Name Key and Boca Chica Key, culminating at Key West, the westernmost and most populous island with an area of about 5.6 square miles. Beyond Key West, the remote Marquesas Keys and the Dry Tortugas—a cluster of seven barren islets 70 miles offshore, including Garden Key with historic Fort Jefferson—extend the archipelago's reach but remain uninhabited except for seasonal park staff and researchers.[15] This overall configuration supports a narrow, elongated profile, with most islands under 10 miles in length and widths rarely exceeding 2 miles, facilitating vehicular travel along the highway's Overseas segments.[16]History
Indigenous Peoples and Early European Settlement
The Calusa, a maritime hunter-gatherer society, exerted primary control over the Florida Keys and southwest Florida mainland from approximately 100 CE until the mid-18th century, overseeing an estimated population of 20,000 to 50,000 people organized into chiefdoms with complex political hierarchies.[17] Their domain extended southward into the Keys, where they subsisted on abundant marine resources including fish, shellfish, turtles, and sharks, supplemented by limited agriculture; they constructed large shell mounds and canals for canoe navigation, reflecting advanced engineering adapted to the coastal estuary environment.[18] To the northeast, the Tequesta inhabited the Biscayne Bay region adjacent to the northern Keys for over 2,000 years, engaging in similar fishing and gathering economies but with less centralized authority.[19] Smaller groups, such as the Matecumbe, occupied specific Keys like those near Indian Key, where evidence indicates habitation from around 800 CE, often as subordinates to either Calusa or Tequesta overlords.[20][21] Archaeological sites across the Keys yield artifacts dating back over 2,000 years, including shell tools, shark teeth, fish bones, and midden deposits that underscore the indigenous reliance on reef and nearshore ecosystems for sustenance and trade.[22] These remains, found on islands like Key Marco and Mound Key (though the latter is mainland-adjacent), demonstrate seasonal migrations and village clusters oriented toward fishing camps rather than permanent agrarian settlements, distinguishing the Keys' cultures from inland Florida groups.[18] Calusa society emphasized dugout canoes for warfare and transport, enabling dominance over tribute networks that funneled goods from vassal tribes, with no evidence of maize cultivation due to poor soils and reliance on protein-rich seafood diets.[17] European contact began with Juan Ponce de León's 1513 expedition, during which he became the first documented explorer to reach Florida's coast, landing near present-day St. Augustine but charting southern waters possibly including the Keys in pursuit of the mythical island of Bimini.[23] Spanish forces under Ponce attempted conquest in 1521, clashing with Calusa warriors who repelled invaders using poisoned arrows and canoes, inflicting heavy casualties including Ponce's mortal wounding.[24] Subsequent Spanish missions in the 16th and 17th centuries sought to Christianize and subdue the Tequesta and Calusa through outposts like those near Miami, but indigenous resistance—bolstered by alliances, guerrilla tactics, and disease avoidance—limited colonization to temporary garrisons, with no enduring European settlements established in the Keys amid ongoing hostility.[24] By the late 1700s, European-introduced epidemics, intertribal warfare exacerbated by slave raids, and coerced relocations to Cuba under Spanish policy had decimated populations, rendering the Keys effectively depopulated of indigenous peoples by around 1763.[25][22]19th-Century Expansion and Economic Foundations
Following the United States' acquisition of Florida from Spain via the Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819, ratified in 1821, the first permanent American settlement in the Florida Keys occurred at Key West in 1822, when businessman John W. Simonton purchased the island from Juan Pablo Salas for $2,000 and began clearing land for development.[26] Initial inhabitants included Bahamians drawn by salvage opportunities and U.S. military personnel combating piracy, with the U.S. Navy establishing a base at Key West in 1823 under Commodore David Porter to enforce federal authority over the reefs.[26] By 1828, Key West was designated a federal port of entry, formalizing its role as a maritime hub and spurring modest population growth from a few dozen residents in the early 1820s to several hundred by the 1830s.[27] The primary economic foundation emerged from the wrecking industry, involving the regulated salvage of cargo from ships grounded on the treacherous Florida Reef, which caused hundreds of wrecks annually due to uncharted hazards and poor navigation aids.[28] Wreckers, operating from Key West and outposts like Indian Key, used swift schooners to reach sites first, securing 80-90% of salvage fees under federal admiralty laws after auctions; this trade generated immense wealth, making Key West the richest per capita city in the U.S. by the 1830s, with annual revenues exceeding $1 million (equivalent to tens of millions today) from key wrecks alone.[29][30] The industry formalized with wreckers' guilds and lighthouses, such as the Carysfort Reef Light commissioned in 1825, but remained risky, fostering a rugged settler culture of Bahamians, Americans, and escaped slaves who expanded rudimentary communities in the Upper Keys for vantage points.[28] As wrecking declined mid-century due to improved lighthouses, steamship navigation, and fewer wooden-hulled wrecks, sponging supplanted it as a staple by the 1850s, with Key West fleets harvesting commercial sponges from Gulf Stream beds using hook-and-line methods, peaking at over 1,000 vessels and employing thousands by the 1890s.[31] Concurrently, the cigar manufacturing sector took root in 1831 with the island's first factory, but exploded after 1868 Cuban independence struggles drove refugee artisans southward; by 1890, 200 factories produced 100 million hand-rolled cigars annually using imported Cuban tobacco, comprising up to 25% of the local economy and attracting a Cuban workforce that diversified the population to over 18,000 by decade's end.[32][26] These industries anchored expansion beyond Key West, with sponging camps and minor farming (e.g., pineapples on No Name Key) dotting the Middle Keys, though the archipelago remained sparsely settled overall, with total Monroe County population under 10,000 until the 1880s.[31][26]Overseas Railroad Development (1905–1935)
The Overseas Railroad, formally the Key West Extension of the Florida East Coast Railway, was initiated by industrialist Henry Flagler to connect the Florida mainland to Key West, leveraging the island's natural deep-water harbor for anticipated commerce via the Panama Canal. Construction commenced in April 1905 from Homestead southward, with groundbreaking ceremonies in Key West on November 2 of that year, under Flagler's direction as the primary financier and overseer.[33][34] The project aimed to span approximately 128 miles of challenging oversea terrain, extending the existing rail line from Miami.[34] Engineering demands included constructing 32 bridges and viaducts totaling nearly 50 miles, utilizing concrete arches, steel spans, and innovative dredging techniques amid soft limestone and tidal fluctuations. Major feats encompassed the Seven Mile Bridge (7 miles long) and the Long Key Viaduct (over 2.5 miles), built with imported materials like German cement and Hudson River rock.[35][34] Labor involved an average of 4,000 workers peaking during construction, drawn largely from the Caribbean and Bahamas, though the endeavor faced severe setbacks from hurricanes in 1906 (claiming around 130 lives), 1909, and 1910, alongside endemic diseases and logistical strains such as supplying 4.5 million gallons of fresh water monthly.[33][34] Despite these obstacles, incremental progress allowed the first train from Miami to reach Knight's Key by January 22, 1908, initiating partial passenger service.[33] The extension reached completion on January 21, 1912, after seven years and an investment exceeding $27 million, primarily from Flagler's personal funds, marking it as one of the most ambitious private infrastructure projects of the era.[34][36] Flagler, then 82 years old, arrived in Key West aboard the inaugural train on January 22, celebrated amid fanfare that underscored the railroad's role in bridging isolated Keys to continental markets.[36] From 1912 to 1935, the line facilitated regular passenger and freight services, transporting tourists, produce, and goods, which temporarily invigorated Key West's economy through enhanced connectivity to Havana and broader trade routes post-Panama Canal opening in 1914.[35] However, ongoing maintenance costs, storm damages requiring repeated repairs, and rising competition from automobiles strained operations, culminating in financial pressures by the mid-1930s.[33]1935 Labor Day Hurricane and Infrastructure Rebuilding
The Labor Day Hurricane struck the Florida Keys on September 2, 1935, as a Category 5 storm with sustained winds of 185 mph (298 km/h), gusts exceeding 200 mph (322 km/h), and a minimum central pressure of 892 millibars (26.34 inHg).[37][38] The cyclone made landfall in the Upper Keys near Long Key, generating a storm surge of 15–20 feet (4.6–6.1 m) that obliterated communities such as Islamorada, where every building and tree was destroyed, and inundated low-lying islands across a 40-mile (64 km) swath.[37] The Overseas Railroad—Henry Flagler's Florida East Coast Railway extension, operational since 1912 and spanning 128 miles (206 km) from Miami to Key West—suffered catastrophic damage, including washed-out tracks, collapsed bridges, and eroded roadbed, particularly between Lower Matecumbe Key and Key West.[37][39] An evacuation train carrying over 700 World War I veterans engaged in federal highway construction derailed amid the surge, contributing to the storm's estimated death toll of 409 (244 confirmed fatalities and 165 missing), the majority in the Keys.[37] The hurricane inflicted approximately $100 million in damages (equivalent to over $2 billion in 2023 dollars), rendering the financially strained Florida East Coast Railway unable to repair the Overseas Extension, which ceased operations permanently.[37] In 1936, the railway sold its Keys right-of-way, bridges, and remaining infrastructure to the State of Florida for $640,000, plus relief from tax liabilities, shifting control to public authorities tasked with restoring connectivity.[39][40] This transaction preserved key assets like the iconic Seven Mile Bridge while enabling adaptation to automotive travel amid the Great Depression. Reconstruction efforts, funded by a $3.5 million loan from the Public Works Administration to the Overseas Road and Toll Bridge District, transformed the rail corridor into the Overseas Highway.[40] Engineers widened surviving bridges for two-lane vehicular use—employing steel reinforcements and concrete slabs on trestles—and constructed new spans at channels like Tavernier, Snake, and Whale Harbor using timber piles and concrete.[39][40] The 113-mile (182 km) route from mainland Dade County to Key West opened to traffic on March 29, 1938, with an official dedication on July 4, 1938, establishing the first reliable road link and boosting economic recovery by replacing rail dependency with highway access.[39][40] This adaptation not only salvaged Flagler's engineering legacy but also enhanced resilience against future storms through more flexible infrastructure.[39]Overseas Highway Era and World War II Impacts
Following the devastation of the 1935 Labor Day Hurricane, which rendered much of the Overseas Railroad inoperable, the Florida state legislature had established the Overseas Road and Toll Bridge District in 1933 to facilitate highway construction using the railroad's right-of-way.[39] Work began converting the rail infrastructure into a roadway in 1936, with the Overseas Highway officially opening to vehicular traffic on February 1, 1938, as U.S. Route 1, spanning approximately 127 miles from Key West to the mainland via 42 bridges, many repurposed from the railroad.[41] This engineering achievement, involving the widening of tracks and addition of concrete surfaces, reduced travel time dramatically, replacing slow ferries and enabling direct automobile access that spurred economic activity.[42] The highway's completion marked a pivotal shift in accessibility, transforming the isolated Keys into a viable destination for motorists and fostering early tourism growth through motels, fishing lodges, and roadside attractions along the route.[43] Tolls, initially $1 for cars from Miami to Key West, generated revenue for maintenance but were discontinued in 1954 amid local opposition; by the late 1930s, the road supported increased freight and passenger movement, diversifying the economy beyond sponging and fishing.[44] Infrastructure upgrades, including the 1942 full paving and later 1980s bridge replacements, ensured durability against tropical storms, though the era's development laid groundwork for population influx and commercial expansion.[40] During World War II, following U.S. entry in December 1941, the Florida Keys' strategic position in the Florida Straits amplified military significance, with Key West serving as a hub for anti-submarine warfare and coastal defense.[45] Existing facilities like Naval Air Station Key West, operational since 1918, expanded to host patrol squadrons, blimps, and training operations, while the U.S. Navy maintained dozens of offices and built waterfront structures for maintenance and logistics.[46] [47] German U-boat attacks sank over 35 ships off Florida's coast in 1942 alone, prompting heightened patrols from Keys bases that mitigated threats to shipping lanes; this military buildup employed thousands, boosting local employment and infrastructure but imposing blackouts, rationing, and travel restrictions that temporarily curbed civilian tourism.[48] Postwar, the Overseas Highway facilitated demobilization and sustained economic ties forged by wartime activities.[49]Post-1945 Growth, Cuban Influx, and Conch Republic Symbolism
Following World War II, the Florida Keys experienced rapid population and economic expansion, driven primarily by tourism and infrastructure improvements. Monroe County's population, encompassing most of the Keys, nearly doubled from 14,078 in 1940 to 29,957 in 1950, reflecting a 112.8% increase attributable to returning military personnel who had served at naval bases in Key West and the influx of civilians attracted by the Overseas Highway's accessibility.[50] By 1960, the population reached 47,921, fueled by a post-war tourism surge as servicemen who visited during the war returned with families, drawn to the islands' tropical allure and fishing opportunities.[51] President Harry S. Truman's establishment of the Little White House as a vacation retreat in Key West from 1946 onward further symbolized and stimulated this growth, positioning the area as a desirable escape.[52] The economy shifted decisively toward visitor-dependent sectors, with motels, marinas, and sportfishing charters proliferating, though this expansion strained limited land and water resources on the narrow islands. The Cuban Revolution of 1959 triggered successive waves of refugees to the Keys, particularly Key West, which lies just 90 miles from Havana and served as a primary landing point due to its proximity and historical ties. Between 1959 and 1962, an initial exodus of approximately 35,000 Cubans arrived in South Florida, many via makeshift boats to Key West, escaping Fidel Castro's regime; this was followed by the U.S.-sponsored Freedom Flights from 1965 to 1973, airlifting over 300,000 to Miami but with spillover effects on the Keys' Cuban-descended communities through family networks.[53] The most dramatic influx occurred during the 1980 Mariel boatlift, when roughly 125,000 Cubans fled from Mariel Harbor to Florida between April and October, with tens of thousands arriving directly in Key West via overcrowded vessels, overwhelming local processing facilities and prompting temporary federal aid stations. These migrants, including skilled workers and families, integrated into Key West's economy by bolstering sectors like commercial fishing—introducing advanced techniques—and small businesses, while enriching the cultural fabric with Cuban cuisine, music, and festivals that persist in events like the annual Hemingway Days.[54] However, the sudden arrivals strained housing and social services in the small island chain, contributing to debates over resource allocation amid Monroe County's growing population of 63,188 by 1980.[50] In 1982, the symbolic declaration of the Conch Republic emerged as a protest against federal policies perceived to harm the Keys' economy. U.S. Border Patrol established a roadblock on U.S. Highway 1 near Key Largo in early April to interdict drug smuggling from Latin America, resulting in hours-long delays for tourists and locals, which slashed visitor numbers and revenues in the tourism-reliant region.[55] On April 23, Key West Mayor Dennis Wardlow responded by staging a mock secession ceremony, proclaiming the "Conch Republic" independent, breaking a loaf of bread as a declaration of war on the U.S., and immediately surrendering to seek $1 million in foreign aid—a satirical ploy to highlight the blockade's absurdity and demand removal.[56] Though not a genuine separatist movement, the event succeeded in prompting the blockade's swift dismantling and evolved into a lasting emblem of Key West's nonconformist identity, boosting marketing through Conch Republic flags, souvenirs, and annual independence celebrations that draw crowds and reinforce the area's branding as a free-spirited haven.[57] This symbolism underscores the causal link between federal interventions and local economic vulnerabilities in the post-1945 era, where tourism comprised over 90% of Monroe County's GDP by the late 20th century.[58]Climate
Climatic Patterns and Data
The Florida Keys possess a tropical savanna climate (Köppen Aw), characterized by year-round warmth, elevated humidity levels, and bimodal precipitation patterns driven by seasonal shifts in atmospheric circulation and sea breeze convection.[59] The archipelago's position at approximately 24–25°N latitude, combined with the warming influence of the adjacent Florida Current—a swift, warm western boundary current carrying waters from the Gulf of Mexico northward—prevents frost occurrences and maintains mild winters, with air temperatures seldom dipping below 50°F (10°C).[60][61] This oceanic heat transport elevates local sea surface temperatures, averaging 75–82°F (24–28°C) annually, fostering conditions conducive to coral growth and limiting diurnal temperature swings compared to mainland Florida.[62] Annual mean temperature at Key West International Airport, the primary long-term observation site, stands at 78.9°F (26.1°C), with average daily maxima of 83.7°F (28.7°C) and minima of 74.0°F (23.3°C).[63] Temperature variations are minimal, with the warmest months (July–August) recording mean highs near 90°F (32°C) and lows around 80°F (27°C), while the coolest (January–February) feature highs of 76–77°F (24–25°C) and lows of 65–67°F (18–19°C). Relative humidity averages 75% yearly, peaking in mornings at 80–85% during the wet season due to high dew points (often 70–75°F or 21–24°C), which exacerbate perceived heat via elevated heat indices exceeding 100°F (38°C) in summer.[64][65] Precipitation totals approximately 40.4 inches (1027 mm) annually, concentrated in a wet season from May to October, when easterly trade winds converge with diurnal heating to generate frequent afternoon thunderstorms, contributing up to 70% of yearly rainfall.[63] Dry season months (November–April) yield 1.5–2.5 inches (38–64 mm) on average, with reduced convective activity and occasional frontal passages introducing variability.[66] Wind patterns feature prevailing easterlies at 10–15 mph (16–24 km/h), occasionally strengthening during winter cold fronts, while evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation in the dry period, underscoring the savanna classification's drier winter hallmark.[67]| Month | Avg High (°F) | Avg Low (°F) | Avg Precip (in) |
|---|---|---|---|
| January | 74 | 64 | 2.04 |
| February | 76 | 66 | 1.49 |
| March | 78 | 68 | 2.05 |
| April | 81 | 71 | 2.13 |
| May | 85 | 75 | 3.61 |
| June | 88 | 78 | 4.43 |
| July | 90 | 80 | 4.32 |
| August | 90 | 80 | 5.90 |
| September | 89 | 79 | 6.81 |
| October | 86 | 76 | 5.66 |
| November | 81 | 72 | 2.57 |
| December | 77 | 68 | 1.98 |
Tropical Cyclones: Events, Damages, and Human Resilience
The Florida Keys' low-lying geography and exposure to the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico render them highly susceptible to tropical cyclones, with historical records documenting impacts since the 16th century.[68] The archipelago experiences an average of one hurricane or tropical storm every 2.6 years, often resulting in storm surges, high winds, and flooding that exacerbate erosion and infrastructure strain.[68] Empirical data from the National Weather Service indicate that major hurricanes (Category 3 or higher) have struck the region multiple times in the 20th and 21st centuries, causing disproportionate damages due to the limited landmass and population density.[69] The most devastating event was the Labor Day Hurricane of September 2, 1935, a Category 5 storm with maximum sustained winds of 185 mph that made landfall near Long Key.[69] It produced a storm surge exceeding 18 feet in places, destroying nearly all structures between Key Largo and Marathon over a 40-mile swath and washing away sections of the Overseas Railroad, which stranded over 700 World War I veterans working on the line.[70] The storm claimed at least 408 lives, primarily in the Keys, and inflicted approximately $100 million in damages (equivalent to $2.23 billion in 2023 dollars), rendering the railroad economically unviable and prompting its conversion to the Overseas Highway.[71] Subsequent notable cyclones include Hurricane Donna (Category 4, September 10, 1960), which battered the Keys with 145 mph winds and caused 12 fatalities statewide alongside widespread crop and structural losses; and Hurricane Betsy (Category 3, September 1965), which generated significant surges and damaged coastal infrastructure.[69][72] More recently, Hurricane Irma (Category 4, September 10, 2017) struck Cudjoe Key with 130 mph winds and up to 8-foot surges, fracturing coral reefs and affecting 65% of homes with major damage or total destruction of 25%.[73][74]| Hurricane | Year | Max Winds (mph) | Deaths in Keys/FL | Key Damages |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Labor Day | 1935 | 185 | 408 / 423 | Railroad destruction, total wipeout of structures in central Keys, $100M economic loss[69][71] |
| Donna | 1960 | 145 | 0 / 12 | Widespread building and crop damage across Keys[69] |
| Betsy | 1965 | 125 (est.) | Minimal / 5 | Surge-induced flooding, coastal erosion[72] |
| Irma | 2017 | 130 | 0 / 44 (statewide) | 90% power outage, home destruction, reef fracturing, billions in recovery costs[73][74] |