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Flying ointment

![Hexen bereiten eine magische Salbe zu][float-right] Flying ointment, known historically as unguentum populeum or witches' salve, is a psychoactive topical preparation associated with European witchcraft practices from the medieval period through early modern witch trials, primarily composed of hallucinogenic plants from the Solanaceae family such as belladonna (Atropa belladonna), henbane (Hyoscyamus niger), and sometimes datura (Datura stramonium) or mandrake (Mandragora officinarum), which are rich in tropane alkaloids like atropine, scopolamine, and hyoscyamine.^[1]^[2] These alkaloids, when absorbed through the skin—often applied to sensitive areas or via a greased broomstick for enhanced mucosal uptake—induce anticholinergic delirium characterized by realistic hallucinations, dissociation from the body, and perceptual distortions mimicking astral projection or "flight" to sabbaths, rather than literal levitation.^[3]^[4] The preparation typically involved infusing the toxic plant materials in animal fat or oil, sometimes with additives like soot or baby fat in folklore accounts, to create a base for transdermal delivery, exploiting the lipophilic nature of the alkaloids for systemic effects including tachycardia, dry mouth, mydriasis, and profound sensory alterations that trial confessions described as enabling nocturnal journeys.^[2] Historical references appear in grimoires and inquisitorial records, such as those compiled by Giovanni Battista Della Porta in the 16th century, though many accounts stem from coerced testimonies, underscoring the need for caution in interpreting them as empirical evidence of widespread use.^[4] Pharmacologically, the ointments' deliriant properties stem from muscarinic receptor antagonism, producing a spectrum of effects from euphoric disembodiment to hazardous toxicity, with overdoses risking coma or death, as documented in toxicological studies of tropane-containing flora.^[3] Notable aspects include its role in explaining witchcraft lore through naturalistic pharmacology rather than supernaturalism, influencing modern entheogenic recreations despite persistent dangers, and controversies over recipe authenticity given the blend of folk tradition and inquisitorial exaggeration; empirical analysis confirms the plants' potent psychoactivity but highlights variability in potency and absence of verifiable "flying" beyond hallucinatory experience.^[1]^[3]

Etymology and Terminology

Origins of the Name

The name "flying ointment" stems from longstanding European folklore and demonological accounts portraying such salves as instrumental in enabling witches to achieve supernatural flight, typically to sabbaths or demonic convocations. These narratives describe the ointment—often a fat-based mixture applied to the skin—as inducing a state where practitioners could soar through the air, either bodily or in spirit, mounted on broomsticks, staffs, or animals. This association with aerial mobility directly informs the appellation, distinguishing it from other medicinal or magical unguents; the English term translates equivalent phrases in Romance and Germanic languages, such as French onguent à voler ("ointment for flying") or German Flugsalbe ("flying salve"), which emphasize the volitant effect.^[5]^[2] An early literary attestation appears in Martin Le Franc's Les Champions des dames (c. 1440–1442), a moralistic poem critiquing female vices, wherein the author depicts women anointing themselves with a "grease" (graisse) that grants bird-like flight to infernal gatherings, marking one of the first explicit links between an ointment and magical levitation in vernacular literature. By the mid-15th century, similar motifs recur in trial records and treatises, such as the 1456 reference to a potion or ointment bestowed by the devil for flight, reinforcing the nomenclature amid rising witch persecution. Demonologists like Johann Weyer in De praestigiis daemonum (1563) further codified recipes purportedly yielding these effects, embedding the "flying" descriptor in compendia of witchcraft lore.^[6]^[7] While historical sources frame the name in supernatural terms, contemporary analysis attributes the reputed flight to deliriant hallucinations from tropane alkaloids in common ingredients like belladonna and henbane, producing out-of-body dissociation misinterpreted as literal transport in pre-modern contexts. However, references to ointments explicitly for flying remain sparse in primary trial documents prior to the 16th century, suggesting the term's crystallization owes as much to literary amplification and inquisitorial projection as to widespread folk practice; systemic biases in coerced confessions and elite-authored tracts likely exaggerated such details to demonize herbalism.^[8]^[2]

Linguistic Variations Across Europe

In German-speaking regions of Europe, the preparation was commonly termed Hexensalbe, translating to "witch's ointment," a designation rooted in medieval and early modern accounts of witchcraft practices.^[9] An alternative appellation, Flugsalbe or "flying salve," highlighted its reputed capacity to induce sensations of aerial travel, as described in pharmaceutical and folkloric analyses of historical recipes.^[10] In French traditions, the substance bore the name onguent volant, or "flying ointment," linked to descriptions of hallucinogenic salves enabling trance-like voyages in sorcery lore.^[11] This phrasing paralleled the functional emphasis on flight, appearing in botanical and historical surveys of medieval herbalism.^[12] Spanish folklore employed ungüento volador, directly signifying "flying ointment," in narratives of brujería where such mixtures facilitated supposed nocturnal flights during sabbats.^[13] These Iberian references, drawn from inquisitorial records and ethnobotanical studies, underscore a shared motif of mobility across Romance-language contexts.^[13] Across these linguistic domains, nomenclature consistently evoked either the practitioners (Hexensalbe) or the effect (Flugsalbe, onguent volant, ungüento volador), reflecting convergent folk beliefs in psychoactive aids for ecstatic rituals despite regional variances in phrasing. Latin precursors like unguentum sabbati (sabbath ointment) influenced vernacular adaptations, bridging classical natural magic texts with local dialects.^[14]

Historical Context

Accounts in Witch Trials

Accounts of flying ointments appear in confessions from early modern European witch trials, typically describing their use to induce sensations of flight to sabbaths, though such testimonies are sparse and often extracted under duress or leading interrogation.^[15]^[2] In the Vauderie d'Arras trials of 1459–1460 in France, multiple accused individuals confessed to applying an ointment—provided by the devil or prepared from ritual substances—to a broomstick, staff, or pole before experiencing being "carried up into the air" to attend nocturnal gatherings.^[16] These admissions formed part of broader narratives of demonic pacts and sabbatic attendance, but trial records emphasize the ointment's role in facilitating perceived aerial transport rather than detailing composition.^[17] Later continental trials echoed similar motifs, albeit infrequently. Dominican inquisitor Giordano de Bergamo, drawing from confessions around 1465, reported that witches anointed wooden implements with devil-supplied unguents, enabling flight to sabbaths where they engaged in profane rites.^[2] In Polish witch hunts, such as a 1688 case in Nowy Wiśnicz, testimonies referenced elderflowers as an ingredient in ointments purportedly used for flight, though integrated into folk healing and magical practices rather than standalone flight mechanisms.^[18] Scholars note these accounts' scarcity across thousands of trial documents, suggesting amplification by demonologists over verbatim evidence, with ointments more commonly linked to healing or love magic than aviation.^[19] Confessions' reliability is compromised by torture, sleep deprivation, and inquisitorial scripting, casting doubt on whether accused witches genuinely believed in or used such substances for hallucinatory flight.^[15] English and Scottish trials rarely mention flying ointments explicitly, favoring spectral flight via demonic aid over pharmacological means; for instance, Pendle witches in 1612 described spirit transport without unguents.^[20] Where referenced, as in some Low Countries cases, ointments appear in post-confession demonological interpretations rather than core testimonies. Overall, while these accounts fueled witch-hunt prosecutions by substantiating flight as empirical evidence of maleficium, their evidential basis remains contested, with modern analysis attributing reported effects to suggestion, delirium, or fabricated narratives rather than consistent psychoactive application.^[17]^[21]

Folklore and Medieval References

In European folklore, flying ointment, known variably as unguentum volans or Hexensalbe, was purportedly used by witches to induce sensations of flight, enabling attendance at nocturnal sabbaths. This belief posited that the salve, applied to the body or broomstick, facilitated aerial travel to gatherings involving demonic rituals. Such accounts often intertwined with tales of transformation or demonic transport, reflecting a blend of pre-Christian night-flight motifs and emerging Christian demonology.^[2] Late medieval texts provide early articulations of these ideas, though primarily from clerical perspectives rather than direct folk traditions. Johannes Nider's Formicarius (1435–1438), a key demonological work based on inquisitorial inquiries in Bern, describes witches engaging in nocturnal flights to remote locations for malefic gatherings, attributing the phenomenon to demonic illusions or pacts rather than physical ointments. Nider's accounts, drawn from trial testimonies, emphasize collective flights but lack specific recipes, focusing instead on the theological implications of such travels.^[22] The Malleus Maleficarum (1486), authored by Heinrich Kramer, offers more detailed references to ointments enabling flight. Kramer asserts that witches anoint wooden staffs or brooms with a salve composed of infant fat, herbs, and soot, allowing them to traverse great distances to sabbaths; he claims this occurs at the devil's instruction, with the ointment rendering bodies lightweight or inducing ecstatic visions mistaken for literal flight. These descriptions, intended as prosecutorial guidance, influenced subsequent folklore by codifying the ointment as a tool of maleficium, though Kramer provides no empirical verification beyond confessional accounts obtained under duress.^[23] Primary source evidence for actual ointment use remains scarce in medieval records, with most references emerging in early modern trial transcripts influenced by these texts; historians note that while folklore preserved the motif, inquisitorial literature amplified it as part of anti-witchcraft propaganda, potentially exaggerating rare folk practices involving psychoactive plants.^[15]

Key Primary Sources and Documents

The trial confession of Matteuccia di Francesco, recorded during her 1428 interrogation and execution in Todi, Italy, provides one of the earliest detailed accounts of a flying ointment. Under questioning by Franciscan friars, she described preparing a mixture of 16 ingredients—including fat from executed children, bat blood, vulture grease, and herbs like strychnos and sowbread—boiled into a salve that, when applied to her body and a small staff, enabled transformation into a fly and flight to the witches' sabbath on a demon's back. This document, preserved in local ecclesiastical records, exemplifies early 15th-century Italian witch trial testimonies linking ointments to aerial travel, though extracted via threats of torture, raising questions of coerced fabrication.^[2]^[19] Martin Le Franc's Les Champions des dames (composed 1440–1441), a French moralistic poem, references women applying "oitement" (ointment or grease) to staffs for flight to nocturnal gatherings, depicting the process as transformative and enabling swift passage through the air. This literary source, drawing from contemporary Basle council discussions on heresy, integrates folklore into verse without specifying ingredients, portraying the practice as a deceptive artifice rather than demonic pact alone; its credibility stems from Le Franc's role as a papal secretary observing anti-witchcraft debates, though poetic license may embellish details.^[15] Heinrich Kramer's Malleus Maleficarum (first printed 1487), a key demonological treatise co-attributed to Jacob Sprenger, compiles inquisitorial evidence asserting witches concoct flying ointments "at the devil's instruction" from desiccated child fat, herbs, and animal remains, applied to armpits or broomsticks to induce illusory flight to sabbaths. Citing unnamed trial confessions from German dioceses, it emphasizes satanic causation over pharmacology, reflecting the authors' biased agenda to justify prosecutions amid late medieval heresy panics; empirical testing was absent, and the text's influence amplified unverified claims across Europe.^[24] Johann Weyer's De praestigiis daemonum (1563), a skeptical critique of witchcraft prosecutions, reproduces a purported witches' recipe from earlier confessions—incorporating water hemlock juice, baby fat, soot, and fine wheat flour—claiming it causes soporific stupor and vivid dreams mistaken for flight. Weyer, a physician influenced by personal experiments, attributes effects to natural toxicity rather than supernatural aid, countering demonologists like Kramer; sourced from Low Countries trial extracts, it highlights pharmacological realism but relies on secondhand reports prone to exaggeration under duress.^[25] Andrés de Laguna's 1576 pharmaceutical commentary examines an ointment seized from suspected witches near Rome, identifying it as unguentum populeum (poplar bud salve with narcotics like opium and mandrake) rather than a diabolic flying agent, noting its sleep-inducing properties could mimic sabbath visions. As a Spanish botanist's firsthand analysis, it prioritizes empirical dissection over inquisitorial narratives, underscoring how mundane medicinals were misconstrued in biased ecclesiastical records.^[25]

Composition and Preparation

Primary Plant Ingredients

The primary plant ingredients in historical accounts of flying ointments were tropane alkaloid-rich species from the Solanaceae family, particularly Atropa belladonna (deadly nightshade), Hyoscyamus niger (henbane), and Mandragora officinarum (mandrake).^[26] ^[3] These plants were combined in animal fat bases to facilitate transdermal absorption, producing hallucinogenic effects interpreted as enabling flight in folklore.^[3] Direct recipes from primary sources are absent, with compositions inferred from witch trial testimonies and early modern reports, such as physician Andrés Laguna's 16th-century description of an ointment containing henbane, mandragora, solanum (a nightshade), and hemlock.^[1] Atropa belladonna contributed atropine, hyoscyamine, and scopolamine, inducing mydriasis, dry mouth, tachycardia, and vivid delusions.^[3] Its berries and leaves were potent sources, with historical use linked to witchcraft due to the plant's toxicity and psychoactive profile, though lethal doses varied widely based on preparation.^[26] Hyoscyamus niger, containing similar alkaloids including hyoscyamine, was widespread in Europe and frequently cited for its sedative and deliriant properties, often harvested for seeds and leaves in unguents.^[1] Mandragora officinarum provided analogous tropanes but was more regionally limited to southern Europe, valued in medieval herbals for anesthetic effects despite risks of overdose.^[3] Other plants occasionally mentioned include Datura stramonium (thornapple or jimsonweed), which yields high scopolamine levels, and non-tropane species like hemlock (Conium maculatum), though their inclusion likely stemmed from confessional exaggerations rather than consistent pharmacology.^[1] Variability in recipes reflects regional availability and trial-induced narratives, with no standardized formula verified in contemporaneous documents predating the 15th-century witch hunts.^[26] Empirical analyses confirm tropane dominance for the reported ecstatic and dissociative states, distinguishing these from mere poisons.^[3]

Extraction of Tropane Alkaloids

Traditional preparation of flying ointments involved extracting tropane alkaloids from Solanaceae plants by simmering chopped foliage, seeds, or roots in animal fats such as lard. This lipid infusion method, described in early modern European accounts, typically entailed boiling materials from henbane (Hyoscyamus niger), deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna), or thornapple (Datura stramonium) in hog fat for 3 to 4 hours before straining the mixture to obtain a salve base.^[27] The process leveraged the partial lipophilicity of alkaloids like atropine, hyoscyamine, and scopolamine, enabling their concentration in the fat for subsequent transdermal application, often via broomstick handles or thin-skinned areas.^[27] Empirical analysis of analogous folk techniques has revealed limited extraction efficiency for fat-based methods. A 2022 quantitative study using Scopolia carniolica—a tropane-rich Solanaceae relative—tested unguent preparations in coconut oil, finding that even 30-minute infusions yielded only 15.3% scopolamine, with 37.7% atropine and 38.6% scopolamine remaining bound in the plant residue after re-extraction.^[27] In contrast, alcoholic tinctures achieved 67.2% atropine and 71.4% scopolamine recovery, while water infusions extracted up to 50%.^[27] These results indicate that historical fat extractions, though culturally attested, solubilized insufficient alkaloids for potent effects without substantial plant volumes or adjuncts like chimney soot to enhance potency.^[27] Variations in traditional recipes occasionally incorporated acidic additives or prolonged maceration to improve yield, but primary reliance on heat and lipids constrained overall alkaloid transfer compared to modern solvent techniques like ethanol extraction or microwave-assisted methods, which routinely exceed 70% efficiency in laboratory settings.^[28] Despite inefficiencies, the topical vector allowed bioavailability through mucous membranes, aligning with reported deliriant outcomes in trial testimonies from the 16th and 17th centuries.^[27]

Traditional Application Methods

Traditional accounts from early modern European witch trials and demonological texts describe the flying ointment being applied topically to the skin to induce its effects, with emphasis on areas featuring thin epidermis or high vascularity for efficient transdermal absorption of tropane alkaloids. Primary sites included the armpits, forehead, wrists (pulse points), and inner thighs or genital regions, as these facilitated quicker entry into the bloodstream compared to thicker-skinned areas.^[29]^[30] In Francesco Maria Guazzo's Compendium Maleficarum (1608), a demonologist's compendium drawing from trial testimonies, a witch in Linz, Austria, reportedly instructed an observer to anoint pulse points before experiencing sensations of flight, mirroring her own practice of self-application prior to departing for the sabbath.^[29] Similar confessions, such as those documented in 16th-century Spanish and Italian inquisitorial records, recount witches rubbing the salve under the arms or on the stomach before mounting a broomstick or staff, after which they claimed to soar to gatherings.^[2] Some accounts specify anointing the flying implement itself—typically a broom, staff, or fork—rather than or in addition to the body, with the object then straddled or held against sensitive areas to combine mechanical stimulation with pharmacological uptake through mucous membranes.^[2] This method appears in Norman Cohn's analysis of trial documents from the 15th to 17th centuries, where the ointment's soporific qualities reportedly induced trance-like states interpreted as aerial travel, though Cohn notes such details often stemmed from leading questions or torture-induced narratives of questionable veracity.^[2] Empirical reconstruction of alkaloid pharmacokinetics supports skin application over ingestion, as oral routes risk degradation by stomach acids, reducing bioavailability.^[31]

Pharmacological Effects

Mechanisms of Tropane Alkaloids

Tropane alkaloids, such as hyoscyamine, atropine (a racemic mixture of hyoscyamine and its enantiomer), and scopolamine, are the primary active compounds in plants like Atropa belladonna, Hyoscyamus niger, and Datura stramonium used in traditional flying ointments. These alkaloids feature a bicyclic tropane ring structure derived from the amino acid ornithine and tropic acid, enabling their pharmacological activity. They function primarily as competitive antagonists at muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs), subtypes M1 through M5, by binding to the orthosteric site and preventing acetylcholine from eliciting parasympathetic responses.^[32]^[33] This antagonism inhibits G-protein-coupled signaling pathways, reducing phosphoinositide hydrolysis (via M1, M3, M5) or cyclic AMP modulation (via M2, M4), which disrupts normal cholinergic transmission in both peripheral and central nervous systems.^[34] In the peripheral nervous system, tropane alkaloids block muscarinic receptors on effector organs, leading to unopposed sympathetic activity: tachycardia via M2 blockade in the heart, mydriasis and cycloplegia from M3 inhibition in the eye, reduced glandular secretions causing xerostomia, and urinary retention due to detrusor muscle relaxation. Atropine exhibits highest affinity for M1 receptors but non-selectively antagonizes all subtypes at therapeutic doses, while scopolamine shows greater lipophilicity, facilitating rapid blood-brain barrier penetration and pronounced central effects. Hyoscyamine, the levorotatory form predominant in plants, mirrors atropine's potency but is more biologically active than its dextro counterpart.^[33]^[35] These peripheral effects onset within minutes of absorption, with duration varying by alkaloid: atropine 4-6 hours, scopolamine up to 24 hours for CNS actions.^[32] Centrally, tropane alkaloids induce anticholinergic delirium by antagonizing M1 receptors in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus, impairing cognitive processing, memory, and perception, often manifesting as vivid hallucinations, disorientation, and amnesia. Scopolamine's enhanced CNS penetration—due to its tertiary amine structure—produces more intense psychotomimetic effects compared to atropine, including motion sickness amelioration via vestibular nuclei blockade but also higher risk of confusional states. This central blockade disrupts acetylcholine's role in arousal and sensory integration, contributing to the dissociative "flight" sensations reported in historical accounts, though empirically attributable to neurochemical imbalance rather than supernatural causes. Overdose escalates to seizures or coma from widespread receptor saturation.^[35]^[34]

Physiological and Psychological Impacts

The tropane alkaloids atropine, scopolamine, and hyoscyamine in flying ointments competitively inhibit muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, producing peripheral anticholinergic effects such as mydriasis, blurred vision, dry mouth, tachycardia, hyperthermia, flushed skin, urinary retention, and diminished gastrointestinal motility.^[32]^[36] These manifestations align with the classic mnemonic for anticholinergic toxicity: "blind as a bat" for ocular effects, "dry as a bone" for xerostomia and anhidrosis, "red as a beet" for cutaneous flushing, "hot as a hare" for fever, and "full as a flask" for bladder distension.^[37] Skin application, as in traditional ointments, facilitates transdermal absorption, potentially delaying onset but prolonging exposure compared to oral ingestion.^[38] Central nervous system penetration of these lipophilic alkaloids, particularly scopolamine and hyoscyamine, yields psychological effects including dose-dependent hallucinations, delirium, agitation, confusion, and memory impairment.^[39]^[40] Delirium often presents as hyperactive, with patients exhibiting incoherent speech, visual or tactile hallucinations, and behaviors like picking at imaginary objects or "flailing in the air," which may underpin historical reports of perceived flight or levitation.^[41]^[42] In severe cases, these progress to coma or seizures, though milder exposures could induce dissociative states mimicking out-of-body experiences without full toxicity.^[43] Empirical poison control data confirm these patterns from accidental exposures to tropane-containing plants, underscoring the alkaloids' capacity for profound psychoactive disruption rather than genuine physical alteration.^[44]^[45]

Toxicity Risks and Lethal Outcomes

The toxicity risks of flying ointments arise primarily from tropane alkaloids—atropine, hyoscyamine, and scopolamine—extracted from plants such as Atropa belladonna, Hyoscyamus niger, and Datura stramonium. These compounds competitively inhibit muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, leading to anticholinergic syndrome with initial symptoms including xerostomia, mydriasis, blurred vision, tachycardia, hyperthermia, flushed skin, and diminished bowel sounds. Progression involves central nervous system effects like confusion, hallucinations, agitation, and delirium, often exacerbated by urinary retention and ileus.^[46]^[36] Overdose risks are amplified by the narrow therapeutic window and variability in alkaloid concentrations across plant parts, growth conditions, and seasons, rendering traditional preparations unpredictable. Absorption via topical application to abraded skin or mucous membranes increases bioavailability compared to oral routes, potentially causing rapid onset of severe effects within 30-60 minutes. Complicating factors include individual tolerance variations, concurrent substance use, and delayed recognition of symptoms, which can lead to dehydration, rhabdomyolysis, or secondary injuries during hallucinatory states.^[32]^[47] Lethal outcomes, while infrequent with prompt supportive care like physostigmine administration and ventilation, stem from respiratory failure, cardiac arrhythmias, seizures, or coma. Estimated adult lethal doses are approximately 10 mg for atropine and 2-4 mg for scopolamine, achievable through modest plant material ingestion or high-absorption dermal exposure. Documented fatalities include a 2016 case of Datura poisoning inducing fatal cardiac dysrhythmia and historical series where A. belladonna intoxications yielded about 12% mortality prior to modern intensive care. Case reports confirm rare but severe outcomes from intentional or accidental exposures, emphasizing the virulent potential of these alkaloids.^[32]^[48]^[49]

Interpretations and Explanations

Folklore Perspectives on "Flight"

In early modern European folklore, flying ointments were reputed to confer the supernatural ability to traverse the skies to witches' sabbaths, clandestine nocturnal gatherings featuring devil worship, communal rituals, and revelry. These beliefs, embedded in demonological literature and trial testimonies from the 15th to 17th centuries, held that the salve—typically a fat-based mixture of potent herbs—activated aerial transvection when smeared on the body, especially pulse points or mucous membranes, or onto staffs and broomsticks used as mounts.^[2] Flight was envisioned as swift and unhindered, spanning miles to sites like mountain peaks or sacred trees, underscoring the ointment's perceived diabolic potency.^[25] Prominent accounts include Johannes Nider's Formicarius (1437), which recounts women applying ointments to fly to sabbaths in the Heuberg mountains, lapsing into deep sleep suggestive of spirit departure while their bodies remained inert.^[2] The 1428 confession of Italian healer Matteuccia di Francesco described anointing herself to shapeshift into a mouse and journey to Benevento's walnut tree for sabbath attendance, blending transformation with travel.^[2] Scottish witch Isobel Gowdie's 1662 testimony detailed brewing an herbal ointment to grease broomsticks, enabling physical flight to sabbaths where participants danced and feasted under demonic auspices.^[25] Demonological compendia reinforced these motifs; Francesco Maria Guazzo's Compendium Maleficarum (1608) depicts witches daubing themselves with unguents before sabbath voyages, portraying the practice as integral to malefic pacts.^[29] Folklore narratives often distinguished corporeal flight—body and implement soaring through the air—from astral variants, where the soul alone ventured forth, leaving the flesh comatose, yet both were attributed to the ointment's arcane virtues mediated by infernal powers.^[50] Such tales, disseminated via inquisitorial records and popular lore, framed flight as emblematic of witchcraft's transgression against divine order.^[2]

Empirical and Skeptical Analyses

Empirical analyses of flying ointment effects attribute reported sensations of "flight" to the anticholinergic properties of tropane alkaloids such as atropine, hyoscyamine, and scopolamine, derived from plants like Atropa belladonna and Hyoscyamus niger. These compounds competitively inhibit muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, disrupting parasympathetic nervous system function and leading to central nervous system excitation manifested as delirium, visual and tactile hallucinations, and altered proprioception.^[3] Users in documented cases of tropane intoxication describe feelings of levitation or weightlessness, akin to floating or flying, resulting from impaired sensory integration rather than any physical propulsion.^[32] This physiological mechanism aligns with first-hand accounts of accidental poisoning, where doses as low as 0.5-1 mg of scopolamine induce disorientation and euphoric detachment from the body within 30-60 minutes of absorption, peaking at 1-2 hours.^[51] Skeptical examinations challenge the historicity of widespread ointment use for inducing flight, noting that primary evidence derives from 15th-17th century witch trial transcripts, often extracted under torture or leading questions, rendering them unreliable for causal inference. No archaeological residues of such formulations have been identified in European sites associated with accused witches, and contemporary pharmacological recreations confirm the ointments' lethality—lethal doses overlap therapeutic ranges, with LD50 for atropine estimated at 100-200 mg orally but lower via dermal absorption enhanced by animal fats.^[19] Analyses of folklore texts, such as those by Johann Weyer in 1563, reveal "flying" motifs predating known tropane recipes, suggesting cultural archetypes of shamanic journeying retrofitted onto herbal lore rather than empirical practice.^[2] Controlled studies on tropane alkaloids, including dermal application models, demonstrate no capacity for supernatural or astral projection; effects are confined to neurochemical disruption, with EEG patterns showing theta wave dominance indicative of dissociative states, not transcendence.^[3] Claims of ointment-enabled sabbath attendance fail Occam's razor, as simpler explanations—sleep paralysis, ergotism from contaminated grains, or coerced fantasies—account for visions without invoking unverified pharmacology. Mainstream academic narratives, often influenced by 20th-century countercultural revivalism, overstate the ointments' prevalence, conflating rare medicinal salves with mythic flights despite sparse pre-1800 recipes lacking consistent "flying" intent.^[52] Modern toxicology warns against replication, citing irreversible anticholinergic toxicity, including tachycardia (up to 200 bpm), hyperthermia, and coma, observed in 2022 case series of datura exposures mimicking historical doses.^[53]

Distinction Between Physical and Astral Effects

The physical effects of flying ointment arise from the anticholinergic properties of tropane alkaloids such as atropine, scopolamine, and hyoscyamine, which block muscarinic acetylcholine receptors in the central and peripheral nervous systems, leading to delirium, vivid hallucinations, and a characteristic sensation of bodily lightness or levitation often interpreted as flight.^[3]^[54] These effects manifest as distorted perceptions of motion, spatial disorientation, and immersive sensory experiences driven by altered neurotransmitter activity, verifiable through pharmacological studies of deliriant intoxication rather than external causation.^[32] In contrast, astral effects pertain to subjective claims of out-of-body experiences or supernatural travel, as recounted in historical witchcraft testimonies and modern occult recreations, where users report traversing spiritual realms or attending sabbaths unbound by physical form.^[55] Such interpretations stem from folklore and confessional accounts, often elicited under duress during early modern witch trials, but lack empirical validation beyond the drug-induced hallucinatory state.^[56] No controlled evidence supports disembodied consciousness or verifiable remote perception independent of the brain's compromised sensory processing under tropane influence.^[3] The distinction hinges on causal realism: physical effects are measurable physiological disruptions—e.g., mydriasis, tachycardia, and cortical hyperactivity producing realistic yet confabulated visions—while astral attributions represent pre-scientific misreadings of delirium as metaphysical transit, unsubstantiated by repeatable observation or physiological markers of extrasensory phenomena.^[54]^[19] Historical analyses of trial records reveal that ointment-induced "flights" aligned closely with documented deliriant symptoms, such as the sensation of soaring derived from vestibular and proprioceptive illusions, rather than genuine transcendence.^[57] Modern pharmacological recreations confirm these as endogenous hallucinations, not dualistic separations of body and spirit.^[55]

Controversies

Debates on Historicity and Prevalence

Scholars debate the historicity of flying ointments, with many arguing that claims of their use derive primarily from demonological treatises rather than reliable trial records. Early references appear in 15th-century texts like the Formicarius (1452) by Johannes Nider, which describe witches applying greases to enable flight, but these accounts stem from inquisitorial narratives emphasizing demonic pacts over pharmacological effects.^[31] Actual confessions under torture, such as those in the 16th-century trials, rarely specify hallucinogenic ingredients like tropane-containing plants, and when ointments are mentioned, they are often portrayed as empowered by Satan rather than natural agents.^[19] Historians like Michael Ostling contend that no verified instances link solanaceous plants to flight-inducing salves in primary sources, attributing the association to later 20th-century interpretations by anthropologists such as Michael Harner, who hypothesized entheogenic explanations without robust archival support.^[58] The prevalence of such ointments in European witchcraft practices appears minimal, as analyses of trial transcripts from over 40,000 documented cases reveal only sporadic references to any salves, let alone those enabling "flight." In regions like Germany and France, where witch hunts peaked between 1560 and 1630, ointment allegations surface in fewer than 1% of records, often as formulaic elements elicited by leading questions rather than spontaneous testimony.^[15] Demonologists like Johann Weyer documented recipes in works such as De praestigiis daemonum (1563), incorporating plants like henbane and belladonna, but these were speculative or derived from medical folklore, not direct evidence from accused witches.^[5] Critics note that the unreliability of coerced confessions undermines claims of widespread use, with empirical tests of purported recipes yielding inconsistent hallucinogenic results insufficient to explain mass delusions or sabbat visions.^[2] Proponents of historicity, including author Thomas Hatsis, argue that scattered trial mentions and folk herbalism indicate a suppressed tradition of psychoactive salves, potentially explaining ecstatic experiences misattributed to devilry.^[59] However, this view faces critique for overreliance on secondary demonological sources and neglect of contextual biases, such as inquisitors' predisposition to interpret folk remedies through a lens of maleficium.^[60] Skeptics emphasize causal realism: without archaeological residues or non-elicited accounts, the narrative aligns more with constructed folklore than verifiable practice, reflecting elite anxieties over popular medicine rather than authentic prevalence.^[52] Modern recreations, while experiential, fail to bridge evidentiary gaps, perpetuating a romanticized myth detached from historical rigor.^[61]

Claims of Opiate or Sexual Components

Some historical accounts and modern interpretations have posited the inclusion of opiate components, such as extracts from the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), in flying ointment recipes to induce profound sedation or dream states mimicking flight. For instance, certain reconstructed "traditional" formulations listed opium poppy alongside tropane alkaloid plants like henbane and belladonna, purportedly to deepen the soporific effects that early skeptics of witchcraft attributed to the unguents rather than supernatural agency.^[62] However, primary early modern recipes documented in trial records or demonological texts, such as those from the 16th-17th centuries, overwhelmingly emphasize anticholinergic plants from the Solanaceae family, with opiate elements appearing only sporadically and often as later additions in 19th-20th century esoteric literature rather than verifiable historical practice. Empirical analysis of surviving recipes, including those analyzed in pharmacological studies, confirms that tropane alkaloids were the dominant active agents, rendering opiate claims marginal and unsubstantiated by direct evidence from period sources.^[28] Regarding sexual components, claims arise primarily from the hallucinatory profile of tropane alkaloids, which could produce vivid erotic visions or sensations of ecstasy during delirium, sometimes interpreted in folklore as encounters at sabbaths involving orgiastic rites. Literary references, such as in 17th-century texts drawing on trial confessions, describe ointment-induced states yielding "sexual fantasies" amid aerial journeys and demonic gatherings.^[63] Additionally, some hypotheses suggest deliberate application to genital or perineal areas to exploit mucosal absorption for intensified psychoactive and purportedly aphrodisiac effects, with one scholarly examination proposing vaginal use of hallucinogenic mixtures as a means to evoke autonomous ecstatic experiences outside patriarchal control.^[31] These interpretations, however, stem from speculative reconstructions rather than consistent historical attestation; trial testimonies often conflated deliria with coerced fantasies of sabbath lewdness, while physiological evidence indicates anticholinergic toxicity more likely caused disorientation and mydriasis than targeted erotic enhancement. No primary recipes reliably document dedicated aphrodisiac ingredients like cantharides or exotic erotica, and such claims frequently reflect 20th-century psychoanalytic or feminist reinterpretations over empirical recipe analysis.^[2]^[64]

Modern Myth-Making vs. Evidence

Contemporary accounts in neopagan and occult literature frequently depict flying ointment as a deliberate hallucinogenic preparation used by historical witches to achieve astral flight or shamanic ecstasy, often drawing on Renaissance texts like those of Giambattista della Porta for recipes involving tropane-rich plants such as belladonna and henbane.^[65] These narratives, popularized since the 1970s by anthropologists like Michael Harner, retroactively frame the substance as an entheogen akin to ayahuasca, emphasizing broomstick application for absorption and mystical transport.^[2] Such interpretations, however, constitute a modern invention, projecting 20th-century psychedelic paradigms onto fragmented folklore without primary evidence of widespread production or ritual use among accused witches.^[2]^[66] Historical references to ointments enabling "flight" appear sporadically in 15th- and 16th-century trial records and theological treatises, such as the 1428 confession of Matteuccia di Francesco or accounts in Johannes Nider's Formicarius (1437), but these stem from coerced testimonies amid inquisitorial pressures, rendering them unreliable as empirical accounts of practice.^[2] No archaeological residues or self-authored witch documents corroborate systematic ointment-making for transvection, and claims of ingredients like infant fat reflect anti-heretical stereotypes rather than verifiable recipes.^[2] Skeptical historiography, including work by Michael Ostling, argues that the "flying ointment" trope evolved from distorted folk pharmacology—where tropane plants induced accidental delirium—into a fabricated narrative amplified by early modern demonology, lacking direct linkage to organized witchcraft.^[66] Pharmacological evidence attributes reported "flying" sensations to the anticholinergic action of tropane alkaloids like atropine and scopolamine, which disrupt acetylcholine signaling, yielding symptoms of levitation, vivid delirium, and perceptual distortion but no controlled out-of-body states or supernatural validation.^[5]^[3] Clinical toxicology confirms these effects as toxic overload, with historical self-experiments (e.g., Albert Peuckert's 1920s trials) producing incapacitating visions rather than repeatable mystical insights, and modern recreations risking tachycardia, coma, or fatality due to variable alkaloid concentrations in wild plants.^[31] Thus, while modern myth-making sustains the ointment's allure as a gateway to other realms, empirical data reveal it as a hazardous deliriant aligned with poisoning folklore, not causal evidence for metaphysical flight.^[5]

Modern Developments

Recreations in Contemporary Practices

In contemporary witchcraft and neopagan circles, recreations of flying ointments are pursued by a minority of practitioners seeking to replicate historical trance-inducing effects, often through topical application of plant-based salves to mucous membranes or skin. These efforts typically involve solanaceous herbs such as Atropa belladonna (deadly nightshade) and Hyoscyamus niger (henbane), rendered in animal fat or modern bases like beeswax, with dosages calibrated to avoid lethal atropine or scopolamine poisoning—levels that historically caused delirium, dry mouth, and vivid hallucinations mistaken for flight. Documented cases, such as those described in practitioner accounts from the 2010s onward, emphasize micro-dosing and testing for individual tolerance, but empirical evidence of widespread use remains anecdotal and limited to fringe groups, with no large-scale surveys confirming prevalence.^[67]^[2] Safer adaptations predominate, substituting toxic plants with milder alternatives like Artemisia vulgaris (mugwort) or essential oils of lavender and jasmine to evoke mild dissociation or meditative states during rituals, avoiding the cardiovascular risks and potential for overdose inherent in originals. These modified recipes, popularized in online pagan resources since the early 2000s, align with ethical shifts in modern Wicca and eclectic witchcraft, where figures like Gerald Gardner dismissed authentic flying ointments as obsolete by the mid-20th century. Scholar Thomas Hatsis, in his 2015 analysis, contends that such recreations perpetuate a constructed narrative from 20th-century anthropologists like Michael Harner, who reframed medieval trial confessions—often coerced—as shamanic psychedelia, despite sparse pre-15th-century evidence and pharmacological inconsistencies in inducing sustained "flight" without coma.^[59]^[31] Scientific scrutiny of these practices highlights inefficacy and hazards; a 2022 pharmacological review of folk hallucinogens found that even controlled recreations yield unpredictable tropane alkaloid absorption, with absorption rates varying by 50-200% based on skin preparation and site, often resulting in therapeutic failure or toxicity rather than reliable astral projection. Regulatory warnings from bodies like the European Medicines Agency classify key ingredients as Schedule I poisons, restricting sales and underscoring that contemporary uses prioritize experiential symbolism over verifiable causation, with no peer-reviewed trials demonstrating equivalence to historical claims.^[28]^[2]

Scientific Research and Warnings

Scientific investigations attribute the purported "flying" sensations from historical flying ointments to the deliriant effects of tropane alkaloids, including atropine, scopolamine, and hyoscyamine, derived from Solanaceae plants such as Atropa belladonna (belladonna) and Hyoscyamus niger (henbane). These compounds function as muscarinic acetylcholine receptor antagonists, inducing anticholinergic syndrome with symptoms like dry mouth, mydriasis, tachycardia, confusion, vivid hallucinations, and perceptual distortions that may mimic levitation or flight in altered states.^[32] Pharmacological analyses confirm enhanced transdermal bioavailability when alkaloids are suspended in animal fats, facilitating absorption through skin or mucous membranes, as described in early modern recipes.^[28] Empirical testing of similar folk preparations has demonstrated dose-dependent delirium rather than controlled hallucinations, with effects onset within 15-30 minutes via topical application and lasting 4-12 hours, varying by alkaloid concentration.^[28] Historical and modern toxicological data reveal no evidence of safe, repeatable "astral projection" without risking overdose, as alkaloid content in wild plants fluctuates widely (e.g., belladonna leaves contain 0.1-1.2% total tropanes). Peer-reviewed case studies document anticholinergic poisonings from inadvertent ingestion or handling, underscoring the narrow therapeutic index where medicinal doses (e.g., 0.5-1 mg atropine) border lethal ones (10-20 mg in adults).^[68]^[69] Warnings from poison control centers and clinical toxicology emphasize the severe risks of recreating such ointments, including respiratory depression, hyperthermia, seizures, coma, and cardiac arrest, with fatalities reported from as little as 10 berries of belladonna or equivalent henbane foliage.^[68]^[69] Even topical use can cause systemic toxicity via dermal absorption, particularly in sensitive areas, and no standardized formulations exist for safe application; contemporary attempts often result in emergency interventions for delirium or organ failure. Vulnerable populations, such as children or those with cardiovascular conditions, face amplified dangers due to heightened sensitivity to anticholinergics. Regulatory bodies classify these plants as toxic, prohibiting non-medical handling in many jurisdictions, and experts advise against any experimentation given the absence of antidote for severe tropane overdose beyond supportive care.^[36]^[43]

Legal and Ethical Considerations

The primary ingredients in traditional flying ointments, such as Atropa belladonna, Hyoscyamus niger, and Datura stramonium, are not classified as controlled substances under major international drug schedules like those of the DEA in the United States or equivalent bodies in Europe, allowing legal cultivation in regions including North America, Southern and Eastern Europe, and Brazil.^[70] However, extracts, tinctures, or concentrated preparations containing tropane alkaloids like atropine, hyoscyamine, and scopolamine are subject to poison regulations due to their high toxicity; for instance, belladonna-derived products often require medical prescriptions or are restricted to pharmaceutical use, with unauthorized distribution potentially violating food safety or hazardous substance laws.^[71] In the European Union, tropane alkaloids are monitored as contaminants in food and feed, with maximum residue limits enforced to prevent accidental exposure, reflecting concerns over their presence in unregulated herbal products rather than outright bans on the plants themselves.^[72] Modern recreations of flying ointments face indirect legal scrutiny through general prohibitions on reckless endangerment or distribution of harmful substances; intentional application for hallucinogenic effects has led to documented cases of poisoning treated as medical emergencies, with authorities issuing warnings against self-experimentation due to the narrow therapeutic index and overdose risks, including delirium, convulsions, and respiratory failure.^[73] Ethically, the use raises concerns over informed consent and harm potential, as tropane alkaloids induce unpredictable anticholinergic toxicity—manifesting as tachycardia, hyperthermia, and cognitive impairment—without established safe dosing protocols outside clinical settings, prompting calls for rigorous risk assessment in any therapeutic or ritualistic application.^[74] Historically, accusations of employing flying ointments contributed to the legal persecution of alleged witches during European trials from the 15th to 17th centuries, where such preparations were cited as evidence of maleficium in inquisitorial proceedings, often amplifying superstitious fears without empirical verification of their prevalence or effects.^[5] In contemporary contexts, ethical debates parallel broader discussions on entheogens, emphasizing the moral imperative to prioritize verifiable safety data over anecdotal spiritual claims, given the alkaloids' capacity for severe, non-reversible harm and the absence of peer-reviewed evidence supporting controlled, beneficial use in non-medical scenarios.^[75] Practitioners advocating recreations bear responsibility for mitigating these risks, though systemic underreporting of adverse events underscores the need for skepticism toward unsubstantiated traditional recipes.^[28]

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