Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Hand-waving

Hand-waving refers to a form of informal reasoning or argumentation characterized by vagueness, approximation, omission of critical logical steps, or reliance on intuition, gestures, or unproven assumptions rather than rigorous evidence or deduction.^[1]^[2] The term, often used pejoratively, implies an attempt to convey validity or effectiveness without substantive support, akin to distracting gesticulation that substitutes for precise analysis.^[3]^[4] Originating as an idiomatic metaphor from unproductive hand movements in discourse—evident in lectures where professors gesture broadly to "demonstrate" theorems without formal steps—the phrase critiques explanations that prioritize persuasion over verifiability.^[1] In disciplines demanding empirical precision, such as mathematics and physics, hand-waving serves heuristic purposes to sketch conceptual outlines or "back-of-the-envelope" estimates, facilitating initial insights but requiring subsequent formalization to avoid errors or incomplete causal chains.^[5]^[6] Its defining limitation lies in the risk of conflating plausible sketches with proven truths, undermining reliability in truth-oriented inquiry where detailed mechanisms and falsifiable claims are essential.^[7] Notable applications include rapid prototyping of theories in theoretical sciences, yet persistent overuse has drawn scrutiny for fostering imprecise standards in academic communication.^[8]

Etymology and Historical Development

Origins of the Term

The term "hand-waving" originates from the literal physical gesture of waving one's hands, a form of gesticulation long employed in public speaking and oratory to emphasize points or convey emotion. In classical rhetoric, such gestures were subject to critique when deemed excessive or distracting; Cicero, in his treatise De Oratore (55 BCE), advocated for moderation in bodily motion during delivery (actio), arguing that overzealous hand movements could undermine the orator's credibility by appearing unnatural or evasive rather than reinforcing the spoken argument.^[9] Similarly, Quintilian in Institutio Oratoria (c. 95 CE) emphasized controlled, purposeful gestures, warning that flamboyant or superfluous hand actions risked alienating audiences by diverting attention from substantive content. By the 19th century, observations of oratory and debate practices continued to highlight excessive hand-waving as potentially counterproductive, with manuals like Albert M. Bacon's A Manual of Gesture: Accompanying Lessons in Oral and Mimetic Action (1875) cataloging hand motions while cautioning against their overuse in ways that might obscure rather than clarify the speaker's intent.^[10] These critiques framed vigorous gesticulation as a tool that, when misapplied, served more to fill rhetorical voids or evade precision than to advance discourse, laying conceptual groundwork for later metaphorical extensions. The shift to figurative usage—denoting vague, imprecise, or unsubstantiated explanations—occurred in 20th-century English, particularly within informal scientific and mathematical discussions where speakers or writers would gloss over rigorous details. This metaphorical sense, evoking distraction akin to a conjuror's sleight-of-hand, first appears in print during the 1960s in mathematical contexts, as in critiques of arguments relying on intuition over proof.^[11] Prior to widespread adoption, the idiom drew on the rhetorical tradition of viewing hand motions as substitutes for logical substance, adapting ancient warnings about evasive delivery to modern critiques of intellectual shortcuts.^[12]

Evolution of Figurative Usage

The figurative sense of "hand-waving," denoting vague or imprecise argumentation, proliferated in post-World War II scientific literature as fields like physics emphasized rigorous derivations over intuitive approximations. In cosmology, for example, the discipline transitioned from qualitative, hand-waving approaches to more exact methods amid advances in observational data and theoretical precision during the mid-20th century.^[13] Physicists such as Richard Feynman reinforced this critique in his 1961–1964 lectures at the California Institute of Technology, where he stressed deriving results explicitly rather than relying on loose, hand-wavy intuitions that obscured underlying mechanisms. This usage highlighted a cultural shift toward demanding verifiable steps in explanations, distinguishing legitimate approximations from unsubstantiated gestures. By the 1980s and 1990s, the term extended into popular discourse on critical thinking and skepticism, appearing in works that urged scrutiny of ambiguous claims. Books promoting scientific literacy, including Carl Sagan's The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark (1995), warned against fuzzy or inadequately supported assertions in pseudoscience and everyday reasoning, aligning with hand-waving as a marker of intellectual laxity. This dissemination occurred alongside the rise of the modern skepticism movement, which popularized tools for detecting vague rhetoric in media and public claims.^[14] In the digital era after 2010, "hand-waving" surged in online debates and commentary, reflecting its adaptation to critique imprecise arguments in real-time discourse. Corpus linguistics analysis via Google Books Ngram Viewer documents a marked increase in the phrase's frequency in English-language texts from the 1940s onward, with acceleration in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, peaking around 2008 before stabilizing at elevated levels through 2019. This trend underscores the term's evolution into a ubiquitous diagnostic for evasive reasoning across academic and lay contexts.

Definition and Characteristics

Core Meaning and Distinctions

Hand-waving denotes the rhetorical or explanatory strategy of substituting vague analogies, unsubstantiated assertions, or selective omissions for detailed causal mechanisms and empirical evidence in support of a claim.^[12] This approach glosses over critical components, treating complex processes as self-evident or peripheral without addressing underlying dynamics.^[5] In essence, it prioritizes persuasive gesture over substantive validation, often rendering the argument resistant to direct scrutiny due to its imprecision.^[15] Key distinctions separate hand-waving from proximate forms of informal reasoning. Back-of-the-envelope calculations, for instance, involve intentional rough quantifications with explicit simplifying assumptions to estimate scales or feasibility, serving as a deliberate step toward refinement or hypothesis testing.^[5] Hand-waving, however, forgoes such structured approximation, offering no pathway to verification and instead relying on rhetorical flourish absent any commitment to iterative precision.^[12] Similarly, heuristics function as validated, domain-specific shortcuts derived from repeated empirical success, enabling efficient decision-making under constraints; hand-waving lacks this evidential grounding, substituting untested intuition for patterned reliability.^[16]^[5] Verifiable indicators of hand-waving include the absence of falsifiable predictions—such as measurable outcomes or thresholds that could disprove the position—and heavy dependence on unarticulated premises that, when probed, reveal gaps in logical continuity.^[12] It further manifests in deflective maneuvers that sidestep counter-evidence, reframing challenges as misunderstandings rather than engaging them directly.^[12] These traits undermine causal realism by decoupling claims from observable chains of events, prioritizing apparent coherence over empirical accountability.^[15]

Psychological and Cognitive Underpinnings

Hand-waving in reasoning frequently stems from the prevalence of intuitive, heuristic-driven cognition over deliberate analysis. Daniel Kahneman's framework posits two systems of thought: System 1, which generates quick, automatic judgments prone to biases and errors, and System 2, which demands effortful scrutiny of evidence.^[17] When individuals rely on System 1 during argumentation, they produce vague or incomplete explanations to achieve apparent resolution without engaging System 2's verification, as this minimizes cognitive load and aligns with the "law of least effort" in processing plausible but unexamined ideas.^[18] This deviation favors intuitive coherence over empirical rigor, often resulting in superficial claims that evade detailed causal chains. Cognitive biases exacerbate this tendency, particularly confirmation bias, where individuals selectively attend to evidence supporting preconceptions while dismissing contradictions, thereby resorting to hand-waving to preserve favored beliefs.^[19] Empirical investigations into vague language reveal its appeal as a malleable tool: in performance contexts, ambiguous information enables self-serving reinterpretations that boost motivation and outcomes by avoiding fixed, testable commitments.^[20] Applied to discourse, such vagueness functions as a low-risk strategy in social settings, signaling competence or alignment without exposing arguments to empirical refutation, akin to a buffered form of status maintenance that sidesteps personal vulnerability from precise scrutiny. From a belief-formation perspective, hand-waving disrupts processes akin to Bayesian inference, where rational updating requires proportionally weighting new data against priors. By glossing over disconfirming evidence, it fosters persistent errors, as cognitive models of ideal reasoning emphasize probabilistic integration that humans often shortcut through biased selectivity.^[21] Studies on reasoning styles underscore this, showing a shift from empirical verification toward hypothetical flexibility in group interactions, where vague assertions maintain social equilibrium at the expense of accurate causal modeling.^[22] This pattern aligns with causal realism's emphasis on verifiable mechanisms, highlighting hand-waving's role in entrenching non-updated priors over evidence-driven refinement.

Usage in Rhetoric and Debate

General Argumentation Contexts

In general argumentation contexts, hand-waving denotes the use of vague, unsubstantiated assertions or omissions of critical reasoning steps to advance a position, effectively glossing over evidentiary gaps or logical connections.^[23] This practice serves as a barrier to resolution by prioritizing rhetorical flourish over verifiable claims, often distracting from unresolved complexities. In casual discourse, it frequently substitutes emotional appeals, personal anecdotes, or appeals to unproven consensus—such as declarations that "everyone knows" a certain outcome—for structured logical chains backed by data, thereby evading scrutiny and hindering productive exchange.^[24] Within formal debate settings, hand-waving manifests as imprecise claims lacking specificity or supporting evidence, which judges assess unfavorably under criteria emphasizing clear logical construction, substantive arguments, and appropriate substantiation.^[25] Tournament evaluations, including those aligned with standard paradigms, penalize such vagueness indirectly through lower rankings on content quality and clash effectiveness, as unresolved ambiguities fail to meet expectations for rigorous engagement.^[26] Extensions of the Toulmin model of argumentation, which dissect claims into data, warrants, and backing, underscore how absent or superficial elements equate to weakened persuasiveness, with analyses from the late 20th century highlighting reduced audience acceptance for arguments deficient in these components.^[27] Although hand-waving permits swift ideation in preliminary discussions by bypassing exhaustive detail, enabling broader exploration of possibilities, its drawbacks predominate in truth-oriented contexts: it propagates potentially erroneous ideas without validation and diminishes argumentative impact, as persuasion research demonstrates that precise, evidence-supported reasoning outperforms vague or weak messaging in sustaining belief.^[28] Empirical investigations into argument quality, drawing from frameworks like the elaboration likelihood model, quantify this effect, showing strong, detailed arguments yield higher agreement rates compared to those relying on ambiguity or minimal backing.^[29]

Political and Media Applications

In political policy advocacy, hand-waving often involves promoting reforms through optimistic projections that bypass detailed causal chains. During the Reagan administration's 1981 Economic Recovery Tax Act, supply-side advocates relied on the Laffer Curve to assert that reducing top marginal tax rates from 70% to 28% would generate sufficient growth to offset revenue losses, yet post-implementation data revealed federal deficits tripling to $2.8 trillion by 1989 without the theorized revenue boom, as empirical tests failed to validate the curve's peak at U.S. rates.^[30] ^[31] Critics, including George H.W. Bush during the 1980 primaries, dismissed these claims as "voodoo economics" for substituting theoretical napkin sketches over historical evidence from high-tax regimes like post-World War II America, where rate cuts did not proportionally expand the tax base.^[32] Analogously, 2019 Green New Deal proposals projected net-zero emissions by 2050 via massive renewable buildouts, but analyses highlighted unsubstantiated assumptions on technology scaling and resource availability, estimating U.S. costs at $51-93 trillion while ignoring global emissions from developing nations comprising 80% of future growth.^[33] ^[34] Media applications of hand-waving frequently distort equity debates by invoking vague systemic narratives that evade granular data. Post-2020 coverage in outlets like The New York Times and CNN emphasized structural racism for racial disparities in outcomes such as incarceration rates (blacks at 33% of prison population despite 13% demographic share), yet often omitted FBI Uniform Crime Reports showing violent crime correlations with family structure and urban density over poverty alone, framing instead through passive constructions that attribute harms impersonally without causal testing.^[35] This selective emphasis, critiqued in media bias studies for confirmation effects, aligns with documented left-leaning institutional tilts in journalism where 90% of reporters donate to Democrats, leading to under-scrutiny of behavioral variables like single-parenthood rates (72% for black children vs. 25% white) linked to socioeconomic gaps in longitudinal data.^[36] Conversely, right-leaning media such as Fox News has hand-waved away historical redlining data in housing inequities by asserting individual agency sans alternative policy models, though both sides' avoidance of multivariate regression undermines epistemic rigor.^[37] In election cycles from 2016 to 2024, hand-waving accusations functioned as ad hominem evasions, with partisans labeling opponents' evidence bases as vaguely unsubstantiated to sidestep verification. During the 2024 Trump-Harris debate, Harris critiqued Trump's tariff plans as economically ruinous without specifying beyond general inflation fears, while Trump dismissed her border security record as chaotic hand-waving amid 2.5 million encounters in FY2023, per CBP data, prompting mutual rhetorical deflections over substantive modeling.^[38] Fact-checking repositories like PolitiFact rated hundreds of such claims, revealing bidirectional misuse—e.g., Democrats' 2016 dismissals of Russian interference evidence as Trumpian vagueness and Republicans' 2020 portrayals of mail-in voting expansions as fraud-prone without baseline error rates under 0.0001%—yet these databases exhibit left-leaning adjudication biases, overrating progressive assertions by 3:1 margins in blind audits.^[39] This pattern, observable in C-SPAN archives, illustrates hand-waving's utility in polarized arenas for preserving narrative coherence over falsifiable causal claims.^[40]

Applications in Academic and Scientific Fields

Mathematics and Formal Proofs

In mathematics, hand-waving manifests as informal sketches or arguments that bypass rigorous deductive steps, such as invoking intuitive continuity or convergence without epsilon-delta verification or explicit quantification over cases.^[41] These approaches prioritize heuristic insight over complete logical chains from axioms, often acceptable in exploratory phases but insufficient for establishing theorems, where every assertion must follow deductively to preclude hidden assumptions or fallacies.^[6] Historical instances illustrate both the generative power and limitations of such methods. Leonhard Euler's 18th-century derivations for the Riemann zeta function, including the Euler product formula linking primes to the function's values, relied on manipulative leaps with infinite series that assumed analytic behaviors later proven via contour integration and functional equations.^[42] Similarly, Srinivasa Ramanujan's prolific outputs, such as novel partition identities and approximations for pi, stemmed from unproven intuitive claims drawn from modular forms and continued fractions, which G.H. Hardy formalized through elliptic functions and theta series, highlighting how intuition accelerates discovery yet demands subsequent verification to confirm validity.^[43] In pedagogical contexts, undergraduate students commonly produce hand-wavy justifications, such as glossing over induction bases or limit uniformities; a 2011 study in applied mathematics courses found participants routinely opting for "intuitive" proofs over formal ones, correlating with incomplete grasp of foundational rigor.^[44] Standard real analysis texts, like Walter Rudin's Principles of Mathematical Analysis (3rd ed., 1976), exemplify critiques of hand-waving by enforcing terse, precise arguments—e.g., proving compactness via Heine-Borel without extraneous appeals—underscoring that gaps like unproven subsequence convergence undermine theorem universality.^[45] While enabling rapid hypothesis generation, unchecked hand-waving risks propagating errors, as seen in early probabilistic arguments later refined deductively. Since the 1990s, computer-assisted proofs have curtailed reliance on informality: formal verification systems, such as those employed in the 1976 four-color theorem confirmation or Kepler conjecture resolution (2014), mechanize every inference, rendering human intuition supplementary rather than substitutive for exhaustive case enumeration and logical closure.^[46]^[6]

Applied Sciences and Engineering

In applied sciences and engineering, hand-waving manifests as reliance on qualitative approximations, scaling arguments, or heuristic visualizations that prioritize intuitive sketches over detailed causal modeling and empirical validation. Early 20th-century aerodynamics, for instance, frequently employed dimensional analysis and scaling laws to estimate drag and lift coefficients from wind tunnel data, allowing rapid design iterations for aircraft but often introducing uncertainties in extrapolating to full-scale flight conditions due to unmodeled Reynolds number effects or compressibility.^[47] These approaches contrasted with later computational fluid dynamics simulations, which enable precise, testable predictions by resolving turbulent flows and boundary layers through numerical solutions of Navier-Stokes equations, reducing reliance on ad hoc adjustments.^[48] A notable example in physics engineering is Richard Feynman's diagrams, introduced in 1948 as pictorial mnemonics to organize perturbative calculations in quantum electrodynamics (QED), bypassing algebraic complexity with visual representations of particle interactions that served as semi-heuristic guides rather than fully rigorous derivations initially.^[49] While effective for computation, their interpretive validity—linking lines to probability amplitudes and vertices to coupling constants—was later formalized through axiomatic quantum field theory and renormalization group analyses in the 1950s and beyond, transforming them from hand-wavy aids into tools with provable convergence properties under asymptotic limits.^[50] This evolution underscores how engineering heuristics can accelerate progress but require subsequent causal substantiation to avoid propagating unverified assumptions into system designs. Contemporary critiques highlight hand-waving in artificial intelligence engineering, where post-2020 claims of "emergent" abilities in large language models—such as sudden improvements in reasoning tasks at scale—have been invoked to dismiss gaps in mechanistic understanding or training data limitations, framing unpredictable behaviors as intrinsic rather than artifacts of metric choices or statistical noise.^[51] Analyses reveal these phenomena often vanish under alternative evaluation metrics or refined statistics, suggesting overreliance on scale-driven emergence as a causal shortcut rather than evidence of robust generalization. In contrast, rigorous engineering demands falsifiable predictions; the 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger disaster exemplified the perils of overlooking causal links, as cold-induced erosion of O-ring seals in solid rocket boosters—warned against by engineers but dismissed via probabilistic hand-waving—led to joint failure and structural breach, as detailed in the Rogers Commission's failure analysis emphasizing empirical temperature thresholds over managerial optimism.^[52] Such post-hoc dissections reinforce protocols like probabilistic risk assessment and redundancy testing to prioritize verifiable causal chains over vague assurances.^[53]

Humanities and Literary Analysis

In literary criticism, hand-waving often appears through interpretive assertions that substitute thematic analogies or theoretical presuppositions for traceable evidence from the text itself, allowing subjective claims to evade scrutiny in fields lacking standardized empirical metrics. This contrasts with close-reading practices, which demand explicit linkages to linguistic structures, motifs, or historical contexts, as advocated in mid-20th-century New Criticism. Such vagueness proliferates in approaches prioritizing unfalsifiable psychological or ideological projections, where causal connections between textual elements and broader claims remain under-specified. Psychoanalytic readings exemplify this, frequently imputing unconscious drives to characters or authors via Freudian concepts like the Oedipus complex without mechanisms for refutation, inheriting the broader unfalsifiability critiqued by Karl Popper in psychoanalytic theory. Popper contended that such frameworks accommodate any observation post hoc, rendering them immune to disproof and thus prone to hand-waving in literary applications, as interpretations adapt indefinitely to fit preconceived psychic narratives rather than deriving from verifiable textual patterns.^[54]^[55] This leads to circularity, where evidence is retrofitted to theory, sidelining rigorous motif analysis or biographical data.^[56] Postmodern deconstruction, shaped by Jacques Derrida's 1960s-1970s writings and ascendant in literary studies by the 1980s, draws similar rebukes for relying on elusive différance and textual instability to dissolve stable meanings without substituting coherent alternatives, often through obfuscatory prose that glosses logical gaps. Alan Sokal and Jean Bricmont's 1997 analysis documents deconstructive essays deploying scientific terminology—such as topology or relativity—in metaphorical senses detached from precise definitions, enabling hand-waving that evades accountability to textual or referential anchors.^[57] Journals like PMLA have hosted debates on these tensions, as in its 1996 issue on evidence's status, where contributors dissect how interpretive intuition risks ideological distortion absent evidential chains linking claims to primary sources.^[58] Proponents of these methods maintain that empirical rigidity would constrain literature's polysemous depth, framing interpretive latitude—including provisional analogies—as essential for generative insights beyond literalism.^[59] Detractors counter that such flexibility invites bias-laden assertions, undermining causal realism in textual analysis by favoring resonant narratives over falsifiable hypotheses grounded in authorial evidence or linguistic causality.^[60]

Professional and Practical Contexts

Business and Decision-Making

In business decision-making, hand-waving manifests as the use of ambiguous buzzwords and optimistic projections that evade detailed risk modeling, particularly in strategy pitches and mergers. For instance, invocations of "synergy" in acquisition rationales often obscure unquantified integration challenges and revenue assumptions, leading to widespread underperformance; studies show most M&A transactions fail to realize projected synergies due to overreliance on such vague promises rather than empirical validation.^[61] ^[62] This approach echoes patterns in the dot-com bubble of the early 2000s, where euphoria-driven forecasts ignored data on scalability and profitability, and the 2008 financial crisis, where banks' models hand-waved correlations in subprime assets under low-probability default scenarios, amplifying systemic collapse.^[63] ^[64] Critiques of management consulting practices highlight how reports from firms like McKinsey frequently embed heroic assumptions about market responses and cost savings without robust sensitivity testing, as dissected in Harvard Business Review analyses emphasizing the pitfalls of unsubstantiated frameworks.^[65] ^[66] Such vagueness enables rapid executive alignment and resource allocation in fast-paced environments but undermines long-term viability by deferring causal scrutiny of dependencies. Empirical evidence links this imprecision to elevated failure rates: Harvard Business Review reports indicate 60-90% of strategic plans never fully launch, often attributable to vague goals lacking measurable milestones and data-backed contingencies, while PwC surveys from the 2020s reveal widespread executive uncertainty over value creation mechanisms, correlating with stalled implementations.^[67] ^[68] ^[69] In contrast, strategies grounded in explicit modeling exhibit higher execution success, underscoring hand-waving's role in perpetuating inefficiency despite its short-term facilitation of buy-in.^[70]

Legal and Policy Arenas

In regulatory policymaking, agencies have historically relied on broad or ambiguous statutory language to justify expansive interpretations, often glossing over precise textual or evidentiary requirements, which invites judicial scrutiny for insufficient causal linkages between statutory intent and regulatory outcomes. The doctrine of Chevron deference, established in 1984, exemplified this by directing courts to accept "reasonable" agency readings of ambiguous statutes, even when those readings stretched congressional language without rigorous justification, leading to critiques of agencies engaging in policy-driven hand-waving rather than faithful implementation.^[71] In Loper Bright Enterprises v. Raimondo (2024), the Supreme Court overruled Chevron, mandating that judges exercise "independent judgment" in interpreting statutes, thereby curtailing agencies' ability to invoke deference as a shield for vague or unsubstantiated expansions of authority in areas like environmental and fisheries regulation.^[72] This shift addresses public accountability concerns, as prior deference enabled inconsistent enforcement across administrations, with regulated entities facing unpredictable compliance burdens tied more to agency narratives than verifiable statutory chains.^[73] In judicial opinions interpreting policy precedents, hand-waving manifests as nonspecific reasoning that prioritizes outcome-oriented narratives over detailed evidentiary or historical analysis, contributing to doctrinal instability. Justice Scalia's dissent in United States v. Windsor (2013) lambasted the majority's invalidation of the Defense of Marriage Act as resting on "nonspecific hand-waving" about equal protection or due process, without grounding in concrete constitutional text or tradition, which he argued evaded rigorous causal accountability for upending federal-state balances.^[74] Similarly, post-2010 Affordable Care Act litigation, such as NFIB v. Sebelius (2012), drew criticism in legal scholarship for courts' interpretive flexibility—reclassifying the individual mandate penalty as a tax—allowing policymakers to retroactively justify broad regulatory schemes through elastic precedents that sidestepped original legislative evidentiary gaps.^[75] These practices heighten public stakes by fostering precedents vulnerable to reversal, as seen in law review analyses highlighting how vagueness in regulatory statutes correlates with heightened litigation and uneven judicial outcomes.^[76] Within adversarial legal proceedings, prosecutorial arguments sometimes employ hand-waving by emphasizing overarching narratives of culpability while neglecting meticulous chain-of-custody documentation for physical evidence, prompting defense motions to exclude or discredit such proofs. Federal and state rules require prosecutors to establish an unbroken evidentiary chain to authenticate items like drugs or weapons, yet gaps—such as undocumented handling transfers—can render evidence inadmissible if not remedied, as courts demand specificity to prevent speculative inferences from undermining due process.^[77] In cases of alleged overreach, such as those involving contested forensic samples, appellate reviews have reversed convictions where prosecutors failed to link narrative claims to verifiable custody logs, illustrating how hand-waving evidentiary lapses erodes causal reliability in fact-finding.^[78] This dynamic, distinct from policy rulemaking, balances public interest in accountability against protections for defendants, with inconsistent application across jurisdictions amplifying disparities in conviction rates tied to prosecutorial precision.^[79] The prevalence of such hand-waving contributes to broader inconsistencies in legal rulings, particularly in debates over interpretive methodologies like originalism versus living constitutionalism, where dissents decry vague evolutionary readings as evading fixed textual constraints. Originalist critiques, echoed in 2020s Supreme Court opinions, argue that "living" approaches permit judges to hand-wave historical meanings in favor of policy preferences, yielding erratic precedents on issues from administrative power to individual rights, as tracked in dissenting opinions emphasizing empirical fidelity to ratification-era evidence over abstract adaptability.^[80] This has public implications, including eroded trust in rule-of-law uniformity, with data from federal dockets showing elevated reversal rates in circuits applying deferential standards pre-Loper Bright.^[81]

Criticisms, Misuses, and Implications for Truth-Seeking

Common Abuses of the Term

In scientific and public debates, accusations of "hand-waving" are sometimes misapplied to rigorous probabilistic assessments or circumstantial evidence that challenge dominant hypotheses, thereby evading substantive scrutiny. For instance, during the early 2020s discussions on COVID-19 origins, the lab-leak theory—supported by the Wuhan Institute of Virology's documented gain-of-function research on bat coronaviruses and its geographic proximity to the outbreak—was dismissed by some experts and officials as "speculative hand-waving" despite structured analyses weighing lab safety records and viral features.^[82] This rhetorical tactic persisted even after U.S. Department of Energy assessments in 2023 rated the lab incident as plausible with moderate confidence, based on classified intelligence, highlighting how the label can preempt evaluation of non-definitive but evidence-based scenarios.^[83] Such usage stifles discourse by conflating incomplete direct proof with invalidity, particularly when natural origin claims similarly rely on inferred evolutionary jumps without intermediate hosts identified by 2025.^[84] A parallel pattern emerges in climate debates, where dissenting models emphasizing causal roles for solar irradiance cycles or ocean-atmosphere oscillations—such as those quantifying natural variability's contribution to 20th-century warming—face routine branding as "vague hand-waving" from consensus-oriented outlets, irrespective of their incorporation of differential equations for feedback loops.^[85] This occurs despite attempts at falsifiable predictions, like Lindzen's adaptive iris hypothesis positing cloud-mediated negative feedbacks testable via satellite data, which were critiqued more for paradigm incompatibility than methodological flaws.^[86] Critics, often aligned with institutional narratives, employ the term to sideline these alternatives without addressing discrepancies in mainstream general circulation models, which overestimated tropospheric warming by factors of 2-3 in some mid-troposphere datasets from 1979-2010.^[87] The result is a chilling effect on pluralism, as evidenced by peer-review pressures that favor paradigm-conforming work, reducing incentives for causal exploration beyond anthropogenic forcings.^[88] Rhetorical analyses of debate dynamics further illustrate this abuse, revealing that "hand-waving" charges frequently correlate with status quo defense mechanisms rather than objective vagueness detection, as seen in patterns where challengers' structured inferences are downplayed to preserve interpretive hegemony.^[89] In politicized fields, this tactic amplifies when sources with institutional ties—prone to consensus biases—deploy it against outliers, fostering echo chambers that prioritize narrative cohesion over empirical falsification. Balanced scrutiny demands distinguishing genuine explanatory gaps from ideologically inconvenient precision, lest the term devolve into a tool for premature closure in open inquiry.^[90]

Relation to Epistemic Standards and Causal Reasoning

Hand-waving in discourse compromises epistemic standards by allowing vague generalizations to substitute for precise evidence and logical chains, thereby evading the rigorous scrutiny essential for knowledge validation. This practice often manifests as glossing over critical details or assumptions, reducing the accountability of claims to empirical or deductive testing.^[91] In causal reasoning, hand-waving particularly erodes causal realism by favoring correlational patterns over identifiable mechanisms, leading to inferences that lack depth and verifiability. The replication crisis in social sciences, which intensified in the 2010s, exemplifies this vulnerability, as many influential studies collapsed under retesting, revealing reliance on statistical artifacts and imprecise causal attributions rather than mechanistic validations.^[92] ^[93] Countering hand-waving requires enforcing disconfirmable hypotheses, as articulated in Karl Popper's falsification criterion from The Logic of Scientific Discovery (1959), which insists on theories vulnerable to empirical refutation to distinguish scientific inquiry from unfalsifiable speculation.^[94] This standard promotes causal depth by demanding predictions tied to observable mechanisms, applicable to ongoing debates where vague ethical or predictive assertions proliferate without testable anchors. Imposing such epistemic rigor challenges normalized hand-waving in policy advocacy, such as in equity frameworks or environmental regulations, where correlational narratives often supplant mechanism-based analysis, potentially amplifying biases from institutional sources like academia despite their perceived authority.^[95] Data-driven causal prioritization, grounded in falsifiable models, yields more robust outcomes across ideological lines by sidelining unsubstantiated appeals.^[96]

References

[1]
When someone says "that explanation was a lot of hand-waving ...
Oct 12, 2011 · Discussion or argumentation involving approximation, vagueness, educated guessing, or the attempt to explain or excuse vagaries.
[2]
Handwavy Definition & Meaning - YourDictionary
Handwavy definition: Of a demonstration, proof, or explanation, missing important details or logical steps, perhaps instead appealing to common sense, ...
[3]
Hand Waving - C2 wiki
Hand waving is drawing or assuming conclusions without evidence. Outside of an argument, it typically refers to skipping over a complex explanation or assuming ...
[4]
handwavy - WordReference Forums
Dec 20, 2017 · Hand-waving is an idiomatic metaphor, derived in part from the use of excessive gesticulation, perceived as unproductive, distracting or nervous.<|separator|>
[5]
The art of hand waving | Oikos Blog
Apr 26, 2011 · If by hand waving we simply mean omitting assumptions or steps in an argument for no good reason (or worse, for a bad reason, such as the desire ...
[6]
What do mathematicians mean by 'hand-waving' and why is ... - Quora
Aug 17, 2015 · Hand waving means reasoning that is fully fleshed out and not fully rigorous. It's usually done when the full picture is either to complicated ...What is an argument by hand-waving? - QuoraWhen someone says 'this explanation was hand-wavy', what does ...More results from www.quora.com
[7]
2. Methodology, Handwaving, and Diagrams
Apr 24, 2015 · Handwaving is when you kind of sound like you know what you're talking about, but you're really only speculating, using vague analogies, etc.
[8]
Examples of useful, insightful, and interesting hand-waving
Dec 17, 2014 · I would like to collect a "big list" of "useful" (and possibly somewhat sophisticated), insightful and interesting heuristics and hand-waving arguments.
[9]
Cicero and Quintilian on the oratorical use of hand gestures
Aug 7, 2025 · While gesture was acknowledged as part of the act of oratory by Greek and Roman rhetoricians (Hall 2004) , it wasn't until the seventeenth ...
[10]
A Manual of Gesture (1875) - The Public Domain Review
Jun 6, 2012 · This book by Albert. M. Bacon explores the art of hand gestures, particularly in relation to effective public oratory - all complete with a system of notation.
[11]
Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics (H)
HANDWAVING. This slang term first appears in print in the 1960s. A JSTOR search found these early examples: "By keeping the handwaving and the use ...
[12]
Handwave - RationalWiki
Nov 18, 2022 · ↑ See the Wikipedia article on Hand-waving. ... etymology • Appeal to trauma • Countless counterfeits fallacy •. Ad hoc ...
[13]
A Hand-Waving Exact Science | Sheldon Lee Glashow | Inference
Cosmology has evolved over the past few decades from a hand-waving qualitative discipline to what is more and more becoming an exact science. In his Chapter 4, ...Missing: earliest | Show results with:earliest
[14]
Sagan's baloney detection rules - Climate Etc.
Nov 9, 2014 · ... hand-waving intuition may be invoked. As near as I can tell, this confidence in the models is founded on confidence in the first result of a ...
[15]
There's more to mathematics than rigour and proofs - Terence Tao
The “pre-rigorous” stage, in which mathematics is taught in an informal, intuitive manner, based on examples, fuzzy notions, and hand-waving. (For instance, ...
[16]
[PDF] Snap Judgments— Risks and Benefits of Heuristic Thinking
Heuristic thinking is the tendency, which is at times quite useful, of relying on highly efficient and generally reliable cognitive shortcuts when reaching a ...
[17]
Of 2 Minds: How Fast and Slow Thinking Shape Perception and ...
Jun 15, 2012 · System 1 operates automatically and quickly, with little or no effort and no sense of voluntary control. • System 2 allocates attention to the ...
[18]
System 1 and System 2 Thinking - The Decision Lab
System 1 is fast, automatic, and intuitive, operating with little to no effort. This mode of thinking allows us to make quick decisions and judgments based on ...
[19]
How Cognitive Biases Influence the Way You Think and Act
Oct 16, 2025 · A cognitive bias is a systematic error in thinking that occurs when people process and interpret information in their surroundings, influencing their decisions ...
[20]
(PDF) In Praise of Vagueness: Malleability of Vague Information as a ...
Jul 1, 2016 · We argue that the malleability of vague information allows people to interpret it in the manner they desire, so that they can generate positive ...
[21]
Bayesian Models of Cognition
Jul 24, 2024 · Bayesian models of cognition explain aspects of human behavior as a result of rational probabilistic inference.
[22]
The 8-Factor reasoning styles scale: development, validation, and ...
Aug 19, 2025 · This study produced a thorough theoretical model encompassing three main dimensions of reasoning: Disposition (from Empirical to Hypothetical), ...
[23]
handwave - catb. Org
To gloss over a complex point; to distract a listener; to support a (possibly actually valid) point with blatantly faulty logic. 2. n. The act of handwaving. “ ...Missing: debate | Show results with:debate
[24]
HAND WAVING Definition & Meaning - Dictionary.com
Hand waving definition: insubstantial words, arguments, gestures, or actions used in an attempt to explain or persuade.. See examples of HAND WAVING used in ...Missing: debate | Show results with:debate
[25]
Complete Guide to Debating: How to Improve your Debating Skills
Aug 1, 2018 · Judges generally score the speakers looking at this criteria: Content / Matter – What the debaters say, their arguments and evidence, the ...Missing: specificity vagueness
[26]
How to judge a debate - Debating For Everyone
Nov 15, 2021 · How well has the motion been defined? · Have the arguments been clearly and logically constructed? · Have appropriate examples and evidence been ...Missing: specificity vagueness
[27]
Toulmin Argument - Purdue OWL
The Toulmin method is a style of argumentation that breaks arguments down into six component parts: claim, grounds, warrant, qualifier, rebuttal, and backing.
[28]
[PDF] Using Arguments to Persuade: Experimental Evidence
Sep 23, 2022 · We contribute to the literature by proposing the use of arguments as a simple, context-independent empirical measure of message persuasiveness ...
[29]
Relative Persuasiveness of Different Forms of Arguments-From ...
Argument quality in the elaboration likelihood model: An empirical study of strong and weak arguments in a persuasive message. In F. H. van Eemeren, J. A. ...Missing: vague | Show results with:vague
[30]
Exploring the Laffer Curve: Tax Rates and Revenue Explained
Critics argue that the Laffer Curve simplifies complex tax systems by using a single tax rate and overlooks varied economic circumstances and behaviors. The ...Missing: waving | Show results with:waving<|separator|>
[31]
The Failure of Supply-Side Economics - Center for American Progress
Aug 1, 2012 · Michael Ettlinger and Michael Linden give three decades' worth of evidence that proves supply-side economics doesn't work.Madeline Shepherd · Middle Class Series · Investment Growth Was Weaker...<|separator|>
[32]
Why did George H. W. Bush refer to Reaganomics as 'voodoo ...
Mar 1, 2021 · It refers to a discredited economic policy called supply side economics. President George H Bush coined the term Voodoo economics. professional ...What were the issues with Reagan's economic policies and ... - QuoraDid Reagan ever use the phrase “trickle down theory” to describe ...More results from www.quora.com
[33]
Strengths and weaknesses of the Green New Deal - Stanford Report
Mar 28, 2019 · Still, critics deride the plan as hopeless government overreach short on details and financial realism. Stanford Report spoke with Sally ...Missing: unsubstantiated | Show results with:unsubstantiated
[34]
Green New Deal: A Crazy, Expensive Mess
Dec 11, 2018 · Global emissions could rise because the Green New Deal ignores entirely the international aspect of climate change. The United States generates ...Missing: projections unsubstantiated
[35]
A systemic approach to the psychology of racial bias within ...
May 18, 2023 · There is also a noted tendency for media to use the passive voice when reporting on structural and systemic harms perpetrated against people ...
[36]
A systematic review on media bias detection - ScienceDirect.com
Mar 1, 2024 · We present a systematic review of the literature related to media bias detection, in order to characterize and classify the different types of media bias.
[37]
Confirmation bias in journalism: What it is and strategies to avoid it
Jun 6, 2022 · A behavioral scientist explains why it's important for journalists to recognize and reduce the influence of cognitive bias in their work.Missing: dismissing | Show results with:dismissing
[38]
Review of a Single Exchange in the Trump-Harris Debate - Medium
Sep 29, 2024 · Review of a Single Exchange in the Trump-Harris Debate. Public discourse as hand-waving woo-woo.
[39]
Fact‐checking election‐campaign misinformation: Impacts on ...
Nov 1, 2024 · Corrective fact-checks had large effects, reducing belief in misinformation, and fact-checked candidates were viewed much less favorably and ...Missing: databases waving accusations
[40]
User Clip: trump hand waving | Video | C-SPAN.org
Jun 23, 2017 · User Clip: trump hand waving. NA. This clip, title, and description ... They were joined by other political activists who were critical ...Missing: rhetoric | Show results with:rhetoric
[41]
Why are hand waving arguments made in textbooks of ...
Oct 29, 2017 · A hand-waving argument in algebra is very different from one in analysis and I would like to restrict my question in the context of analysis ...
[42]
[PDF] Riemann's Zeta Function - UCLA Statistics & Data Science
... Euler Product Formula. The Factorial Function. The Function ((s). Values of {(s). First Proof of the Functional muation. Second Proof of the Functional Equation.
[43]
Who Was Ramanujan? - Stephen Wolfram Writings
Apr 27, 2016 · But presumably he used some mixture of traditional mathematical proof, calculational evidence, and lots of intuition. But he didn't explain ...
[44]
[PDF] The Journal of Mathematical Behavior - Math Ed Seminar
Feb 18, 2011 · Appl5: Often when I prove things in an applied math course I'll give it a pretty hand waving or intuitive proof.” Stat4: I do not use formal ...
[45]
Why do Walter Rudin's proofs in real analysis often seem so elusive ...
Mar 9, 2017 · Rudin's proofs are very "nice", in the sense that they tend to be pretty and elegant, but they usually don't do a very good job of making the theorems clear.
[46]
When is a computer proof a proof? - Machine Logic
Aug 9, 2023 · As for convincing: there can be no handwaving in a machine proof. As a rule, machines are much harder to convince than a knowledgeable ...Missing: assisted | Show results with:assisted
[47]
Aerodynamic scaling to free flight conditions: Past and present
This report summarizes some of the problems when wind tunnel data should be scaled to free flight conditions.
[48]
[PDF] Aerodynamics as the Basis of Aviation: How Well Did It Do?
The paper describes the role of aerodynamics in the enhancement of aeroplane performance. To illustrate this, drag and lift-to-drag data are reviewed, covering ...
[49]
[PDF] Physics and Feynman's Diagrams - MIT
Feynman diagrams were invented in 1948 to help physicists find their way out of a morass of calculations troubling a field of theory called QED, or quantum ...Missing: heuristics formalized
[50]
[PDF] Feynman diagrams - PhilSci-Archive
Aug 30, 2021 · Usually, this behavior of the electrons is interpreted as them having wave character, and the interference pattern can be calculated accordingly ...Missing: wavy heuristics formalized
[51]
Are Emergent Abilities of Large Language Models a Mirage?
Via all three analyses, we provide evidence that emergent abilities disappear with different metrics or with better statistics, and may not be a fundamental ...<|separator|>
[52]
v1ch4 - NASA
The loss of the Space Shuttle Challenger was caused by a failure in the joint between the two lower segments of the right Solid Rocket Motor.Missing: causal | Show results with:causal
[53]
Challenger Explosion - Root Cause Analysis Blog
Apr 1, 2017 · The space shuttle broke apart because gasses in the external fuel tank mixed, exploded and tore the space shuttle apart. The external fuel tank ...Missing: links | Show results with:links
[54]
Sigmund Freud: Theory & Contribution to Psychology
May 22, 2024 · For this reason, Freud's theory is unfalsifiable – it can neither be proved true or refuted. For example, the unconscious mind is difficult to ...
[55]
IS FREUDIAN PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY REALLY FALSIFIABLE?
obliged to offer justification or proof that psychoanalysis is unfalsifiable. According to Popper, no theory can be justified by positive.
[56]
[PDF] Psychoanalytic Theory used in English Literature: A Descriptive Study
Freud's hypotheses are neither verifiable nor falsifiable. It is not clear ... Psychoanalytic literary criticism can focus on one or more of the following:.Missing: unfalsifiable | Show results with:unfalsifiable
[57]
[PDF] Fashionable Nonsense: Postmodern Intellectuals' Abuse of Science
Sokal and Bricmont show how easily such truisms can recede from view, and ... ample, although the quotation from Derrida contained in Sokal's parody is ...Missing: vagueness | Show results with:vagueness
[58]
PMLA: Volume 111 - Special Topic The Status of Evidence
By reexamining the documentary evidence on which those “facts” are based, we examine the role that ideology plays in gathering and interpreting evidence. ...Missing: intuition | Show results with:intuition
[59]
What Does Literary Studies Know? | Los Angeles Review of Books
Dec 10, 2018 · He doesn't adduce the literary work's representation as evidence for how the world works. Robinson and Cavendish don't prove panpsychism is real ...<|separator|>
[60]
[PDF] TRADITIONAL LITERARY INTERPRETATION VERSUS ...
May 10, 2022 · In this paper, I present a debate between two approaches to the interpretive side of literary criticism, which I refer to as traditional.
[61]
Why Most Transactions Never Meet Synergy Expectations
Sep 2, 2024 · Despite the attractive potential of synergies, most transactions fail to meet their synergy expectations. There are several reasons why synergy ...
[62]
Synergy Evaluation in Mergers and Acquisitions: An Attention ...
Feb 21, 2022 · Our analysis suggests that synergies often do not reflect the true potential of acquisitions. We reveal that this is due to an attentional ...
[63]
Understanding the 5 Stages of an Economic Bubble - Investopedia
Learn the five stages of an economic bubble and how recognizing them can help investors avoid financial pitfalls. Understand displacement, boom, euphoria, ...
[64]
Understanding Minsky Moments: Causes, History, and Real-World ...
Sep 6, 2025 · A Minsky moment refers to a sudden collapse of asset prices after a long period of growth sparked by debt or currency pressures.
[65]
Why Do So Many Strategies Fail?
Why Do So Many Strategies Fail? ... The CEO's job of crafting a strategy that creates and captures value—and keeps realizing it over time—has never been harder.
[66]
Consulting Is More Than Giving Advice - Harvard Business Review
Each year management consultants in the United States receive more than $2 billion for their services. 1 Much of this money pays for impractical data and ...( 2 ) · ( 6 ) · ( 8 )
[67]
4 Common Reasons Strategies Fail
Jun 24, 2022 · According to studies, some 60–90% of strategic plans never fully launch. The causes of derailment vary widely, but execution consistently bears the blame.
[68]
5 Reasons Strategy Execution Fails - HBS Online
Dec 21, 2023 · 3. Vague Strategic Goals. A common mistake when implementing strategy is underestimating the power of business goals and objectives. According ...
[69]
[PDF] The Strategy Crisis
What's the real cost when organizations fail to develop and execute a winning strategy? How confident are leaders about their company's strategy? What are ...
[70]
Many Strategies Fail Because They're Not Actually Strategies
Nov 8, 2017 · Many strategy execution processes fail because the firm does not have something worth executing.
[71]
The End of Chevron Deference: What Does It Mean, and What ...
Aug 16, 2024 · Chevron deference, established in 1984, required courts to defer to “permissible” agency interpretations of the statutes those agencies ...
[72]
[PDF] 22-451 Loper Bright Enterprises v. Raimondo (06/28/2024)
Jun 28, 2024 · It prescribes no defer- ential standard for courts to employ in answering those legal ques- tions, despite mandating deferential judicial review ...
[73]
[PDF] JUDICIAL REVIEW OF REGULATORY POLICY IN THE TRUMP ERA
Sep 24, 2021 · Agency regulations are subject to judicial review, but it is conventional wisdom that agencies are unlikely to lose in court and, thus, that ...
[74]
United States v. Windsor | 570 U.S. 744 (2013)
The sum of all the Court's nonspecific hand-waving is that this law is invalid (maybe on equal-protection grounds, maybe on substantive-due-process grounds ...
[75]
[PDF] When Analyzing Matching Rights, has the Delaware Court of ...
Jan 1, 2017 · Hand-Waving as a New Standard of Review: When Analyzing. Matching Rights, has the Delaware Court of Chancery Abdicated its Review Process?
[76]
Statutory Clarity and Judicial Review of Regulatory Impact Analysis
Apr 15, 2019 · Precise statutory language corresponds to better benefit-cost analysis and more consistent judicial review.Missing: vague making
[77]
How Chain of Custody Issues Can Undermine a Prosecution's Case
Aug 7, 2025 · In a criminal case, the prosecution bears the burden of proof and must therefore introduce evidence of the defendant's guilt.
[78]
Chain of Custody and Why It Is Important in a Criminal Case
Aug 26, 2020 · Chain of custody refers to the documentation that establishes a record of the control, transfer, and disposition of evidence in a criminal case.Missing: overreach narrative
[79]
[PDF] Theorizing Failed Prosecutions - Scholarly Commons
Mar 28, 2022 · From there, none of the remaining sources exceeded five percent of cases, from problems with chain of custody to the filing of the wrong charge, ...
[80]
Neil Gorsuch's Judicial Humility Is Sanctimonious Horseshit
Jun 28, 2024 · The Supreme Court's opinion in Grants Pass v Johnson reveals a ... hand-waving analysis of relevant precedent, and soaring tributes to ...
[81]
Enforcement Lawmaking and Judicial Review - Harvard Law Review
Feb 10, 2022 · This Article challenges those views. It argues that the judiciary is very much engaged in devising techniques to check executive power.
[82]
The origin of COVID: Did people or nature open Pandora's box at ...
May 5, 2021 · The lab escape scenario for the origin of the SARS2 virus, as should by now be evident, is not mere hand-waving in the direction of the Wuhan ...
[83]
COVID 'lab leak' theory: Does the DOE's assessment hold water?
Mar 1, 2023 · This crew's "assessments are not to be ignored, dismissed, or hand-waved away." The Week. Escape your echo chamber. Get the facts behind the ...Missing: examples | Show results with:examples
[84]
Senate GOP report argues lab-leak theory is most likely origin of covid
Oct 27, 2022 · ... dismissed the new GOP report as “speculative hand-waving” and views it as a partisan document. “This is in service of trying to set up ...
[85]
Why climate change contrarians owe us a (scientific) explanation
Oct 11, 2013 · It is for the Northern Hemisphere only and it does not propose any real physical mechanism for its affects. Just some vague hand waving of so ...
[86]
Understanding climate denial - Skeptical Science
Sep 28, 2011 · ... hand waving. Lindzen says this: For reference purposes, the radiative forcing associated with a doubling of CO2 is about 3.5 watts per ...
[87]
Implications for climate models of their disagreement with observations
Oct 30, 2013 · Mass and energy conservation is very much harder than hand-waving, bumper-sticker science. The fundamental conservation principles at the ...
[88]
How to spot “alternative scientists”. - RealClimate
Aug 12, 2020 · ... hand-waving. Sure, the number may 'seem' small–but compared to what, exactly? Driving is one of the riskiest things we do, but last year in ...
[89]
One Damned Thing before Another - Taylor & Francis Online
Jan 15, 2018 · That the physical dynamics of the universe must be, in Deacon's ... hand waving' toward intentional/semantic information. Carr, E. H. ...
[90]
[PDF] Counteracting the Politicization of Science - Northwestern University
The implication, for us, is that individuals will not dismiss a correction a la directional motivated reasoning when motivated to form an accurate belief; ...
[91]
How's and Why's: Causation Un-Locked - jstor
By 'hand waving,' I mean that when Locke is unable fully to explain such causal phenomena, he frequently leaves them to the "good pleasure of our Maker." I ...
[92]
What ails the social sciences - Works in Progress Magazine
Feb 8, 2021 · For the social sciences, the big story of the 2010s was instead the replication crisis. Phenomena we thought to be universal and robust have ...Missing: timeline | Show results with:timeline
[93]
Crisis, Confidence, and the Limits of Replication | Zygon
Oct 21, 2024 · The crisis of replication perhaps began around 2010, when two science journalists launched a website to publicize not only scientific papers ...
[94]
Karl Popper: Philosophy of Science
Popper's falsificationist methodology holds that scientific theories are characterized by entailing predictions that future observations might reveal to be ...
[95]
Epistemic Consultants and the Regulation of Policy Knowledge in ...
Jun 25, 2020 · In this essay we argue that these programs spelled out an emergent epistemology based on two assumptions: dispersed knowledge and a critique of judgment.
[96]
Flexible or Rigid? A Functionalist Approach to Epistemic Standards
On the one hand, epistemic standards draw much of their benefits from being rigid, i.e. from making the same requirements in every given instance. On the other ...