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Marcus Borg

Marcus J. Borg (March 11, 1942 – January 21, 2015) was an American scholar and theologian whose work focused on the and reinterpretations of Christian doctrine through historical-critical lenses. Holding a doctorate from Oxford University, he taught for 28 years at , where he was appointed the first Hundere Distinguished Professor of Religion and Culture in 1993 and received all major teaching awards before retiring in 2007. As a fellow of the Jesus Seminar, Borg participated in scholarly efforts to evaluate the authenticity of Jesus' sayings and deeds recorded in the Gospels, applying criteria that frequently deemed traditional miracle accounts and apocalyptic prophecies as later symbolic developments rather than historical events. His reconstructions portrayed the historical Jesus as a Jewish mystic and wisdom teacher who embodied an alternative vision to Roman imperial domination, emphasizing transformative social ethics and experiences of God over literal eschatology. This distinction between a pre-Easter historical figure and the post-Easter Christ of faith underpinned his advocacy for metaphorical readings of scripture, rejecting literal beliefs in the virgin birth, physical resurrection, and substitutionary atonement as essential to Christian identity. Borg authored or co-authored over 20 books, including bestsellers such as Jesus: A New Vision (1987), Meeting Jesus Again for the First Time (1994), and The Heart of Christianity (2003), which were translated into 12 languages and sold widely to bridge academic insights with popular audiences seeking rational, non-dogmatic faith. He also chaired the Historical Jesus Section of the Society of Biblical Literature and lectured internationally, fostering dialogue on scripture's role in contemporary life amid debates over literalism versus experiential spirituality. While his emphasis on examined beliefs and civil discourse amid controversy influenced , his de-emphasis of claims drew criticism for eroding doctrines grounded in early creeds and eyewitness testimonies.

Early Life and Education

Childhood and Upbringing

Marcus Borg was born on March 11, 1942, in , as the youngest of four children to parents of and descent. Raised primarily in during the 1940s, he grew up in a devout Lutheran household where the church served as the central pillar of family life and . His early years were shaped by the rhythms of mid-20th-century American Protestantism within a conservative Lutheran context, featuring regular attendance, youth group activities, singing, recitation, and memorization. This environment promoted a literal interpretation of Scripture, embedding traditional doctrines such as the and his physical resurrection, while instilling a vivid awareness of eternal punishment for unbelief. In late childhood and early adolescence, Borg encountered initial puzzlements about these teachings, which deepened into foundational doubts regarding God's existence and the Bible's literal truth claims. Triggered by nascent exposure to scientific perspectives and critical inquiry, this emerging provoked intense , manifesting as guilt and anxiety amid his orthodox upbringing.

Formal Education and Influences

Borg earned a Bachelor of Arts degree from Concordia College in Moorhead, Minnesota, in 1964, with a major in political science and a minor in philosophy. Following this, he undertook postgraduate studies at Union Theological Seminary in New York and the University of Tübingen in Germany, where he engaged with advanced biblical scholarship emphasizing historical-critical methodologies. He later completed a Master of Theology and Doctor of Philosophy at Mansfield College, Oxford University, receiving the D.Phil. in 1972 under the supervision of George B. Caird. During his undergraduate years at , a Lutheran institution, Borg underwent a personal crisis of faith triggered by perceived contradictions and historical issues in the , prompting him to question fundamentalist interpretations of scriptural . This led to his discovery of Rudolf Bultmann's work, particularly the concepts of —which analyzes the oral traditions behind texts by their literary forms—and , which seeks to reinterpret mythological elements in the as existential truths rather than literal history. These approaches, rooted in early 20th-century scholarship, enabled Borg to reconceptualize the as a product of ancient communities shaped by their cultural contexts, shifting his perspective from orthodox confessionalism toward a historical-empirical that prioritizes verifiable textual and social data over dogmatic presuppositions. His time at Tübingen exposed him further to the tradition of higher criticism, exemplified by Bultmann's influence on studies, which emphasized dissecting the Gospels' development through community transmission rather than accepting them as seamless divine revelation. At , Borg's doctoral research culminated in a dissertation titled Conflict as a Context for Interpreting the Teaching of , which applied form-critical and socio-historical lenses to examine disputes over authority and purity in first-century as frameworks for understanding ' pronouncements, reflecting an initial commitment to evidence-based reconstruction over theological harmonization. This intellectual trajectory marked Borg's departure from evangelical Lutheran roots toward liberal scholarship, where empirical scrutiny of sources supplanted literalist readings, though he retained a commitment to ' ethical and transformative significance.

Academic Career

Teaching and Research Positions

Borg began his academic career following completion of his D.Phil. at Oxford University in 1972, though specific early teaching roles prior to remain undocumented in primary institutional records. In , he joined the faculty of as a of religion, where he remained for 28 years until retirement. At Oregon State, Borg advanced to the rank of and held the Hundere Chair in Religion and Culture, focusing his research and instruction on studies and related historical topics. He developed undergraduate and graduate courses in these areas, contributing to the university's offerings in amid a secular institution without a dedicated divinity school. Upon retiring in 2007, he assumed status, enabling continued scholarly output and public engagement tied to his prior institutional role.

Institutional Affiliations and Roles

Borg chaired the Historical Jesus Section of the Society of Biblical Literature from 1987 to 1992, guiding discussions on research within the leading professional body for biblical scholars. He also co-chaired the society's International Program Committee beginning in 1991, facilitating cross-disciplinary collaborations on studies. These roles positioned him to influence academic networks and amplify progressive hermeneutical approaches in scholarly circles. At the Westar Institute, Borg served as a founding fellow and key leader of the starting in 1985, contributing to its organizational direction and scholarly output alongside figures like Robert Funk. His involvement extended the institute's reach into public discourse on biblical authenticity. In ecclesiastical settings, Borg was installed as Canon Theologian at Trinity Episcopal Cathedral in , on May 31, 2009, engaging in theological consultations that bridged academia and practice.

Core Theological Positions

Biblical Hermeneutics and Metaphorical Interpretation

Marcus Borg developed a "historical-metaphorical" approach to biblical hermeneutics, which he outlined in his 2001 book Reading the Bible Again for the First Time: Taking the Bible Seriously but Not Literally. This method integrates a historical dimension—examining the texts' original meanings within their ancient cultural and communal contexts—with a metaphorical dimension that uncovers symbolic layers of meaning extending beyond literal factuality. By this lens, scriptural narratives convey deeper spiritual insights through imagery and archetype, rather than serving as verbatim historical records or propositional truths. Central to Borg's hermeneutic is the treatment of supernatural elements, such as and prophecies, as metaphorical rather than empirical occurrences. accounts, for example, represent encounters with divine power and , not verifiable events defying natural laws, allowing the texts to resonate with modern rational sensibilities shaped by scientific inquiry. Prophecies similarly express the ancient ' or early ' theological aspirations and communal identity, functioning symbolically to evoke hope and ethical imperatives rather than forecasting literal future happenings. This demythologizing impulse, reminiscent of Rudolf Bultmann's influence, strips away pre-modern cosmological assumptions to reveal enduring existential and relational truths. Borg positioned his approach in opposition to and inerrancy, which he saw as incompatible with post-Enlightenment historical consciousness that prioritizes evidence-based inquiry over uncritical acceptance of ancient worldviews. Fundamentalist readings, in his view, impose a pre-critical that renders scripture vulnerable to dismissal amid empirical scrutiny, whereas the historical-metaphorical method employs tools like to trace the Bible's evolution from oral traditions and communal storytelling. The and thus emerge as testaments to Israel's and the early church's lived experiences of , shaped iteratively by collective reflection rather than direct divine authorship, preserving the texts' transformative power for contemporary readers.

Portrait of the Historical Jesus

Marcus Borg depicted the historical Jesus as a charismatic Jewish figure deeply embedded in the social and religious ferment of first-century Galilee, functioning as a "spirit person"—a term denoting one who combined mystical ecstasy with healing powers, akin to cross-cultural anthropological parallels of shamans and ecstatic healers. This portrayal prioritized evidence from multiple independent sources, such as the synoptic traditions and Q material, while subordinating claims of supernatural feats to the broader context of Jewish renewal movements resisting Roman domination and elite collaboration. Jesus, in Borg's reconstruction, led a subversive Galilean initiative that embodied transformative compassion against exploitation, viewing the kingdom of God not as a future apocalyptic rupture but as an emergent present reality of justice and mercy accessible through ethical praxis. Central to this image was as a wisdom sage whose parables and sayings critiqued conventional and economic hierarchies, drawing from proverbial traditions while infusing them with urgency derived from his experiential encounter with divine . Borg argued that ' healings reflected genuine therapeutic efficacy within a pre-modern , corroborated by analogous spirit-mediated practices in other ancient Mediterranean and Near Eastern contexts, rather than requiring suspension of natural causation. Miracles like walking on water or the were interpreted metaphorically: the former symbolizing unswerving trust amid peril, the latter underscoring ' origins in divine purpose without literal , as these narratives lacked early attestation and aligned better with mythic embellishment than historical reportage. Post-resurrection appearances, Borg contended, conveyed a experienced by followers as ongoing encounter with ' empowering presence, not bodily reanimation verifiable by empirical means; this emphasized ethical continuity in the kingdom's realization over eschatological finality. Influenced by anthropological comparisons, Borg situated amid global patterns of sage-like figures who mediated alternative wisdom against imperial norms, rejecting incarnational in favor of a agent catalyzing communal renewal. This portrait, articulated in works like Jesus: A New Vision (1983), shifted focus from otherworldly expectation to socio-political , positing the kingdom as God's inbreaking domain of equity already manifesting in ' inclusive table fellowship and prophetic confrontations.

Views on Divinity, Miracles, and Eschatology

Borg conceptualized in terms, describing as "the enveloping and empowering Spirit" that permeates and transcends the universe, rather than a distant, personal capable of interventions. This framework emphasized 's —experienced through and mystical encounter—and rejected classical 's portrayal of as an "out-there" ruler separate from creation. In his 1997 book The God We Never Knew: Beyond Dogmatic Religion to a More Authentic Contemporary Faith, Borg argued that fosters a relational dynamic with the divine, accessible via inner awareness, while critiquing for fostering fear-based obedience rather than transformative experience. Regarding miracles, Borg maintained that accounts of ' miraculous acts, such as healings or nature , function as pre-Easter metaphorical narratives symbolizing divine power and compassion, not as verifiable historical events defying natural laws. He viewed these stories as "history metaphorized," blending with symbolic amplification to convey truths about God's realm, rather than literal interventions by a agent. Post-Easter Christian faith, for Borg, arises from communal experiences of the sacred—such as visions or transformative encounters—rather than for a bodily , which he deemed incompatible with a non-interventionist understanding of . Borg interpreted through a realized lens, seeing the "basileia tou theou" ( or of ) as an ongoing, present transformative movement rooted in , , and resistance to , rather than a future apocalyptic event. He critiqued as a later dualistic distortion influenced by , arguing that proclaimed the as already breaking into history via ethical renewal and , not as an imminent cosmic rupture. This metaphorical hope, Borg contended, shifts focus from end-times speculation to participatory action in embodying God's now, aligning with his emphasis on experiential over literal fulfillment.

Engagement with Scholarly Movements

Participation in the Jesus Seminar

Marcus Borg served as a fellow of the , a scholarly group founded by Robert Funk in 1985 under the auspices of the Westar Institute, where he contributed significantly to its early work evaluating the authenticity of sayings attributed to in the Gospels. The Seminar employed an empirical voting process among its approximately 75 fellows, using colored beads to assess sayings: red indicated Jesus likely said it, pink that he probably did, gray that results were mixed, and black that he did not. This method drew on established historical-critical criteria, including dissimilarity (sayings unlikely to originate from or early church contexts) and embarrassment (material potentially awkward for Jesus' followers, thus less likely invented). Borg, alongside other fellows, participated in sessions that applied these criteria to over 500 sayings, culminating in the 1993 publication The Five Gospels: The Search for the Authentic Words of , which concluded that approximately 18% of sayings in the were authentic to . This outcome challenged traditional views of Gospel reliability by distinguishing pre-Easter (historical) material from post-Easter interpretations, while Borg emphasized the Seminar's aim to democratize scholarly findings for lay audiences through accessible publications. In response to accusations of ideological from conservative critics, who argued the process presupposed toward the texts, Borg and fellow members defended its interdisciplinary approach, prioritizing data-driven voting over confessional commitments to yield verifiable results independent of theological orthodoxy. Borg advocated for "red-letter" editions highlighting only deemed-authentic sayings, as in the Seminar's color-coded translation, to promote transparent engagement with historical evidence rather than uncritical acceptance of .

Contributions to the Third Quest for the Historical Jesus

Marcus Borg advanced the Third Quest for the Historical Jesus, which gained momentum in the 1980s, by embedding Jesus' ministry within the socio-political realities of first-century Judaism under Roman domination, utilizing insights from archaeology, sociology, and anthropology to illuminate patterns of exploitation by Herod Antipas and imperial authorities. In contrast to the Second Quest's emphasis on existential individualism inspired by Rudolf Bultmann, Borg stressed Jesus as a catalyst for communal renewal, fostering an egalitarian movement of inclusion that challenged the hierarchical structures of temple purity codes and elite alliances with Rome. This approach highlighted causal dynamics of resistance, where Jesus' actions—such as table fellowship with outcasts and critiques of wealth—functioned as non-violent subversion against economic and religious oppression, rather than apocalyptic futurism or personal salvation divorced from social context. Borg's integration of social-scientific methods portrayed as both a Jewish sage dispensing subversive wisdom and embodying compassionate , prioritizing present transformative over deferred eschatological hopes prevalent in some earlier reconstructions. He argued that ' teachings reflected an internal Jewish debate between "holiness" paradigms of separation and exclusion versus "" models of boundary-crossing solidarity, empirically grounded in evidence of Galilee's stratified and peasant unrest documented in and archaeological finds like . This framework critiqued the de-historicizing tendencies of prior quests, insisting on causal realism: ' execution stemmed not from abstract but from perceived threats to Roman-Herodian stability posed by his movement's egalitarian . Through dialogues such as his 1999 co-authored volume with , The Meaning of Jesus, Borg engaged contrasting visions, defending a historical Jesus whose non-violent to empire—evident in symbolic acts like the cleansing—aimed at catalyzing justice-oriented communities amid imperial violence, while emphasized fulfillment of Jewish restoration hopes. Collaborations with further amplified this, framing ' passion as deliberate non-violent confrontation with imperial processions and power, drawing on parallels in Jewish traditions. Borg's scholarship bridged academic rigor and public accessibility, notably in PBS's From Jesus to Christ series (1998), where he depicted as a spirit-filled modeling through wisdom and inclusion, influencing broader discourse on ' historical agency beyond elite institutions. These contributions underscored the Third Quest's shift toward empirical contextualization, though Borg's liberal academic milieu occasionally prioritized metaphorical over literal interpretations, warranting scrutiny against conservative critiques favoring stricter adherence to canonical data.

Published Works

Major Monographs and Popular Books

Jesus: A New Vision: Spirit, Culture, and the Life of Discipleship (1987) examined as a Jewish who experienced the of and confronted the dominant cultural of his era, rather than as primarily an apocalyptic figure predicting the end times. The book emphasized ' teachings on , , and boundary-breaking inclusion as central to discipleship. Meeting Jesus Again for the First Time: The Historical and the Heart of Contemporary Faith (1994), drawn from Borg's lectures, recounted his personal transition from a literalist understanding of to one centered on the historical figure as a and social critic, distinct from the later Christ of faith. It argued for a metaphorical of biblical language to foster a vibrant, non-dogmatic contemporary accessible to lay readers. The God We Never Knew: Beyond Dogmatic Religion to a More Authentic Contemporary Faith (1997) critiqued traditional notions of a monarchical, punitive in favor of a panentheistic view where permeates the while transcending it, prioritizing relational and experiential dimensions of over doctrinal . Borg advocated for as transformation in this life through participation in 's passion for and .

Collaborative and Edited Publications

Borg frequently collaborated with , another prominent member of the , on books that applied historical-critical methods to narratives, emphasizing socio-political contexts over literal supernatural interpretations. Their joint work The Last Week: What the Gospels Really Teach About Who Was, What He Did, and Why He Matters (2006) reconstructs ' final days in as a deliberate confrontation with Roman and temple authorities, framing the accounts as symbolic of systemic injustice rather than endorsing vicarious atonement or . This approach highlights as a wisdom and movement initiator, drawing on Mark's Gospel as the primary historical framework while discounting later theological accretions in and Luke. In The First Christmas: What the Gospels Really Teach About Jesus's Birth (2007), Borg and Crossan analyze the infancy narratives in Matthew and Luke as midrashic inventions—creative theological midrash rather than eyewitness history—intended to proclaim Jesus' significance through symbolic birth stories paralleling imperial propaganda about Augustus. They argue these parables underscore themes of divine favor for the marginalized, rejecting literal virgin birth or celestial portents as unhistorical. Their later collaboration, The First Paul: Reclaiming the Radical Visionary Behind the Church's Conservative Icon (2009), distinguishes seven undisputed letters of from pseudepigraphic ones, portraying the authentic as an apocalyptic Jewish mystic advocating radical and resistance to empire, in contrast to domesticated later interpretations. This layered textual analysis prioritizes pre-Pauline traditions and socio-economic critiques over doctrinal . Borg also co-authored The Meaning of Jesus: Two Visions Turned into One (1999, revised 2007) with , structuring the book as paired chapters where Borg's metaphorical, non-eschatological view of ' life, death, and debates Wright's emphasis on Jewish apocalyptic fulfillment and bodily evidence. This format exposes divergences, with Borg advocating a as spirit person and sage whose "resurrection" signifies transformative vision rather than physical revival. Among edited volumes, Borg co-edited God at 2000 (2000) with Ross , assembling essays from diverse theologians on God's nature in millennial context, including contributions that align with Borg's panentheistic leanings and critiques of . The collection fosters dialogue on divine metaphors amid scientific and cultural shifts, reflecting Borg's interest in accessible, non-dogmatic .

Reception and Controversies

Affirmations from Progressive and Liberal Circles

Marcus Borg was commended in progressive and liberal Christian communities for rendering scholarly approachable to non-specialists, thereby facilitating a reconnection with faith for those alienated by literalist interpretations. His role as president of the Anglican of Biblical Scholars affirmed his stature among academics, where his works encouraged a metaphorical engagement with scripture that resonated in denominational settings like the . Borg's appointment as Canon Theologian at Trinity Episcopal Cathedral in Portland, Oregon, exemplified institutional recognition from Episcopal circles, positioning him as a guide for clergy and laity navigating modern skepticism. His lectures and writings, including popular titles that collectively sold over one million copies by 2015, were credited with revitalizing congregational discussions and adult education programs in mainline denominations, such as through widespread use in Episcopal and United Church of Christ study groups. Progressive voices highlighted Borg's success in sustaining Christian commitment amid secular pressures by reframing core doctrines—such as the and of —as transformative metaphors rather than historical literals, influencing hundreds of thousands via books, audio recordings, and annual lecture tours exceeding 100,000 miles. The endowment of his Hundere Distinguished Professor chair at by alumnus Al Hundere in recognition of this outreach underscored his efficacy in generating support for and bridging scholarly rigor with popular appeal.

Critiques from Evangelical and Conservative Theologians

Evangelical blogger and author labeled Marcus Borg a false teacher for rejecting core Christian doctrines, including the , the bodily , and the inerrancy of Scripture, while still identifying as a Christian, which Challies argued aligned Borg's views more closely with than orthodox Christianity. Challies contended that Borg's denial of —evidenced by Borg's own statement that he "let go of the notion that the is a divine product"—prioritized rationalistic over divine , eroding the historical faith's doctrinal foundation. Critics from evangelical circles, including participants in responses to the Jesus Seminar, accused Borg of applying selective criteria that presupposed naturalism, dismissing supernatural elements a priori while overlooking early attestation of Jesus' resurrection in creeds like those in 1 Corinthians 15:3–7, which date to within a few years of the events. This approach, they argued, accommodated modernist assumptions at the expense of historical and textual evidence supporting traditional claims, as the Seminar's voting process on Jesus' sayings favored skepticism toward miracles and eschatological predictions. Borg's advocacy of drew charges from conservative outlets of diluting biblical by portraying God as an impersonal encompassing spirit rather than a transcendent personal creator, incompatible with Scripture's depiction of a relational capable of intervention. Philosophers aligned with evangelical thought critiqued this shift from to as reducing divine agency to vague , undermining and personal divine action central to orthodox theology. Such views, detractors maintained, prioritized experiential over propositional truth, fostering a that hollowed out Christianity's core.

Public Debates and Intellectual Exchanges

In the late 1990s, Borg engaged in printed intellectual exchanges with evangelical scholars such as over the ' , particularly in the 1998 volume Will the Real Jesus Please Stand Up?, edited by . Borg argued that the narrative held little historical relevance, emphasizing instead the metaphorical and transformative meaning of post- visions experienced by disciples as subjective encounters rather than evidence of a physical bodily revival. Blomberg, defending evangelical positions, countered by prioritizing accounts as reliable supporting literal events, highlighting a core methodological divide where Borg applied skeptical historical-critical criteria to discount claims, while Blomberg upheld scriptural reliability against such . Borg also debated New Testament scholar on the apocalyptic dimensions of ' message, most notably through their co-authored 1999 book The Meaning of : Two Visions, which presented chapter-by-chapter contrasting interpretations. Borg conceded ' emphasis on social and ethical renewal in the present of God but rejected futurist apocalyptic expectations—such as an imminent supernatural intervention—as post-Easter accretions from early Christian communities rather than authentic to the , whom he portrayed primarily as a wisdom teacher and subversive . , advocating for as an eschatological , maintained that apocalyptic language reflected ' expectation of God's irrupting into , critiquing Borg's approach for overly demythologizing core elements in favor of modern experiential reinterpretations. This exchange extended their prior private discussions into public view, underscoring tensions between Borg's metaphorical hermeneutic and 's integration of historical data with theological futurism. Throughout these confrontations, Borg consistently defended his positions by appealing to empirical historical rigor via criteria like multiple attestation and dissimilarity, while characterizing evangelical orthodoxy as "pre-critical naïveté" that uncritically accepts narratives without subjecting them to post-Enlightenment scholarly scrutiny. He maintained that such literalism failed to distinguish layers of tradition in the Gospels, prioritizing instead transformative metaphors that aligned with contemporary experiential faith over unverifiable ancient claims. Critics from evangelical circles, including participants like Blomberg and , rebutted this as selective that undermined the evidential basis of Christian doctrine, yet Borg framed these debates as essential for advancing beyond dogmatic constraints toward a historically informed .

Personal Life and Legacy

Family, Health, and Death

Borg was married to Marianne Wells Borg, an priest and former canon at Cathedral in . He had two adult children from a previous relationship, son Dane and daughter Julie, as well as a grandson, Carter. In his final years, Borg battled and , a progressive lung disease involving scarring and thickening of lung tissue that impairs breathing. Despite the advancing illness, he remained engaged in writing and public reflection into late 2014. He died from on January 21, 2015, at age 72 in his home in Powell , Oregon.

Enduring Influence and Posthumous Assessments

Borg's ideas laid foundational groundwork for the movement and , influencing figures such as , who cited Borg alongside other scholars as key inspirations for reimagining and faith practices. Similarly, referenced Borg positively in works like , endorsing his metaphorical approach to scripture as a means to adapt to contemporary sensibilities. The Westar Institute, co-founded by Borg, has sustained his legacy through ongoing events, including commemorations of his work a decade after his 2015 death, such as panels reflecting on his impact on ministry and . Posthumous assessments reveal sharp polarization in theological evaluations of Borg's influence. voices celebrate his emphasis on deconstructing literalist , viewing it as liberating faith from outdated supernaturalism and fostering experiential , as evidenced by continued endorsements in circles for re-engaging alienated believers. Conservative theologians, however, critique his legacy as promoting a diluted form of that erodes core doctrines like and Jesus's divinity, potentially serving as a gateway to unbelief by prioritizing over historical claims. These critics often link such shifts to broader empirical trends, including the sustained decline in membership—from 41 million in 1965 to under 20 million by 2020—arguing that doctrinal revisionism correlates with reduced adherence to traditional tenets, though causation remains debated. Borg's verifiable impact includes over one million books sold across titles like Meeting Jesus Again for the First Time, alongside enduring presence through foundations and institutes dedicated to his paradigm of "emerging" Christianity. Yet, assessments question the longevity of doctrinal fidelity among adherents, as surveys of progressive-leaning denominations show lower rates of orthodox —such as in the or as historical events—compared to evangelical groups, suggesting Borg's metaphorical hermeneutic may prioritize accessibility over sustained confessional commitment. The Marcus J. Borg Foundation continues advocating for this approach, emphasizing a "realistic" 21st-century , but conservative analyses contend it risks conflating cultural adaptation with theological erosion.