Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Medium access control

Medium access control (MAC) is a sublayer of the data link layer in the OSI model that regulates how multiple network devices share a common transmission medium, preventing collisions and ensuring orderly data exchange in local area networks (LANs). It provides mechanisms for frame delimiting, addressing using unique 48-bit MAC addresses, data transfer, error detection via cyclic redundancy checks, and controlled access to the physical medium.^[1]^[2] The MAC sublayer interfaces directly with the physical layer to manage bit-level transmission while offering a medium-independent service to the logical link control (LLC) sublayer above it. In shared media environments, such as bus or wireless topologies, MAC protocols coordinate access to avoid interference; key categories include random access methods, which allow stations to transmit opportunistically, controlled access methods that schedule transmissions, and channelization techniques that divide the medium statically. This coordination is essential for maintaining network efficiency, fairness, and low latency in environments where multiple devices contend for the same channel.^[2]^[3] Prominent MAC protocols include Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD), used in IEEE 802.3 Ethernet for wired LANs, where devices sense the medium before transmitting and abort upon detecting a collision, followed by a random backoff retry. In contrast, IEEE 802.11 wireless LANs employ CSMA/CA to avoid collisions in environments where detection is unreliable due to hidden terminals; it uses request-to-send (RTS) and clear-to-send (CTS) handshakes, along with acknowledgments (ACKs) and exponential backoff, to reserve the channel and confirm reception. Token passing, as in IEEE 802.5 Token Ring networks, circulates a special token frame to grant exclusive transmission rights, eliminating collisions but introducing potential delays from token propagation.^[2]^[4]^[3] These protocols have evolved to support higher speeds and diverse topologies, from 10 Mbps Ethernet to multi-gigabit wireless standards, adapting to full-duplex modes that eliminate contention altogether in point-to-point links. MAC's role extends to modern networks, influencing performance in switched Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and emerging IoT systems by balancing throughput, delay, and reliability.^[2]^[3]

Fundamentals of MAC

Definition and Role in OSI Model

The medium access control (MAC) sublayer constitutes the lower portion of the data link layer (Layer 2) within the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model, tasked with facilitating reliable data transmission across the physical medium.^[5] It operates above the physical layer (Layer 1) and below the logical link control (LLC) sublayer, providing a standardized interface for higher-layer protocols to interact with the underlying transmission hardware.^[5] In this capacity, the MAC sublayer ensures that data from the network layer is properly formatted and transmitted over shared or point-to-point links, maintaining the integrity of frame delivery in diverse network environments. A primary function of the MAC sublayer is to coordinate access among multiple devices contending for a shared communication medium, thereby preventing collisions and minimizing interference to enable efficient, simultaneous usage.^[6] This coordination is essential in local area networks (LANs) where bandwidth is a limited resource, allowing stations to detect and resolve transmission conflicts dynamically without centralized oversight.^[6] By managing these access dynamics, the MAC sublayer supports scalable connectivity for distributed systems, optimizing throughput while adhering to the OSI model's emphasis on layered modularity. The conceptual foundations of the MAC sublayer emerged in the mid-1970s amid efforts to develop practical LAN technologies, with early innovations centered on broadcast-based packet switching over coaxial cables.^[6] This work culminated in the formalization of standards during the late 1970s and 1980s, particularly through the IEEE 802 project initiated in 1980 to unify LAN specifications.^[7] The IEEE 802.3 standard, ratified in 1983 and building on prior Ethernet prototypes, established the MAC sublayer as a core component for wired Ethernet networks, influencing subsequent evolutions in both wired and wireless domains.^[8] In operation, the MAC sublayer performs frame encapsulation by accepting protocol data units from the LLC sublayer or directly from the network layer, appending medium-specific headers and trailers—such as source and destination addresses, frame length indicators, and error-checking fields—to form complete MAC frames suitable for transmission.^[2] This process contrasts with the physical layer's responsibility for raw bit-level signaling and electrical/optical transduction over the medium, as the MAC focuses on logical structuring and access arbitration rather than signal propagation.^[9] Through this demarcation, the MAC sublayer promotes interoperability across varying physical implementations while ensuring robust data link performance.

Core Functions of MAC Sublayer

The MAC sublayer of the data link layer in the OSI model is responsible for key operational tasks that prepare data for transmission over a shared physical medium, ensuring reliable delivery between adjacent nodes. These core functions include framing to structure data into transmittable units and error detection to identify transmission faults. By performing these tasks, the MAC sublayer abstracts the complexities of the physical medium, allowing higher layers to focus on logical data handling.^[10] Framing involves encapsulating higher-layer data (such as LLC protocol data units) into structured frames by adding headers and trailers, which include fields for source and destination addresses, length or type indicators, the payload data, and optional padding to meet minimum frame size requirements. This process defines frame boundaries, enabling the physical layer to transmit and receive discrete units rather than a continuous bit stream. For instance, the MAC sublayer generates a preamble for initial alignment and appends a frame check sequence for integrity verification, ensuring the frame is properly formatted before transmission. In IEEE 802.3 Ethernet, the basic frame format consists of a 7-octet preamble, a 1-octet start frame delimiter (SFD), 6-octet destination address (DA), 6-octet source address (SA), 2-octet length/type field, 46-1500 octet data field (with padding if necessary), and a 4-octet frame check sequence (FCS). The preamble and SFD facilitate frame boundary detection and clock recovery at the receiver.^[10]^[11] Error detection in the MAC sublayer primarily relies on mechanisms like the cyclic redundancy check (CRC), which appends a checksum to the frame to detect bit errors introduced during transmission. The receiver recomputes the CRC over the received frame and compares it against the appended value; any mismatch indicates corruption, prompting discard of the frame without correction, as MAC typically does not perform error recovery. In Ethernet, a 32-bit CRC (CRC-32) is used, generated using the polynomial

G(x) = x^{32} + x^{26} + x^{23} + x^{22} + x^{16} + x^{12} + x^{11} + x^{10} + x^{8} + x^{7} + x^{5} + x^{4} + x^{2} + x + 1

applied to the frame content from the destination address through the data field. This polynomial enables detection of burst errors up to 32 bits and all odd-numbered bit errors, providing robust integrity checking for shared media environments.^[10]^[11]^[10] In certain implementations, such as full-duplex Ethernet, the MAC supports flow control through the MAC Control sublayer to regulate data transmission rates and prevent congestion. This includes temporary storage of incoming frames in receiver buffers and the use of PAUSE frames defined in IEEE 802.3x, where a receiver can request the sender to halt transmission for a specified duration (up to 65,535 pause quanta, each 512 bit times at 1 Gb/s) to allow buffer recovery. These mechanisms ensure efficient resource utilization without explicit rate negotiation, adapting to varying link conditions. Acknowledgments, where used, are often handled in conjunction with higher layers.^[10]^[11]

Addressing in MAC

MAC Address Structure and Types

A Media Access Control (MAC) address is a 48-bit (6-byte) flat identifier used to uniquely specify devices on a network segment within the MAC sublayer of the data link layer. It is typically represented in hexadecimal notation as six pairs of digits separated by colons or hyphens, such as 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E, with each pair corresponding to one byte (octet).^[5] These addresses are assigned and managed by the IEEE Registration Authority to ensure global uniqueness in IEEE 802 networks.^[12] The structure consists of a 24-bit Organizationally Unique Identifier (OUI) in the first three octets, allocated to manufacturers by the IEEE, followed by 24 bits assigned by the manufacturer for specific devices or interfaces.^[13] MAC addresses are categorized by their usage and administration scope. Unicast addresses target individual devices and have the least significant bit (LSB, bit 0) of the first octet set to 0. Multicast addresses facilitate group communication to multiple recipients and set the LSB of the first octet to 1 (while distinguishing from broadcast by not being all 1s). Broadcast addresses, represented as FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF (all bits set to 1), deliver frames to all devices on the local network segment. Additionally, addresses are classified as universally administered or locally administered based on the second-least significant bit (bit 1) of the first octet: a value of 0 indicates universal administration, ensuring global uniqueness through IEEE assignment, whereas 1 denotes local administration, allowing network administrators or devices to assign addresses without global coordination.^[14]^[15] Uniqueness of universally administered MAC addresses is enforced by the IEEE Registration Authority, which allocates OUIs to organizations and oversees the overall address space to prevent collisions across IEEE 802-compliant networks. As of recent allocations, the IEEE has assigned tens of thousands of OUIs, enabling billions of unique device addresses through manufacturer extensions.^[12] The standard 48-bit format originated in early IEEE 802 standards, such as IEEE 802.3 for Ethernet, to support fixed-length addressing in local area networks. For broader applications like IPv6 stateless address autoconfiguration, the IEEE introduced the 64-bit Extended Unique Identifier (EUI-64), which expands the 48-bit MAC address by inserting the hexadecimal value FFFE between the OUI and manufacturer bits, while flipping the universal/local bit to indicate its derived nature. This EUI-64 format allows devices to generate globally unique interface identifiers without manual configuration. However, due to privacy concerns, its use in IPv6 SLAAC has been deprecated in favor of randomized interface identifiers.^[16]^[17]^[18]^[19] Privacy concerns have led to the adoption of randomized MAC addresses in modern Wi-Fi implementations under IEEE 802.11, where devices generate temporary, locally administered addresses to obscure persistent identifiers and prevent tracking across networks. The IEEE 802.11 working group has studied randomized and changing MAC addresses (RCM) since 2014, culminating in standards like IEEE 802.11bh-2024, which provide mechanisms for networks to handle such randomization while preserving user privacy.^[20]^[21]

Address Resolution and Mapping

In address resolution and mapping, the primary mechanism for translating higher-layer protocol addresses, such as IP addresses, to link-layer MAC addresses in IPv4 networks is the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP). ARP operates by broadcasting an ARP request packet from a host seeking the MAC address corresponding to a known IP address on the local network; this packet contains the sender's IP and MAC addresses in its header, along with the target IP address, and is sent to the Ethernet broadcast address.^[22] If another host on the network recognizes the target IP as its own, it responds with a unicast ARP reply packet containing its MAC address, allowing the requesting host to associate the IP with the MAC for subsequent frame transmission.^[22] To optimize performance and reduce network traffic, hosts maintain an ARP cache table—a temporary storage of resolved IP-to-MAC mappings—that is periodically updated and timed out to reflect changes in network topology.^[22] The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) provides the inverse functionality, enabling a host that knows its own MAC address but not its IP address—such as a diskless workstation during boot—to request its IP address from a RARP server on the local network, although RARP is now obsolete and has been replaced by the Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP) and Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). RARP operates similarly to ARP but reverses the request and reply fields: the client broadcasts a RARP request with its MAC address, and the server unicasts a reply with the corresponding IP address.^[23]^[24] An extension to ARP, the Inverse Address Resolution Protocol (InARP), adapts this mapping for non-broadcast networks like Frame Relay, where a station uses InARP to discover the protocol address (e.g., IP) associated with a known virtual circuit identifier (DLCI) without broadcasting, facilitating efficient address resolution in point-to-multipoint topologies.^[25] For IPv6 networks, the Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP) supersedes ARP as the mechanism for IP-to-MAC address mapping, integrating address resolution with additional functions like router discovery and address autoconfiguration. NDP uses Internet Control Message Protocol version 6 (ICMPv6) messages, including Neighbor Solicitation (NS) and Neighbor Advertisement (NA) packets, where an NS multicast query seeks a target's link-layer address by including the target's solicited-node multicast address, and the NA unicast response provides the MAC address, all secured against some threats via optional cryptographic extensions.^[26] Gratuitous ARP, a variant of ARP, involves a host sending unsolicited ARP requests or replies to announce or update its own IP-to-MAC mapping on the network, often used for duplicate address detection (DAD) during IP configuration. In DAD, a host sends a gratuitous ARP request with its proposed IP as both source and target; if no reply is received within a timeout period, the address is considered unique, preventing conflicts from simultaneous use of the same IP.^[27] A significant security vulnerability in ARP arises from ARP spoofing, where an attacker sends forged ARP replies to poison the ARP caches of legitimate hosts, associating the attacker's MAC address with a victim's IP to enable man-in-the-middle attacks, session hijacking, or traffic interception.^[28] This exploit leverages ARP's trust in unsolicited replies without authentication, allowing unauthorized redirection of traffic on local networks.^[28] To mitigate ARP spoofing, Dynamic ARP Inspection (DAI) is employed on network switches, which validates incoming ARP packets against a trusted binding database (often derived from DHCP snooping) by checking IP-MAC pairs and port associations, dropping invalid packets to prevent cache poisoning.^[29]

Channel Access Control Methods

Contention-Based Access Methods

Contention-based access methods enable multiple devices to share a communication medium without centralized coordination, relying instead on decentralized protocols where stations contend probabilistically for access, potentially leading to collisions that must be resolved through retransmission mechanisms. These methods prioritize simplicity and low overhead in dynamic environments, such as local area networks, by allowing stations to sense the medium and transmit when deemed idle, though they trade off efficiency for fairness in access. A foundational example is Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA), introduced in the seminal Ethernet design, which improves upon pure ALOHA by incorporating carrier sensing to reduce collision probability.^[6] In basic CSMA, a station listens to the medium before transmitting; if idle, it sends the frame immediately (1-persistent mode), or with probability p (p-persistent), or defers to a later time if busy (non-persistent). Collisions occur if multiple stations initiate transmission nearly simultaneously due to propagation delays. To address this in wired networks, CSMA with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) was developed, as specified in IEEE 802.3 standards for Ethernet. The CSMA/CD algorithm operates as follows: a station first performs carrier sensing to check if the medium is idle for a minimum duration (interframe spacing); if idle, it transmits the frame while continuously monitoring for collisions by comparing transmitted and received signals. If a collision is detected—typically within the slot time, defined as twice the maximum propagation delay—a jam signal (e.g., 32 bits of a fixed pattern) is sent to ensure all stations detect the interference, after which the station ceases transmission and invokes a truncated binary exponential backoff. The backoff time is calculated as r \times slot time, where r is a random integer uniformly chosen from 0 to $2^k - 1, with k = \min(n, 10) and n the retransmission attempt number (up to 16 attempts before discard). This backoff mechanism reduces collision probability by exponentially increasing wait times while truncating at k=10 to prevent indefinite delays.^[30] The efficiency of CSMA/CD is analyzed through its maximum throughput S, given by S = \frac{1}{1 + 5a}, where a = \tau / T is the ratio of the maximum propagation delay \tau to the average packet transmission time T. For typical early Ethernet configurations with a \approx 0.01 to 0.1, this yields throughputs of 80-90% of the raw channel capacity, establishing key context for its viability in short-distance networks. Historically, CSMA/CD dominated in 10 Mbps Ethernet implementations from the late 1970s through the 1990s, enabling shared coaxial bus topologies in local area networks before being largely phased out in favor of full-duplex switched Ethernet, which eliminates collisions entirely.^[31] In wireless environments, CSMA/CD proves impractical due to the hidden terminal problem, where two stations cannot sense each other's transmissions but both contend for access to a common receiver, leading to undetected collisions. This issue arises from signal attenuation and obstacles, making collision detection unreliable without full-duplex radios. Consequently, Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) emerged as the preferred variant, as defined in IEEE 802.11 standards for wireless LANs; it emphasizes preemptive avoidance through mechanisms like Request-to-Send/Clear-to-Send (RTS/CTS) handshakes to reserve the medium and mitigate hidden terminals, though at the cost of additional overhead. While CSMA variants briefly reference MAC addresses for frame identification during transmission, their core operation remains focused on medium contention rather than addressing. Limitations of contention-based methods include vulnerability to high loads, where collisions degrade throughput exponentially, and the hidden terminal exacerbating inefficiency in non-line-of-sight wireless scenarios, prompting reliance on avoidance over detection.^[32]

Controlled Access Methods

Controlled access methods in medium access control (MAC) protocols employ centralized or scheduled mechanisms to allocate transmission opportunities to network stations, thereby eliminating contention and ensuring predictable access to the shared medium. These techniques contrast with contention-based approaches by providing deterministic behavior, where access rights are explicitly granted rather than competed for probabilistically. Common implementations include token passing, polling, and reservation-based schemes, each suited to specific network topologies and traffic requirements.^[33] Token passing is a distributed controlled access method where stations logically form a ring and circulate a special control frame, known as a token, to regulate transmission rights. Only the station possessing the token may transmit data frames; upon completion, it releases the token to the next station in the sequence. This approach ensures fair access and prevents collisions by design. A seminal example is the Token Ring protocol standardized in IEEE 802.5, which operates on a physical star topology with logical ring connectivity, supporting data rates up to 16 Mbps in its original form. The IEEE 802.5 frame format includes priority fields with eight levels (0-7), allowing stations to elevate the token's priority for time-sensitive traffic while reserving lower priorities for reinstatement after transmission. Additionally, a token holding timer limits the duration a station can retain the token—typically 10-30 ms depending on ring size—to prevent monopolization and maintain circulation.^[34]^[34] Polling represents a centralized controlled access technique where a primary controller, or master station, sequentially queries secondary stations to determine if they have data to transmit. The master transmits poll messages in a predefined order, and responding stations send their data in the subsequent slot; idle stations reply with a null response. This method provides strict coordination, particularly in master-slave architectures. In Bluetooth networks, standardized under IEEE 802.15.1, the master device in a piconet (supporting up to seven active slaves) controls access via time-division duplex (TDD) polling over 625 μs slots, using logical transport addresses (LT_ADDR) to address slaves and configurable poll intervals (minimum 1.25 ms) to balance latency and efficiency. Power-saving modes like sniff, hold, and park further adapt polling frequency, with the master scheduling transmissions to avoid overlaps in the frequency-hopping sequence.^[35] Reservation-based methods allocate time slots dynamically based on station requests, often using a contention-free phase for reservations followed by scheduled transmissions. Stations request resources during a mini-slotted access period, and the central coordinator grants slots to avoid overlaps. The HIPERLAN/2 standard, developed by ETSI, exemplifies this in wireless LANs with data rates up to 54 Mbps, employing a time-division multiple access (TDMA)/TDD frame structure (2 ms duration) divided into downlink (DL), uplink (UL), and random access (RA) phases. Mobile terminals (MTs) send resource requests via the random channel (RCH) using mini-slots and short protocol data units (PDUs) in a slotted ALOHA manner with backoff; the central controller (CC) or access point (AP) then allocates UL capacity through forward control channel (FCCH) grants, supporting both centralized (AP-relayed) and direct (MT-to-MT) modes.^[36]^[37] Historically, token passing was also implemented in bus topologies, such as the Token Bus protocol in IEEE 802.4 for broadband LANs, which organized stations into a virtual ring over coaxial cable to support industrial applications like manufacturing automation. However, Token Bus became largely obsolete by the early 2000s due to the dominance of Ethernet (IEEE 802.3), which offered simpler implementation, lower cost, and higher scalability without the need for precise token timing.^[38] Controlled access methods offer key advantages, including deterministic latency for real-time applications and complete avoidance of collisions, which maximizes channel efficiency under moderate loads. For instance, token passing and polling ensure bounded access delays, making them suitable for synchronous traffic. However, they introduce disadvantages such as vulnerability to single points of failure (e.g., master failure in polling or token loss in ring networks) and overhead from control mechanisms like token circulation or poll acknowledgments, which can reduce throughput in low-traffic scenarios. Reservation schemes mitigate some overhead through dynamic allocation but require robust request handling to prevent reservation phase inefficiencies.^[33]^[39]

Methods for Concurrent Transmission

Methods for concurrent transmission in medium access control enable multiple users to share a communication medium simultaneously by dividing resources such as frequency, time, or spatial domains, thereby increasing overall system capacity without requiring sequential access. These techniques contrast with single-channel contention or controlled methods by focusing on parallelism through structured resource allocation, often integrated into cellular and wireless standards to support higher user densities. Key approaches include frequency division, time division, code division, orthogonal frequency division, and spatial techniques leveraging multiple antennas. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) partitions the available bandwidth into non-overlapping frequency channels, each assigned to a different user for simultaneous transmission. This method was foundational in early analog cellular systems, such as the Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS), where the 25 MHz spectrum was divided into 30 kHz channels to support multiple voice calls concurrently. By allocating distinct frequency bands, FDMA minimizes inter-user interference through guard bands, though it requires precise frequency synthesis and suffers from inefficient spectrum use due to fixed channel assignments.^[40] Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) divides the transmission timeframe into discrete slots, allowing multiple users to share the same frequency by transmitting in assigned non-overlapping intervals. In the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), a TDMA frame consists of eight time slots, each approximately 577 μs long, supporting up to eight users per carrier with a 200 kHz bandwidth. To prevent overlap from propagation delays, guard periods are incorporated—8.25 bit durations (about 30 μs) in normal bursts—ensuring clean slot transitions and enabling concurrent access across the frame. This slotted structure facilitates efficient multiplexing in digital cellular networks, balancing throughput with synchronization overhead.^[41] Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) permits concurrent transmissions over the same frequency and time by assigning unique orthogonal spreading codes to each user, allowing signals to overlap while being separable at the receiver via correlation. In the IS-95 standard (cdmaOne), Walsh codes of length 64 are employed on the forward link to distinguish up to 64 channels within a 1.25 MHz bandwidth, spreading data at 1.2288 Mcps for robust interference rejection. The system's capacity for voice traffic is approximated by the formula C = \frac{W}{R} \left(1 + \frac{E_b}{N_0}\right)^{-1}, where W is the chip rate (spreading bandwidth), R is the data rate, and E_b/N_0 is the required signal-to-noise ratio, highlighting the trade-off between processing gain and interference levels in interference-limited environments. This code-based separation enhances capacity in multipath scenarios compared to FDMA or TDMA.^[42]^[43] Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) extends OFDM by dynamically allocating subcarriers to multiple users, enabling fine-grained concurrent access in frequency-selective channels. In WiMAX (IEEE 802.16e), subcarriers are grouped into subchannels—either distributed for diversity (e.g., 48 data subcarriers per slot in PUSC mode) or adjacent for contiguous allocation—allowing simultaneous transmissions across the 10 MHz channel with 864 subcarriers. Similarly, 4G LTE employs resource blocks (12 subcarriers over 1 ms) for subcarrier assignment, supporting multi-user diversity through fast scheduling and up to 100 resource blocks in a 20 MHz bandwidth. OFDMA's orthogonality reduces inter-carrier interference via cyclic prefixes, making it ideal for broadband wireless systems with varying user demands.^[44] Beamforming and spatial reuse in Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO) systems facilitate concurrent transmissions by directing signals toward intended receivers using antenna arrays, nulling interference in other directions to increase spatial efficiency. In ad hoc networks, MIMO beamforming protocols like BMAC integrate channel estimation with medium access, employing zero-forcing techniques to suppress multipath interference and enable multiple simultaneous links within the same spatial region. This approach boosts effective spatial reuse—measured as the ratio of concurrent transmissions to total nodes—as antenna elements increase (e.g., up to 20% throughput gains over legacy protocols in simulations with 8 antennas), allowing directional concurrency without resource partitioning. Such methods are pivotal in modern wireless LANs and cellular networks for exploiting spatial degrees of freedom.^[45]

MAC in Specific Network Types

MAC in Wired Local Area Networks

In wired local area networks (LANs), the Medium Access Control (MAC) sublayer is primarily implemented through the IEEE 802.3 Ethernet standard, which defines the protocols for accessing the shared physical medium in a structured manner. Originally developed in the 1980s, Ethernet MAC employed Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) for half-duplex operation at 10 Mbps over coaxial cables, where stations listened to the medium before transmitting and detected collisions to retransmit frames, ensuring fair access in bus topologies.^[46] This mechanism was essential for managing contention in shared media environments but became inefficient as network speeds increased due to longer cable lengths and higher propagation delays.^[47] The evolution of Ethernet MAC addressed these limitations by transitioning to full-duplex operation starting with the IEEE 802.3x amendment in 1997, which introduced dedicated transmit and receive paths, eliminating the need for CSMA/CD and collision detection altogether.^[48] This shift enabled higher throughput without the overhead of collision resolution, paving the way for Gigabit Ethernet (IEEE 802.3ab in 1999) and beyond, where switches facilitate point-to-point connections in star topologies.^[49] Frame handling in modern Ethernet MAC includes support for VLAN tagging as defined in IEEE 802.1Q, which inserts a 4-byte tag into the Ethernet frame header to identify virtual LANs, prioritize traffic via priority fields, and partition broadcast domains for improved security and efficiency in large networks.^[50] Switches and bridges integrate MAC learning by dynamically building address tables from the source MAC addresses in incoming frames, associating them with specific ports to forward traffic unicast to the correct destination while flooding unknown addresses.^[51] Ethernet speed advancements have progressed from 10 Mbps (10BASE-T) and 100 Mbps (100BASE-TX) to 1 Gbps (1000BASE-T) in the early 2000s, scaling to 10 Gbps (IEEE 802.3ae in 2002), 40/100 Gbps (IEEE 802.3ba in 2010), and reaching 400 Gbps with IEEE 802.3bs in 2017, supporting data centers and high-performance computing with backward compatibility through autonegotiation protocols.^[8] These higher speeds rely on full-duplex switched topologies, where legacy half-duplex devices can coexist via emulation of CSMA/CD signals on ports, though migration to fully switched networks mitigates issues like reduced effective bandwidth from collisions in mixed environments.^[52] IEEE 802.3 standards incorporated 400 Gbps interfaces with the 2017 approval of IEEE 802.3bs, emphasizing energy-efficient encoding and error correction to maintain reliability across diverse cabling media.^[53] Further advancements include IEEE 802.3df-2024, approved in February 2024, which defines MAC parameters for 800 Gb/s Ethernet to support ultra-high-speed applications.^[54]

MAC in Wireless Local Area Networks

The Medium Access Control (MAC) sublayer in wireless local area networks (WLANs), primarily defined by the IEEE 802.11 standards, is designed to manage shared access to the unlicensed radio spectrum, where collisions cannot be reliably detected due to the absence of collision detection in wireless transmissions. Unlike wired networks, wireless MAC protocols emphasize probabilistic contention avoidance to mitigate interference, hidden terminals, and exposed terminals in dynamic, mobile environments. The core mechanism is the Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA), which relies on physical and virtual carrier sensing to reduce the probability of collisions.^[55] The IEEE 802.11 MAC employs two primary coordination functions: the Distributed Coordination Function (DCF) for contention-based access and the Point Coordination Function (PCF) for contention-free operation. DCF, the default mode, implements CSMA/CA with a binary exponential backoff algorithm, where stations listen to the channel before transmitting and defer if busy, followed by a random backoff period to resolve simultaneous attempts. To address the hidden terminal problem—where nodes cannot sense each other's transmissions—DCF optionally uses Request-to-Send/Clear-to-Send (RTS/CTS) handshakes; the sender broadcasts an RTS frame, and upon receiving a CTS from the receiver, other stations update their Network Allocation Vector (NAV), a timer that reserves the medium virtually to prevent interference from hidden or exposed nodes. PCF, managed centrally by an access point (AP), divides time into contention-free periods using polling, where the AP sequentially grants transmission opportunities to stations, ensuring predictable access but at the cost of higher overhead in infrastructure mode.^[56]^[57]^[58] Subsequent amendments have enhanced the 802.11 MAC for quality of service (QoS) and efficiency in dense environments. The IEEE 802.11e standard introduces Enhanced Distributed Channel Access (EDCA), an extension of DCF that prioritizes traffic through four access categories (voice, video, best effort, background) with differentiated contention parameters, such as shorter interframe spaces and contention windows for higher-priority classes, enabling QoS without a central coordinator. For concurrent multi-user support, IEEE 802.11ac incorporates downlink Multi-User Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MU-MIMO), allowing an AP to transmit independent spatial streams to multiple stations simultaneously, with MAC enhancements like Transmission Opportunity (TXOP) sharing to coordinate scheduling and reduce overhead. IEEE 802.11ax further refines MU-MIMO with uplink capabilities and integrates Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) for finer resource allocation, improving spectral efficiency in high-density scenarios.^[59]^[60] The IEEE 802.11be (Wi-Fi 7) standard, published in July 2025, further enhances the MAC with multi-link operation (MLO), enabling simultaneous transmission over multiple links for higher throughput and lower latency.^[61] Power-saving modes are integral to the 802.11 MAC to extend battery life in mobile devices, particularly in infrastructure networks. Stations in power-save (PS) mode enter a doze state and periodically awaken to listen for beacon frames transmitted by the AP, which include a Traffic Indication Map (TIM) bitmap indicating buffered unicast traffic for specific stations. Upon detecting its bit set in the TIM, a station sends a PS-Poll frame to request buffered data, prompting the AP to deliver it in the subsequent transmission; this mechanism balances latency with energy conservation by minimizing unnecessary wake-ups.^[57]

MAC in Cellular Networks

In cellular networks, the Medium Access Control (MAC) layer manages access to shared radio resources, adapting to mobility and wide-area coverage through specialized protocols. Early implementations in the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) and Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) relied on a hybrid Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) and Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) framework for GSM, evolving to Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) in UMTS Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) modes, while incorporating TDMA in Time Division Duplex (TDD) variants. The GSM MAC, integrated within the Radio Resource (RR) layer, employs TDMA/FDMA to divide the 200 kHz carrier into eight timeslots per frame, enabling multiple users per frequency channel. Logical channels such as the Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH) for system information, Common Control Channel (CCCH) for paging and access, Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH) for signaling, and Dedicated Traffic Channel (DTCH) for user data are mapped to physical channels. The Random Access Channel (RACH), a contention-based uplink component of the CCCH, facilitates initial access requests using slotted ALOHA-like procedures with parameters like maximum retransmissions (1-7) and transmit integer (3-50 slots) to mitigate collisions. In UMTS, the MAC protocol specification defines entities like MAC-d for dedicated channels, MAC-c/sh for common channels, and specialized MAC-hs for High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA). Logical channels (e.g., Dedicated Traffic Channel (DTCH), Common Control Channel (CCCH)) map to transport channels such as Dedicated Channel (DCH) or RACH, with the MAC controlling RACH transmissions via Access Service Class (ASC) selection (0-7 priorities) and persistence values to handle random access efficiently. Advancing to Long-Term Evolution (LTE) and 5G New Radio (NR), the MAC layer leverages Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) for both uplink and downlink, replacing earlier TDMA/FDMA hybrids to support higher data rates and spectral efficiency. In LTE, the eNodeB centralizes scheduling, allocating resource blocks via downlink control information on the Physical Downlink Control Channel (PDCCH), while Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request (HARQ) enables error control with up to eight processes per serving cell, using asynchronous retransmissions and soft combining for reliability. The 5G NR MAC, specified in TS 38.321, extends this with up to 16 HARQ processes per cell and gNB-based scheduling supporting dynamic, semi-persistent, and configured grants, optimizing for diverse services like enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB) and Ultra-Reliable Low-Latency Communications (URLLC). Logical channels (e.g., CCCH, DCCH, DTCH) map to transport channels like Uplink Shared Channel (UL-SCH) and Downlink Shared Channel (DL-SCH), with multiplexing prioritized by logical channel groups. Handover procedures in cellular MAC emphasize seamless re-establishment to minimize interruption during cell transitions. In LTE, upon receiving an RRC Connection Reconfiguration message with mobilityControlInfo, the UE performs radio link failure detection and initiates MAC reset, re-establishing HARQ entities and logical channels on the target cell without data loss via sequence number continuity. Similarly, in 5G NR, the gNB triggers handover via RRC signaling, prompting the UE to re-establish the MAC entity—including HARQ buffers and timers—on the target cell, with enhanced support for conditional handover to reduce latency in high-mobility scenarios. This MAC-layer re-establishment ensures rapid synchronization and resource resumption post-handover. Resource allocation in cellular MAC prioritizes dynamic and efficient sharing, particularly for low-latency applications. In 5G NR, dynamic grants via PDCCH enable real-time eNodeB/gNB scheduling based on buffer status reports, while configured grant-free access—using Type 1 (RRC-configured) or Type 2 (DCI-activated) grants—allows immediate UL-SCH transmissions without scheduling requests, critical for URLLC with sub-millisecond latency targets. This contrasts with LTE's more grant-reliant approach, reducing control overhead in dense deployments. As of 2025, 5G Release 17 and beyond integrate Non-Terrestrial Networks (NTN) MAC adaptations for satellite and high-altitude platform backhaul, addressing propagation delays up to 270 ms via extended timing advances (up to 69 ms for geostationary orbits) and HARQ optimizations like disabling feedback for transparent mode satellites. NTN supports NR-RedCap and NB-IoT over non-terrestrial links, with MAC enhancements for beam management and quasi-time-division duplexing to maintain compatibility with terrestrial protocols. 3GPP Release 18, frozen in June 2024, extends NTN capabilities with support for integrated sensing and communication (ISAC), enhanced non-terrestrial IoT via RedCap, and additional optimizations for diverse satellite deployments.^[62]

References

[1]
Media Access Control - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Media access control is defined as an access control method that enables nodes in a network to share a common transmission medium consistently, allowing them to ...
[2]
[PDF] 4. Media Access Control - IEEE 802
4.1.1 Overview The MAC sublayer defines a medium-independent facility, built on the medium-dependent physical facility provided by the Physical Layer, and ...
[3]
[PDF] Chapter 6 Medium Access Control Protocols and Local Area Networks
Medium Access Control. Protocols and Local Area. Networks. Overview of LANs. Page 117 ... ○ IEEE standards assume LLC always used. ○ Higher layer protocols ...
[4]
[PDF] Computer Networking Overview IEEE 802.11 MAC Protocol: CSMA/CA
Overview. • Internet mobility. • TCP over noisy links. • Link layer challenges and WiFi. • Cellular. 3. IEEE 802.11 MAC Protocol: CSMA/CA. 802.11 CSMA: sender.
[5]
Standard Group MAC Addresses: A Tutorial Guide
sublayer. In OSI terminology, the MAC and LLC sublayers are considered to be sublayers of the OSI Data Link layer. Both the MAC and LLC sublayers contain fields.Missing: model | Show results with:model
[6]
Ethernet: distributed packet switching for local computer networks
Ethernet is a branching broadcast communication system for carrying digital data packets among locally distributed computing stations.
[7]
Milestones:Origin of the IEEE 802 Family of Networking Standards ...
The IEEE 802 project was created in 1980 to standardize LANs, with key standards including 802.1, 802.3, 802.11, and 802.15. It was approved on March 13, 1980.
[8]
Ethernet Through the Years: Celebrating the Technology's 50th Year ...
1985. The IEEE 802.3 Ethernet standard is released for Local Area Networks (CSMA/CD), featuring two coaxial sizes and a fiber medium option with a data rate of ...
[9]
99. Full-duplex media access control
The MAC sublayer defines a medium-independent facility, built on the medium-dependent physical facility provided by the Physical Layer, and under the access- ...
[10]
IEEE 802.3-2022 - IEEE SA
Jul 29, 2022 · IEEE Standard for Ethernet Amendment: Physical Layer Specifications and Management Parameters for an Optimized Interface Between a MAC and a PHY.
[11]
[PDF] 2012 (Revision of IEEE Std 802.3-2008), IEEE Standard for Ethernet ...
Dec 28, 2012 · The Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD). MAC protocol specifies shared medium (half duplex) operation, as well as ...
[12]
MA-L
### Summary of MAC Address Structure and OUI Allocation
[13]
finding the right mac address for - IEEE Standards Association
In MAC addresses, the OUI is combined with a 24-bit number (assigned by the owner, or assignee, of the OUI) to form the address.
[14]
[PDF] Proposal for IEEE 802.1CQ (Self-Assignment part)
The M bit indicates if the address is unicast (0) or multicast/broadcast (1). The third and fourth least significant bits of the initial octet in the local MAC ...<|separator|>
[15]
MAC address randomization - IETF
Oct 22, 2022 · ... IEEE Registration Authority. Another range of local MAC addresses is designated for assignment by administrators. The specification ...
[16]
IEEE 802-2001 - IEEE SA
IEEE 802-2001 provides an overview of the IEEE 802 standards, defines compliance, and describes the relationship to the Open Systems Interconnection model.Missing: OUIs | Show results with:OUIs<|separator|>
[17]
IEEE RA Guidelines for Use of EUI, OUI, and CID
Aug 3, 2017 · The EUI-64 is used instead of EUI-48 to avoid excess consumption of OUI values within high-volume, particularly non-networking, applications. ...
[18]
RFC 4291 - IP Version 6 Addressing Architecture - IETF Datatracker
This specification defines the addressing architecture of the IP Version 6 protocol. It includes the basic formats for the various types of IPv6 addresses.
[19]
ieee p802.11 - randomized and changing mac address (rcm) study ...
Jan 29, 2021 · RCM SG began with an initiative within the IEEE 802.11 working group to consider the merits and challenges presented by randomized and changing MAC addresses.
[20]
IEEE 802.11bh-2024 - IEEE SA
Jun 3, 2025 · This standard defines one medium access control (MAC) and several physical layer (PHY) specifications for wireless connectivity for fixed, portable, and moving ...Missing: model | Show results with:model
[21]
RFC 826 - An Ethernet Address Resolution Protocol - IETF Datatracker
RFC 826 is an Ethernet Address Resolution Protocol that converts network protocol addresses to 48-bit Ethernet addresses for transmission.
[22]
RFC 903 - A Reverse Address Resolution Protocol - IETF Datatracker
RFC 903 proposes a Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) for workstations to find their protocol address when they know only their hardware address.
[23]
RFC 2390: Inverse Address Resolution Protocol
Inverse Address Resolution Protocol (InARP) will allow a Frame Relay station to discover the protocol address of a station associated with the virtual circuit.
[24]
RFC 4861 - Neighbor Discovery for IP version 6 (IPv6)
This document specifies the Neighbor Discovery protocol for IP Version 6. IPv6 nodes on the same link use Neighbor Discovery to discover each other's presence.
[25]
RFC 5227 - IPv4 Address Conflict Detection - IETF Datatracker
Gratuitous ARP does not in fact provide effective duplicate address detection ... RFC 5227 IPv4 Address Conflict Detection July 2008 This specification ...
[26]
RFC 6959 - Source Address Validation Improvement (SAVI) Threat ...
This document describes threats enabled by IP source address spoofing both in the global and finer-grained context, describes currently available solutions and ...
[27]
Chapter: Configuring Dynamic ARP Inspection - Cisco
Jul 30, 2017 · Dynamic ARP inspection is a security feature that validates ARP packets in a network. It intercepts, logs,and discards ARP packets with invalid ...
[28]
[PDF] Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
When transmission has completed (or immediately, if there was nothing to transmit) the CSMA/CD MAC sublayer resumes its original monitoring of carrierSense.
[29]
https://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/td/docs/switches/lan/catalyst9300/software/release/16-6/configuration_guide/sec/b_166_sec_9300_cg/configuring_dynamic_arp_inspection.html
[30]
Solutions to hidden terminal problems in wireless networks
It is shown that carrier-sensing FAMA protocols perform better than ALOHA and CSMA protocols in the presence of hidden terminals.
[31]
[PDF] Review - Wireless Communications
▫ MAC is not important on point-to-point links. ▫ MAC is only used in ... Controlled Access methods. ▫ SDMA (Space Division Multiple Access). - Segment ...
[32]
ANSI/IEEE 802.5-1998
May 26, 1998 · Its purpose is to provide compatible interconnection of data processing equipment by means of a LAN using the token-passing ring access method.
[33]
[PDF] IEEE Std 802.15.1-2005, Part 15.1 - Agrawal Personal
Jun 14, 2005 · This standard specifies wireless MAC and PHY for WPANs, covering methods for communicating devices in a personal area network (PAN).
[34]
[PDF] ETSI TR 101 683 V1.1.1 (2000-02)
HIPERLAN/2 [1] is a standard for a high speed radio communication system with typical data rates from 6 MHz to. 54 Mbit/s. It connects portable devices with ...
[35]
[PDF] Analysis of bandwidth reservation algorithms in HIPERLAN/2
Abstract—This paper focuses on performance of channel ac- cess methods in the HIPERLAN/2 standard. It discusses com- monly used approaches to bandwidth ...
[36]
Difference between IEEE 802.3, 802.4 and 802.5 - GeeksforGeeks
Jul 12, 2025 · Obsolete in Modern Networks: Today the token bus networks are not widely used due to Ethernet and are very easily substitutive by others ...Missing: obsolescence | Show results with:obsolescence
[37]
[PDF] Energy efficiency and error resilience in coordinated and non ...
Mar 13, 2006 · Both coordinated and non-coordinated MAC protocols have their advantages and disadvantages. ... throughput due to their controlled access ...<|separator|>
[38]
Wireless digital communication: a view based on three lessons learned
**Summary of FDMA in Wireless Communications from IEEE Document (https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/90490):**
[39]
[PDF] GSM 05.01 - ETSI
The access scheme is Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) with eight basic physical channels per carrier. The carrier separation is 200 kHz. A physical ...Missing: seminal paper<|separator|>
[40]
Codes used in CDMA - GaussianWaves
Feb 28, 2011 · In IS-95 CDMA, 64 Walsh codes are used per base station. This enables to create 64 separate channels per base stations (i.e. a base station can ...
[41]
[PDF] On the Capacity of a Cellular CDMA System - Computer Science
where W/R is generally referred to as the "processing gain" and E/N。 is the value required for adequate perfor- mance of the modem and decoder, which for ...Missing: C = | Show results with:C =
[42]
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access in WiMAX and LTE
Aug 9, 2025 · The OFDMA allows multi-client communication through an orthogonal frequency division multiplexing strategy in which subcarrier is selected ...
[43]
Beamforming in Ad Hoc Networks: MAC Design and Performance ...
We examine in this paper the benefits of beamforming techniques in ad hoc networks. We first devise a novel MAC paradigm for ad hoc networks when using ...
[44]
802.3-2022 - IEEE Standard for Ethernet
Jul 29, 2022 · The Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) MAC protocol specifies shared medium (half duplex) operation, as well as ...
[45]
[PDF] Evolution of Ethernet Standards in the IEEE 802.3 Working Group
Amendment IEEE Std 802.3x published in 1997 added full duplex operation to the MAC and a flow control protocol to take advantage of the full duplex capable ...
[46]
IEEE 802.3x-1997 - IEEE SA
Nov 18, 1997 · Changes are made to the MAC and selected Physical Layer implementations (10BASE-T, 10BASE-FL, 100BASE-T) to support full duplex.
[47]
[PDF] Half Duplex (CSMA/CD) MAC & PLCA Interaction - IEEE 802
Nov 13, 2018 · IEEE 802.3 Half-duplex (CSMA/CD) and Full-duplex modes of operation should be distinguishable to the upper layer if it were to handle reflected ...
[48]
802.1Q VLANs Overview | Junos OS - Juniper Networks
Each VLAN can be uniquely identified by VLAN ID, which is transmitted and received as IEEE 802.1Q tag in an Ethernet frame. You can partition the router into up ...
[49]
MAC Learning | Junos OS - Juniper Networks
MAC learning is the process of obtaining the MAC addresses of all the nodes on a network. When a node is first connected to an Ethernet LAN or VLAN, ...
[50]
3.2 Switched Ethernet - Computer Networks: A Systems Approach
Switched Ethernet uses L2 switches to connect point-to-point Ethernet links, forming a network that extends a LAN across multiple networks.
[51]
[PDF] Evolution of Ethernet Standards
Following the standardization of IEEE 802.3an-2006 defining 10GBASE-T, and IEEE 802.3ba-2010 defining 40. Gb/s and 100 Gb/s Ethernet, work began in the industry ...
[52]
Performance analysis of the IEEE 802.11 distributed coordination ...
The DCF is a carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) scheme with binary slotted exponential backoff.
[53]
https://www.ieee802.org/3/bs/
[54]
802.11 Tutorial
Mar 1, 1996 · – CSMA/CA for Broadcast frames. • Parameterized use of RTS / CTS to provide a Virtual Carrier Sense function to protect against Hidden Nodes.
[55]
Researches on IEEE 802.11 access mechanism
CSMA/CA is the basic media access control mechanism of DCF and RTS/CTS message exchange mechanism is optional. PCF is realized by polling mechanism of Access ...
[56]
https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1181394
[57]
https://grouper.ieee.org/groups/802/11/Tutorial/MAC.pdf