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Midget submarine

A midget submarine, also known as a mini-submarine, is a compact naval vessel typically displacing less than 150 tons, crewed by one to nine personnel with no or minimal onboard living accommodations, and designed for stealthy, short-duration missions such as harbor penetration, sabotage, or special forces delivery, often launched and recovered by a larger "mother" ship or submarine.^[1]^[2] These vessels prioritize low detectability over endurance, usually armed with torpedoes, mines, or limpet devices, and operate in coastal or littoral waters where larger submarines cannot maneuver effectively.^[3] Midget submarines emerged as a tactical innovation in the early 20th century but gained prominence during World War II, when major powers like Japan, Britain, Germany, and Italy deployed them for high-risk attacks on enemy shipping and infrastructure.^[4] Japan pioneered large-scale use with its Type A submarines—46 tons submerged, 78 feet long, and armed with two 17.7-inch torpedoes—launching five in the 1941 Pearl Harbor raid to complement the aerial assault, though only one briefly penetrated the harbor and inflicted minor damage before being sunk.^[5] Britain's X-class, crewed by four and equipped with side charges for precision strikes, achieved notable success in 1943's Operation Source, where X-6 and X-7 severely damaged the German battleship Tirpitz in Norwegian waters, rendering it inoperable for months.^[6] Germany's Seehund type, a one-man craft with electric propulsion and up to 300 nautical mile range, conducted 142 sorties against Allied convoys from January to April 1945, sinking 8 ships despite high losses of 35 units due to their vulnerability.^[7] Italy excelled in human torpedo variants like the SLC ("Maiale"), which disabled British battleships in Alexandria in 1941, influencing midget sub doctrine across Europe.^[4] Postwar, the United States experimented with the USS X-1 (1955–1973), a 36-ton (submerged) diesel-electric midget submarine for coastal reconnaissance, while modern iterations persist in asymmetric warfare.^[4] North Korea fields dozens of Yugo- and Sang-O-class midget submarines—up to 15 crew and 1,500-nautical-mile range—for infiltrating South Korean waters and delivering commandos, with exports shaping Iran's Ghadir-class fleet of approximately 23 missile-capable units for Persian Gulf operations.^[8]^[9] These contemporary designs underscore midget submarines' enduring role in stealthy denial of sea access, though their limited speed (typically 6–10 knots submerged) and fragility constrain broader applications.^[2]

Definition and Characteristics

Physical Specifications

Midget submarines are classified by their compact dimensions, typically displacing less than 150 tons, measuring under 50 meters in length, and accommodating a crew of 2 to 6 personnel.^[1]^[10]^[11] These size constraints distinguish them from larger conventional submarines, enabling transport aboard surface vessels or larger submarines for deployment.^[3] The hull structure emphasizes lightweight materials to achieve buoyancy and withstand pressure at operational depths typically limited to 30-200 meters, depending on design and era. Traditional designs employ high-strength steel alloys for the pressure hull, providing durability in shallow waters, while modern variants incorporate aluminum alloys or composite materials to reduce weight and enhance corrosion resistance without compromising structural integrity.^[12]^[13]^[14] Most midget submarines feature a single-hull configuration or minimal compartmentation to simplify construction and operation in confined internal spaces. This design prioritizes watertight compartments essential for survival in the event of damage, with bulkheads ensuring compartmental integrity despite the overall small volume.^[15]^[16] Dimensional variations exist across eras and missions; for instance, the World War II-era Japanese Ko-hyoteki Type A measured about 24 meters in length and displaced 46 tons, suitable for short-range attacks. In contrast, contemporary mini-submarines, such as the Russian Triton-2 swimmer delivery vehicle, are under 10 meters long at 9.5 meters, focusing on special operations with even smaller crews. Recent examples include India's Arowana-class, launched in 2024, emphasizing stealth and special forces delivery in coastal waters.^[1]^[17]^[18]

Operational Distinctions

Midget submarines are primarily deployed via transport and launch from larger "mother" submarines or surface vessels, as their limited independent range—typically 50 to 200 nautical miles—precludes long-distance autonomous transit.^[1] For instance, during World War II, British X-class midget submarines were towed by conventional submarines to within striking distance of targets, reducing the towing vessel's endurance by approximately 5.5 to 30 percent, depending on the class of the mother submarine, while enabling covert positioning in enemy waters.^[19] This reliance on external support distinguishes midget submarines from full-sized vessels, which can operate independently over thousands of miles, emphasizing the midgets' role in short-range, tactical insertions rather than strategic patrols.^[3] Endurance for midget submarines is severely constrained by battery-powered submerged operations, generally lasting 12 to 48 hours before requiring surfacing for recharge or external support, in contrast to the weeks-long submerged capabilities of larger diesel-electric or nuclear submarines.^[20] The Japanese Type A Kō-hyōteki midget submarines, for example, achieved a maximum submerged endurance of about 12 hours at 6 knots, powered solely by batteries that necessitated mother ship recharging for extended missions.^[21] The U.S. Navy's experimental USS X-1 extended this with improved submerged endurance over WWII battery-only designs, though still limited by battery capacity, originally using a hydrogen peroxide/diesel propulsion system, later converted to diesel-electric after 1957, yet still demanded frequent surfacing or logistical aid, highlighting the operational trade-off for compactness.^[22] Crew accommodations in midget submarines feature minimal life support systems, supporting small teams of 2 to 6 personnel without provisions for extended patrols or onboard living facilities, focusing instead on short-duration covert operations.^[23] The X-class carried a crew of four in a cramped 51-foot hull, with basic oxygen supplies and no dedicated berthing, limiting missions to the physical tolerance of the operators—often no more than 10 to 14 days total, constrained by fatigue and supplies rather than mechanical limits.^[24] Similarly, the USS X-1's crew of five endured spartan conditions optimized for coastal stealth rather than comfort, underscoring the emphasis on mission brevity over habitability.^[22] In littoral environments, midget submarines excel due to superior maneuverability in shallow coastal waters, where their small size allows navigation through restricted areas inaccessible to larger submarines.^[25] This agility enables operations in depths as low as 30 to 40 meters, evading detection amid seabed clutter and anti-submarine defenses, as seen in designs like the Russian Project 865 Piranha, which prioritized seakeeping and obstacle avoidance in near-shore zones. Compared to full-sized submarines, midgets' reduced acoustic signatures and turning radius provide tactical advantages for ambush or reconnaissance in confined waters, though at the cost of vulnerability to surface threats during transit.^[26]

Historical Overview

Early Innovations

The concept of midget submarines traces its roots to 19th-century precursors, exemplified by the Confederate H.L. Hunley during the American Civil War. Constructed in 1863 in Mobile, Alabama, the Hunley was a 34-foot-long iron submersible powered by a hand-crank mechanism operated by a crew of eight, allowing it to navigate shallow waters and approach targets stealthily. On February 17, 1864, it achieved the historic feat of becoming the first submarine to sink an enemy warship, the USS Housatonic, using a spar torpedo loaded with black powder explosives, though the Hunley itself was lost shortly after the attack. While not a true midget submarine by modern standards—due to its rudimentary design and lack of self-propulsion beyond human effort—the Hunley demonstrated the potential for small, covert underwater vessels in asymmetric naval warfare.^[27] Early 20th-century developments saw initial experiments with more advanced small submersibles, particularly in Italy, where the Regia Marina pioneered designs approaching midget configurations. The Delfino, launched in 1890 but serving into the early 1900s, was Italy's first submarine, featuring a steam engine for surface propulsion and an electric motor for submerged operations, with a displacement of 95 tons surfaced and 107 tons submerged.) This experimental vessel highlighted early attempts at manned underwater craft for coastal reconnaissance, though its limited battery life restricted submerged endurance to mere hours. These Italian prototypes represented pioneering efforts in compact, stealthy underwater vehicles, influencing later designs despite their operational limitations.^[28]^[29] In the interwar period, experiments focused on human-guided torpedoes and converted vessels for sabotage roles, with Italy leading innovations like the Maiale in the 1930s. Developed by the Italian Navy as a "slow-running torpedo" (Siluro a Lenta Corsa or SLC), the Maiale was a 3.6-ton, electrically propelled device with a 1.6-horsepower motor achieving speeds of about 3 knots, crewed by two divers who rode it to attach limpet mines to enemy ships. Tested extensively for harbor penetration, it emphasized stealth over speed, launched from larger submarines, and proved effective in simulated sabotage operations despite the physical strain on operators from cold water and rebreather systems. These efforts underscored a shift toward specialized, low-profile craft for covert attacks.^[30]^[31] Technological challenges plagued these early innovations, primarily stemming from primitive propulsion systems that prioritized compactness over reliability. Hand-cranking in the Hunley demanded exhaustive crew effort, resulting in multiple sinkings during tests due to fatigue and poor ballast control. Electric motors in vessels like the Delfino and Maiale offered silent submerged running but were hampered by short battery life—often under two hours—and vulnerability to flooding or short-circuiting, leading to high failure rates in trials exceeding 50% for some prototypes. Compressed air systems, tested in early manned torpedoes, provided bursts of power but caused instability from gas buildup and limited depth control, contributing to accidents and underscoring the era's struggles with endurance, navigation, and crew safety in confined spaces.^[28]^[30]

World War II Operations

During World War II, midget submarines saw extensive use by Axis powers for surprise attacks on enemy harbors and shipping. Japan deployed five Ko-hyoteki Type A midget submarines in the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, launched from larger I-class submarines to target U.S. battleships; one was sunk by the destroyer USS Ward before entering the harbor, another by USS Monaghan, a third was captured intact after running aground, and the fifth was likely destroyed by depth charges, resulting in no confirmed sinkings but minor damage to the battleship USS West Virginia.^[32]^[1] These operations exemplified Japan's emphasis on stealthy, high-risk incursions, with over 50 Ko-hyoteki submarines produced overall for various Pacific theater missions.^[33] Germany introduced midget submarines late in the war as part of its K-Verbande special forces, focusing on coastal interdiction in European waters from 1944 onward. The one-man Biber, with around 200 units built, and the electric-powered Molch, numbering about 150, were deployed for attacks on Allied shipping in the English Channel and North Sea but suffered from technical unreliability and high vulnerability to anti-submarine defenses.^[34] The more advanced two-man Seehund, with 324 completed by war's end, proved marginally effective, sinking eight Allied vessels totaling 17,300 tons while damaging three others, primarily through torpedo strikes on convoys off the Dutch and Belgian coasts.^[35] Italy, leveraging pre-war expertise in underwater assault, achieved notable success with manned torpedo variants akin to midget submarines; in December 1941, Decima Flottiglia MAS operatives using "maiale" human torpedoes infiltrated Alexandria harbor, severely damaging the battleships HMS Queen Elizabeth and HMS Valiant, temporarily neutralizing British Mediterranean Fleet capabilities.^[30] Allied forces responded with their own midget submarine programs to counter Axis threats and conduct offensive operations. Britain's X-class submarines, crewed by four to six personnel, were pivotal in Operation Source on September 22, 1943, when six X-craft navigated Norwegian fjords to attack the battleship Tirpitz; two successfully placed over seven tons of explosives under the hull, causing extensive damage that sidelined the ship for six months and required major repairs.^[36] The United States developed the experimental X-1 midget submarine in the mid-1940s, inspired by captured Axis designs, for testing harbor defense vulnerabilities and small-submarine tactics, though it saw no combat deployment during the war.^[22]^[37] Tactically, midget submarines demonstrated asymmetric potential but were plagued by high attrition rates, often exceeding 80% in Japanese operations due to detection by sonar and nets, as seen in Pearl Harbor where four of five were lost without strategic impact.^[38] Despite these losses, isolated successes like the Italian Alexandria raid highlighted their value in disrupting superior naval forces, influencing postwar evaluations of stealthy, crew-intensive underwater warfare.^[30] Production scaled rapidly under wartime pressure—Japan's 50+ Ko-hyoteki, Germany's 324 Seehund—yet operational limitations confined their role to desperation tactics rather than fleet dominance.^[33]^[35]

Postwar Developments

Following World War II, midget submarines evolved significantly during the Cold War, reflecting heightened naval tensions and the need for covert capabilities in contested waters. The Soviet Union developed the Project 865 Piranha class in the 1980s as a dedicated platform for special forces operations, with two units (MS-520 and MS-521) constructed primarily for Spetsnaz frogmen delivery. These titanium-hulled submarines, displacing about 390 tons submerged, could transport up to six combat swimmers over 400 nautical miles at speeds of 6-8 knots, emphasizing stealth and mine avoidance in shallow coastal environments.^[39] In the United States, the USS X-1, commissioned in 1955, underwent extensive postwar trials to assess harbor defense against intruder threats, featuring a crew of four and a closed-cycle diesel engine for prolonged submerged operations. These experiments highlighted limitations in manned midget designs but influenced the development of swimmer delivery vehicles (SDVs) for U.S. Navy SEAL teams, paving the way for smaller, floodable submersibles optimized for special operations insertion.^[4]^[37] Decolonization in the mid-20th century prompted adaptations of midget submarines for regional defense in Europe's peripheral theaters. Sweden acquired the British-built HMS Stickleback (X51) in 1958, renaming it Spiggen and refitting it for Baltic Sea operations, where its 4-man crew and 35-ton displacement supported training for attack divers amid concerns over Soviet incursions. This vessel, operational into the 1960s, enhanced Sweden's coastal surveillance in the narrow, mine-prone waters of the region.^[40]^[41] Similarly, the French Navy incorporated captured German Seehund midget submarines postwar, with at least five units entering service in the early 1950s for experimental and training roles in the Mediterranean, where their 2-man crews and 17-ton size suited anti-shipping patrols during decolonization conflicts in North Africa. These adaptations leveraged wartime designs for asymmetric defense against larger adversaries.^[29]^[42] Proliferation of midget submarines extended to allied and smaller navies seeking affordable coastal assets during the 1950s and 1960s. The United Kingdom's Stickleback class, an evolution of World War II XE-craft with improved batteries and a 4-man crew, saw two units completed in 1954-1955 for harbor attack roles, though initial plans for nuclear mine deployment were abandoned. One was exported to Sweden, demonstrating technology transfer to NATO partners facing regional threats. Such exports enabled smaller navies, including those in Scandinavia and the Mediterranean, to bolster defenses without full-scale submarine programs, often through second-hand acquisitions or simplified designs.^[40]^[43] By the late 1960s, midget submarine doctrine shifted toward special operations, prioritizing swimmer delivery over direct combat to minimize detection risks. This evolution reduced typical crew sizes to 2-4 personnel, as seen in emerging SDVs like the U.S. Navy's MK 7, introduced in the late 1960s, which carried four operators in a floodable hull for covert insertion up to 20 nautical miles offshore. The focus on low-signature platforms for elite forces reflected broader Cold War strategies, de-emphasizing larger crews and armament in favor of endurance and swimmer egress capabilities.^[44]^[45]

Design and Technology

Propulsion Systems

Midget submarines predominantly rely on battery-electric propulsion systems to enable silent, submerged operations essential for their stealthy roles. These systems typically feature lead-acid batteries as the standard power source due to their reliability, robustness, and ease of recharging, though higher-performance silver-zinc batteries are employed in some advanced designs for greater energy density and output. Electric motors, often low-RPM permanent magnet synchronous or brushless DC types ranging from 25 to 800 kW, drive a single propeller, achieving submerged speeds of 5-10 knots while minimizing acoustic signatures through efficient, low-noise operation.^[46]^[47]^[48] In modern variants, air-independent propulsion (AIP) systems, particularly fuel cell-based technologies introduced in the 1990s, have enhanced endurance by allowing prolonged submerged patrols without surfacing for air. Fuel cells convert hydrogen and oxygen into electricity at efficiencies up to 70%, far surpassing traditional diesel systems, and can extend operational time to 1-2 weeks at low speeds in compact midget configurations. These systems address the space constraints of small hulls by integrating modular stacks that generate power quietly, though they require stored oxidizers like liquid oxygen.^[49]^[50] For surface transit and battery recharging, midget submarines incorporate small diesel generators, typically 100-200 horsepower, constrained by limited internal volume. These air-breathing engines charge batteries via AC-to-DC converters when the vessel is at periscope depth or surfaced, providing supplemental range but increasing detectability due to exhaust noise and emissions. Hybrid setups combine diesel output with electric motors for versatility in non-submerged modes.^[48] Historically, propulsion evolved from rudimentary hand-cranked mechanisms in early prototypes, such as the 1775 American Turtle, which relied on manual effort to turn propellers for basic propulsion. By World War II, battery-electric systems became standard, as seen in Soviet designs like the APSS with a 10.9 hp DC motor powered by 57 lead-acid cells for submerged speeds around 5 knots. Advancements in the 1980s included closed-cycle diesel engines in Soviet experimental midget projects, which recycled exhaust gases to enable limited underwater operation without atmospheric air, marking a step toward AIP integration.^[51]^[52]^[53]

Armament and Weaponry

Midget submarines are primarily armed with lightweight torpedoes suited to their compact size and close-range engagement capabilities, typically featuring one or two 533 mm diameter tubes for anti-ship strikes. These torpedoes, such as the German G7e electric models carried by the WWII Seehund, allow for stealthy approaches without the wake of compressed-air variants.^[35] Modern examples include the Iranian Ghadir-class, which employs two 533 mm torpedo tubes compatible with torpedoes like the Valfajr for targeting surface vessels.^[54] The limited payload—often just two weapons—reflects the submarines' small displacement, prioritizing precision over volume. In addition to torpedoes, midget submarines frequently deploy mines for area denial or sabotage, with capacities ranging from four to eight units depending on the design. The Ghadir-class, for instance, can accommodate 4-8 marine or magnetic mines laid on the seabed to threaten shipping lanes.^[54] For covert operations, demolition charges such as limpet mines are attached manually by divers exiting the submarine, enabling harbor sabotage without direct engagement; historical WWII designs like the Seehund could substitute mines for torpedoes in external cradles to carry up to several hundred kilograms of explosives per unit.^[35] Missile armament remains rare in true midget submarines due to size constraints, but select post-2000s variants integrate anti-ship capabilities via torpedo-tube launches. The Iranian Ghadir-class demonstrates this with compatibility for the Nasr cruise missile, a 35 km-range weapon adapted from Chinese designs, allowing submerged strikes on coastal targets.^[55]^[56] Weapon launch methods vary by era and design, often using external racks or underslung cradles in WWII models like the Seehund for simplicity, while modern internal tubes in the Ghadir facilitate reloads within the hull.^[54]^[35] Aiming is predominantly manual, relying on periscope observations and crew expertise given the two- or three-person limitations that preclude advanced fire-control systems.^[54] Midget submarines, constrained by their compact size and need for stealth, predominantly utilize passive sonar arrays to detect threats without emitting detectable signals. These systems typically consist of hull-mounted hydrophones that capture acoustic signatures from surface ships, other submarines, or underwater obstacles, with effective detection ranges generally spanning 1 to 10 kilometers depending on environmental conditions such as water salinity and ambient noise.^[4] For instance, the U.S. Navy's experimental X-1 midget submarine from the 1950s incorporated a basic passive sonar setup to monitor nearby vessels, emphasizing silent listening over active pinging. Active sonar, when present, is employed sparingly and at low power to avoid self-compromise, often limited to short-range obstacle detection during low-speed maneuvers.^[4] Navigation in midget submarines relies on a combination of inertial navigation systems (INS) for precise positioning during submerged transit, GPS receivers for surface updates, and dead reckoning to maintain course when external signals are unavailable. INS units, which use gyroscopes and accelerometers to track motion relative to a known starting point, are standard in modern designs to enable extended underwater operations without surfacing. Similarly, the U.S. Shallow Water Combat Submersible (SWCS), developed in the early 2000s, employs INS coupled with high-frequency sonar for obstacle and mine avoidance, ensuring safe navigation in littoral environments. Traditional optical periscopes persist in smaller models for direct visual observation, though they are increasingly supplemented by compact optronic masts that provide digital imagery without mechanical retraction risks.^[57] Communication capabilities in midget submarines are intentionally restricted to preserve operational secrecy, favoring one-way reception of low-frequency signals or deployable buoys over active transmissions. Extremely low frequency (ELF) radio waves, penetrating seawater to depths of several hundred meters, allow submerged coordination with mother ships or command centers, though data rates are low and limited to basic alerts or positioning updates. Deployable buoys with trailing antennas enable burst communications via very low frequency (VLF) when needed, minimizing emission time to reduce detection risks. In the SWCS, such systems support integration with larger naval assets for mission handoff.^[58] Since the 2000s, modern upgrades have enhanced sensor and navigation reliability in export-oriented midget submarines, incorporating fiber-optic periscopes for high-resolution, interference-free imaging and automated collision avoidance via integrated sonar processing. The Italian DRASS DG-160 midget submarine features a 360-degree optronic system with passive and obstacle avoidance sonars, enabling real-time threat assessment and path correction without crew intervention. These advancements, seen in platforms like the SWCS, allow for safer operations in cluttered coastal waters, with sonar algorithms automating evasion of hazards at ranges up to 200 meters. Such technologies have been exported to allied navies, improving stealth and survivability in special operations.^[57]

Military Applications

Strategic Roles

Midget submarines play a pivotal role in asymmetric naval warfare by enabling smaller or less-resourced navies to challenge superior adversaries through stealthy, high-impact operations in confined maritime environments. Their compact size and low acoustic signature allow them to evade detection by larger fleet assets, functioning as force multipliers that disrupt enemy logistics and command structures without requiring extensive infrastructure. This doctrinal emphasis on asymmetry underscores their utility in modern conflicts where conventional submarine forces may be unattainable.^[3] A primary strategic function is harbor penetration and sabotage, where midget submarines infiltrate protected ports to target anchored vessels or infrastructure, thereby paralyzing anti-shipping capabilities in restricted waters. Equipped with mines or torpedoes, they can lay bottom-influence explosives to deny access to key naval bases for extended periods, as seen in concepts for closing facilities like China's Yulin Naval Base with minimal assets. This role exploits the submarines' maneuverability in shallow, cluttered approaches, making them ideal for preemptive strikes that amplify the perceived threat from limited forces.^[3]^[59] From the post-1960s onward, midget submarines have increasingly supported special forces insertion, transporting divers or commandos undetected to coastal targets for reconnaissance, demolition, or intelligence gathering. Their dry-deck or swimmer-lockout systems facilitate covert delivery in littoral zones, enhancing the reach of elite units without exposing larger vessels to risk. This integration into special operations doctrine has become central to asymmetric strategies, allowing rapid, deniable actions that complement broader naval campaigns.^[10]^[60] In coastal defense scenarios, these vessels conduct mine-laying and anti-invasion patrols, leveraging their shallow-water proficiency to fortify chokepoints against amphibious assaults or blockades. By deploying naval mines in near-shore areas, they create layered barriers that deter incursions while remaining concealed from surface surveillance. Such applications are particularly valued in asymmetric contexts for their cost-effectiveness in protecting exclusive economic zones.^[61]^[62] Overall, midget submarines enhance deterrence in asymmetric conflicts by imposing persistent risks on larger fleets, compelling adversaries to divert resources for anti-submarine measures and thereby leveling the strategic playing field for smaller navies. Nations like North Korea and Iran exemplify this through doctrines that prioritize mini-submarine swarms for infiltration and disruption, ensuring credible threats in regional power balances.^[63]^[59]

Notable Operations

One of the earliest notable uses of midget submarines occurred during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, when five Type A Ko-hyoteki midget submarines were launched from larger I-class submarines positioned offshore.^[32] Intended to infiltrate the harbor and target anchored U.S. warships with their two torpedoes each, the operation faced immediate challenges: the USS Ward sank one submarine outside the entrance at 6:37 a.m., before the aerial assault began.^[21] Another, HA-19 from I-20, grounded on the eastern shore near the entrance after failing to navigate the anti-torpedo net.^[32] Two more were destroyed inside the harbor—the USS Monaghan depth-charged and rammed one, while the USS Helm sank another—leaving only one possibly penetrating deeper into the Southeast Loch, where it reportedly fired torpedoes at the light cruiser USS Helena and the minelayer USS Oglala, but both missed their marks with no damage inflicted.^[21] All five submarines were lost, their crews killed, underscoring the high risks and limited tactical success of such covert penetrations against defended ports.^[32] In May 1942, Japanese forces attempted a similar raid on Sydney Harbour, Australia, launching three Type A midget submarines from mother submarines I-22, I-24, and I-27 on the night of May 29 to target Allied warships.^[64] The first, M24, entered the harbor but became entangled in an anti-torpedo net near Garden Island and was destroyed by depth charges from auxiliary patrol vessels, killing its two crew members.^[64] The second, M27, evaded initial defenses and fired two torpedoes around 12:35 a.m. on June 1, missing the heavy cruiser USS Chicago; one passed underneath and struck the depot ship HMAS Kuttabul—a converted ferry—sinking it and killing 21 sailors (19 Australian and 2 British), while the other ran aground nearby and failed to explode.^[64] The third, M29, briefly entered but retreated after spotting patrol boats, escaping the harbor only to be hunted down and sunk off the coast the next day by a naval squadron and aircraft, with its crew perishing.^[65] The raid inflicted the only casualties in Sydney during World War II but demonstrated the vulnerability of even well-defended anchorages to midget submarine incursions, prompting enhanced harbor security measures across the Allied Pacific theater.^[64] A landmark success came in September 1943 with Britain's Operation Source, deploying six X-class midget submarines towed by conventional submarines from Loch Cairnbawn, Scotland, to strike heavy German warships in Norway's Kåfjord.^[66] Launched on September 11, the X-craft—each crewed by four men and carrying two 4,000-pound limpet mines—faced grueling 1,000-mile transits; X-9 and X-10 were lost en route to targets Scharnhorst and Lützow, while X-8, assigned to Lützow, suffered collision damage and failed to attack.^[66] X-5 attempted to follow X-6 and X-7 toward the battleship Tirpitz but went missing, presumed sunk by mines or currents.^[66] On September 22, X-6 (Lt. H. H. G. D. Brown) and X-7 (Lt. B. C. G. Place) successfully penetrated the harbor's defenses, placing their mines under Tirpitz's hull; X-6's charge malfunctioned, but X-7's detonated at 8:41 a.m., causing severe structural damage including buckled hull plating and flooding of approximately 500 tons of water, killing one crew member and injuring about 40 more.^[67] The damage immobilized Tirpitz for six months of repairs in Germany, neutralizing its threat to Arctic convoys and earning Place and Brown the Victoria Cross; however, all X-craft were lost, with eight crewmen killed and six captured.^[66] In a modern context, North Korea's use of midget submarines for infiltration persisted into the late 20th century, exemplified by the June 22, 1998, incident near Sokcho, South Korea, where a Yugo-class submarine ran aground during a suspected special forces insertion mission.^[68] Carrying 9 crew members, the 21-meter diesel-electric vessel—designed for coastal raiding and troop delivery—stranded on rocks after evading patrols, prompting a fierce confrontation with South Korean forces.^[68] The North Korean sailors resisted capture in a prolonged firefight, resulting in all 9 being killed, with no South Korean casualties reported; the intact hull was salvaged and studied, revealing infiltration equipment and confirming the submarine's role in covert operations across the tense inter-Korean maritime border.^[68] This event heightened regional tensions and underscored the ongoing risks of midget submarines in asymmetric warfare, leading to intensified South Korean coastal surveillance.^[68] North Korea continued to employ midget submarines in subsequent years, including incursions near the Northern Limit Line in the 2010s, where vessels like the Sang-O-class were used for espionage and commando insertions, further illustrating their persistent role in asymmetric threats as of 2023.^[3]

Non-Military Uses

Scientific Research

Midget submarines have been adapted for deep-sea exploration, enabling access to extreme underwater environments for both salvage and scientific purposes. The U.S. Navy's Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle (DSRV-1) Mystic, a 38-ton submersible launched in 1970, was designed for rescue operations at depths up to 1,500 meters with a crew of 3–4 and electric propulsion.^[69] In environmental monitoring, battery-powered midget submarines have supported surveys of sensitive ecosystems, such as coral reefs, through collaborations with agencies like the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in the 1990s. The Johnson-Sea-Link submersible, a compact approximately 9.5-ton vehicle with a clear acrylic sphere for observation, was deployed in such missions to assess reef health off Florida's coast, including the Oculina Bank, where it enabled direct observation and sampling without surface disturbance. These operations tracked pollution impacts and biodiversity, providing baseline data for conservation efforts in shallow to mid-depth waters up to 1,000 meters.^[70] Payload adaptations in research-oriented midget submarines replace military armaments with scientific instrumentation, enhancing data-gathering capabilities. For instance, vehicles like the Johnson-Sea-Link incorporate manipulator arms for biological sampling and sensors to measure water quality parameters such as temperature, salinity, pH, and dissolved oxygen, while others integrate seismic sensors for detecting underwater geological activity.^[70] These modifications allow for precise collection of environmental samples and real-time analysis, prioritizing non-invasive tools that support long-term ecological studies over destructive weaponry. The operational advantages of midget submarines in scientific contexts include their quiet, battery-driven propulsion, which minimizes acoustic interference during marine life studies, and their compact size enables deployment from smaller support vessels for remote oceanographic expeditions.^[71] This low-noise profile is particularly beneficial for observing sensitive species in their natural habitats, such as during coral reef biodiversity assessments.

Commercial Applications

Midget submarines have found niche applications in underwater tourism, where they provide passengers with guided excursions to explore coral reefs, shipwrecks, and marine life in a controlled environment.^[72] Companies like U-Boat Worx have developed passenger minisubs in the 2010s, such as the Cruise Sub series, capable of carrying 5 to 7 tourists plus a pilot to depths of up to 1,140 meters, offering panoramic views through acrylic domes while maintaining safety through battery-electric propulsion.^[73] These vessels, often deployed from shore bases or support boats, have enabled commercial operations in popular dive sites around the world, blending adventure with accessibility for non-divers.^[74] In the industrial sector, midget submarines and their remotely operated variants are employed for salvage operations and underwater inspections, particularly in challenging environments like offshore oil platforms.^[75] Deep Ocean Engineering has produced submersibles such as the Deep Worker, a two-person acrylic-hulled vehicle rated to 1,000 meters, which supports detailed surveys of subsea infrastructure by providing direct visual access and manipulator arms for sample collection or minor repairs.^[76] These tools reduce risks to human divers and enable precise assessment of pipeline integrity and rig foundations, with operations dating back to the early 2000s in the North Sea.^[77] Aquaculture industries utilize custom-built midget submarines and remotely operated vehicles for monitoring fish farms in coastal waters, ensuring the health of stock and the condition of enclosures. Since the 2000s, specialized designs have emerged to navigate net pens and observe fish behavior without disturbance, equipped with cameras and sensors for real-time data on water quality and biomass.^[78] For instance, hybrid ROV systems developed for net cage maintenance allow operators to inspect for damage, remove debris, and assess feeding efficiency in salmon farms off Norway, contributing to sustainable practices by minimizing escapes and optimizing resource use.^[78] Private ownership of midget submarines has grown among affluent individuals, often integrated as submersibles for luxury yachts to facilitate personal underwater adventures. In the 2010s, Virgin Oceanic prototyped advanced models like the Virgin Oceanic submersible, a one-person vehicle designed for deep dives up to 7,000 meters, but the project was shelved in 2014 without achieving operational dives, emphasizing exploration from private vessels with features like real-time video feeds and carbon-fiber construction for enhanced maneuverability.^[79] These high-end systems, sometimes paired with superyacht garages, cater to recreational deep-sea viewing and have spurred a market for bespoke minisubs that blend opulence with technical innovation.^[80]

Developments by Nation

Japan

Japan's midget submarine program reached its zenith during World War II under the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN), with the Ko-hyoteki Type A serving as the cornerstone of its fleet. Introduced in 1941, the Type A measured 23.9 meters in length, displaced 46 tons when submerged, and was crewed by two personnel who operated it in high-risk scenarios. Equipped with two bow-mounted torpedoes, these vessels were engineered for stealthy infiltration of enemy defenses, powered by electric motors for silent submerged operation. A total of 50 Type A submarines were constructed during the war, primarily at facilities like the Kure Naval Arsenal, reflecting the IJN's emphasis on compact, deployable assets for surprise attacks.^[81]^[82] The IJN's doctrine for midget submarines prioritized offensive suicide missions to disrupt enemy naval concentrations in harbors, leveraging their small size for covert launches from larger "mother" submarines positioned offshore. These operations embodied a strategy of desperation and precision strikes against anchored capital ships, often accepting one-way outcomes due to limited endurance and escape capabilities. Deployed across the Pacific theater, the Type A submarines saw action in key engagements like the 1941 Pearl Harbor raid, where five were committed but achieved minimal impact amid mechanical failures and defensive countermeasures. High attrition marked their service, with numerous losses underscoring the doctrine's inherent risks.^[81]^[83]^[84] To extend operational reach amid mounting pressures in 1944, the IJN developed the Ko-hyoteki Type C as an upgraded variant, incorporating a 40 hp diesel generator for surface propulsion and battery recharging to improve endurance over the Type A. Measuring 24.7 meters in length and displacing 49 tons, the Type C accommodated a three-man crew—including an engineer for the auxiliary power system—and maintained the dual 17.7-inch torpedo armament while achieving submerged speeds up to 19 knots. Forty-seven units were built, focusing on enhanced range for harbor penetration and special missions, though their deployment remained limited by wartime constraints.^[83] Postwar, the 1951 Treaty of San Francisco terminated hostilities and, in conjunction with Japan's 1947 Constitution (Article 9), effectively prohibited offensive naval armaments like midget submarines by renouncing war-making potential and limiting forces to self-defense. The Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF), established in 1954, initially focused on conventional antisubmarine capabilities, with midget submarine development halted under occupation-era demilitarization. Research resumed modestly in the 1960s through unmanned prototypes for testing underwater technologies, aligning with emerging JMSDF priorities. By 2025, the JMSDF operates no dedicated midget submarine fleet, though WWII-era innovations inform the design of special operations vehicles, such as swimmer delivery systems used by elite units for covert insertions.^[85]^[86]

Germany

During World War II, the Kriegsmarine developed several midget submarine types as a desperate measure to counter Allied naval superiority in coastal waters, particularly in the English Channel and North Sea. These efforts prioritized rapid, low-cost production over advanced design, reflecting Germany's late-war resource constraints. The primary types were the one-man Biber and the two-man Seehund, both intended for short-range attacks on shipping using external torpedoes.^[35] The Biber, introduced in 1944, was a 6.5-ton, 8.9-meter-long craft powered by a single 32-horsepower Opel petrol engine, with a top speed of 6.5 knots surfaced and a range of about 160 kilometers. Armed with two 533-millimeter torpedoes mounted externally, it was designed for solo operation by a single crewman who steered via a periscope while prone. Production reached 324 units at the Flenderwerke yard in Lübeck, but technical issues like poor stability, unreliable engines, and inadequate training limited operational effectiveness; only a fraction saw combat, with most used for training or lost to accidents.^[87]^[87]^[35] The Seehund, also known as Type XXVIIB, represented an improvement and entered service in late 1944. This 15-ton, 11.9-meter vessel accommodated a two-man crew and featured a 60-horsepower Büssing diesel for surfaced travel (up to 7.5 knots) and a 25-horsepower electric motor for submerged operations (3 knots). It carried two 533-millimeter G7e torpedoes and had a submerged endurance of 65 kilometers, making it suitable for coastal interdiction. A total of 285 Seehunds were built across yards including Germaniawerft in Kiel, with production peaking at 70 units in December 1944 despite Allied bombing disruptions.^[7]^[7]^[7] Operationally, these midget submarines focused on disrupting Allied supply lines in the English Channel, launching from bases in France and the Netherlands. Between January and May 1945, Seehunds conducted 142 sorties, sinking nine merchant ships totaling 18,451 gross register tons while damaging three others for 18,354 tons; however, 35 were lost to enemy action, mines, or mechanical failures, representing over 25% of deployed units. Biber missions, often combined with other types like the Molch, totaled around 102 sorties but achieved minimal success, sinking only a handful of small vessels for 491 tons while suffering approximately 70 losses—nearly 70% attrition due to the craft's inherent flaws and harsh sea conditions. Overall, German midget submarines sank about 20 ships but at a high cost, underscoring their role as a high-risk, low-reward expedient rather than a strategic game-changer.^[88]^[87]^[7] Captured German midget designs, including Bibers and Seehunds, were extensively tested by Allied navies postwar, influencing early Cold War coastal submarine concepts within NATO; for instance, the British X-craft program drew partial inspiration from Seehund ergonomics and armament placement. In the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), the nascent Bundesmarine reactivated two former Kriegsmarine Type XXIII U-boats as Type 240 submarines (S170 Hai and S171 Hecht) in the 1950s for training and evaluation, but these 234-ton coastal boats—larger than true midgets—were decommissioned by 1969 without leading to new designs, as focus shifted to conventional submarines. A proposed indigenous midget project in the early 1950s was ultimately canceled amid budget constraints and NATO standardization efforts.^[34]^[89]^[90] As of 2025, the Bundesmarine operates no midget submarines, maintaining a fleet of six Type 212A diesel-electric submarines optimized for Baltic and North Sea operations, with emphasis on stealth, air-independent propulsion, and integration into NATO task forces rather than small-scale coastal assets.^[91]^[92]

Italy

Italy's contributions to midget submarine technology began in the interwar period under the Regia Marina, with the development of the Siluro a Lenta Corsa (SLC), commonly known as the Maiale or "pig." Introduced in the 1930s, the SLC was a two-man human torpedo designed for covert sabotage operations, propelled by an electric motor and ridden by divers in breathing apparatus rather than serving as a true submarine with an enclosed hull. This innovation evolved from earlier World War I experiments and was produced in limited numbers for the elite Decima Flottiglia MAS (Mezzi d'Assalto) unit, emphasizing stealthy approaches to enemy harbors for attaching limpet mines to ships.^[93] By 1940, the Regia Marina advanced to more conventional midget submarines with the CB-class, a three-man (plus commander) coastal submarine displacing around 36 tons surfaced, featuring diesel-electric propulsion and armed with two external 450 mm torpedoes or mines. Built primarily by Caproni in Milan from 1941 to 1943, a total of 22 units were constructed, with approximately 12 becoming operational despite wartime constraints, proving highly effective in commando-style infiltrations and harbor defense. These vessels represented a shift toward versatile, self-contained platforms capable of independent operations in the Mediterranean and Black Seas.^[94] The SLC and CB-class saw their most notable successes in 1941 raids on Allied naval bases. In September, Maiale units from the submarine Scirè infiltrated Gibraltar, targeting anchored shipping though with limited damage due to defensive measures. More dramatically, on December 18-19, three SLCs from Scirè penetrated Alexandria harbor, where operators successfully attached explosives to the battleships HMS Queen Elizabeth and HMS Valiant, severely damaging both and temporarily crippling British Mediterranean Fleet operations; the crews were captured but the mission highlighted the potency of Italian special forces tactics. CB-class submarines later supported similar commando roles, contributing to sabotage efforts against Allied supply lines.^[95]^[96] Postwar Italian midget submarine development remained limited, with surviving CB-class examples repurposed or transferred abroad, and some modified designs like the MTM (Midget Torpedo Motor) variants exported in the 1950s to allied nations for coastal defense training. By the late 20th century, the Marina Militare shifted focus to larger submarines and advanced naval technologies, with no active midget submarines in service as of 2025.^[97]

United Kingdom

The Royal Navy pioneered the use of midget submarines for special operations during World War II, with the X-class representing a key innovation in covert naval warfare within the European theater. Developed in 1942, these compact vessels accommodated a four-man crew and were optimized for delivering combat swimmers to enemy targets, often towed by larger submarines to their operational zones for extended reach. A total of eight X-class submarines were constructed, emphasizing stealth and precision for sabotage missions against heavily defended ports and ships.^[98] These submarines played a pivotal role in high-stakes raids, most notably in Operation Source targeting the German battleship Tirpitz. In September 1943, six X-craft—towed by S- and T-class submarines—were deployed to northern Norway; X6 and X7 successfully navigated the fjord, placed limpet mines under the battleship, and inflicted severe damage that sidelined Tirpitz for months, preventing its threat to Allied convoys. The operation highlighted the X-class's effectiveness in commando-style insertions, though at the cost of several submarines and crews lost to hazards like nets and depth charges. Earlier efforts, such as the brief use in Operation Source against other targets, underscored their tactical value in disrupting Axis naval power.^[99]^[98] Postwar experimentation continued with the Stickleback-class, an experimental series of four midget submarines built between 1954 and 1955 as improved derivatives of the wartime XE-class. Intended for coastal defense and testing advanced propulsion, these vessels incorporated lessons from WWII designs but saw limited service, with most sold off or scrapped by 1958 due to shifting priorities toward larger conventional submarines. Their development influenced subsequent Royal Navy coastal submarine programs, including aspects of the Porpoise-class, which adopted enhanced quieting and hull streamlining for anti-submarine roles.^[37]^[40] Throughout the Cold War, midget submarines formed part of Royal Navy doctrine for integrating with the Special Boat Service (SBS) in covert swimmer insertions and reconnaissance, emphasizing low-signature approaches to denied areas. Operational details from this era, including training and deployments, were progressively declassified starting in the 1970s, revealing their role in supporting commando operations. By the 1990s, dedicated midget submarines were fully retired, supplanted by more versatile Swimmer Delivery Vehicles (SDVs) for special forces missions. As of 2025, the Royal Navy maintains no operational midget submarines, with legacy capabilities embedded in advanced SDV systems for SBS use.^[100]^[101]

United States

The United States Navy's development of midget submarines began in the post-World War II era, driven by lessons from Axis powers' use of small submersibles for harbor penetration and sabotage. The first such effort was the experimental X-1, a 4-man diesel-electric midget submarine completed in 1946 as the initial post-war design to evaluate stealthy coastal infiltration tactics. Measuring approximately 50 feet in length with a displacement of around 30 tons surfaced, the X-1 underwent extensive testing at naval facilities but was never deployed operationally due to technical limitations and shifting priorities toward larger fleet submarines.^[4]^[102] During the Cold War, the Navy pursued more advanced prototypes to address anti-submarine warfare vulnerabilities and special operations needs. The USS X-1 (SSX-1), launched in 1955 and the only officially commissioned U.S. midget submarine, was a 49-foot vessel displacing 37 tons submerged, designed primarily to simulate enemy midget sub attacks for harbor defense training. Powered by a diesel-electric system and armed with two torpedoes, it conducted trials along the East Coast until an onboard hydrogen peroxide explosion in 1957 caused significant damage; it was decommissioned in 1973 after limited service.^[22]^[69]^[103] Integration with special operations forces marked a shift toward swimmer delivery vehicles (SDVs) for Navy SEAL missions, emphasizing covert insertion over traditional manned navigation. The Mark VIII SDV, introduced in the 1970s, is a free-flooding wet submersible—distinct from dry-habitat midget subs—capable of carrying up to six combat-equipped SEALs over 30 nautical miles at speeds of 4-6 knots while submerged. Operated from dry-deck shelters on submarines like the Los Angeles-class, it supports hydrographic reconnaissance, sabotage, and direct action without providing a sealed crew compartment, relying on divers' scuba gear for propulsion and life support.^[45]^[104] As of 2025, the U.S. Navy maintains no commissioned manned midget submarines, having pivoted to unmanned underwater vehicles (UUVs) for analogous roles in intelligence, surveillance, and mine countermeasures. Systems like the REMUS 620 and Orca extra-large UUVs, deployable from Virginia-class submarines, offer extended endurance and reduced risk to personnel, with milestones achieved in submarine-launched recoveries during recent exercises. This unmanned focus aligns with broader distributed maritime operations, supplanting legacy manned designs amid evolving threats.^[105]^[106]

North Korea

North Korea maintains one of the world's largest fleets of midget submarines, primarily designed for asymmetric naval warfare, including coastal infiltration, special operations insertion, and limited antisurface engagements. These vessels form a key component of the Korean People's Navy's strategy to counter superior South Korean and U.S. naval forces through stealthy, low-cost operations near the peninsula's shores.^[107] The Sang-O-class, introduced in the 1990s, represents North Korea's foundational midget submarine program, with over 40 units estimated to have been constructed at the Sinpo Shipyard. These diesel-electric submarines displace approximately 300 tons, measure 34 meters in length, and accommodate a crew of approximately 19 personnel, enabling covert missions such as commando infiltration and minelaying. Equipped with a single diesel engine for surfaced speeds of up to 7 knots and a range of about 1,500 nautical miles, the Sang-O class prioritizes shallow-water operations along the Korean coast. A notable operational incident involving this class occurred in September 1996, when a Sang-O submarine ran aground near Gangneung, South Korea, during an infiltration attempt; the 26-man crew engaged in a prolonged manhunt, resulting in 24 North Koreans killed and the submarine sunk by South Korean forces.^[107] Building on the Sang-O design, the Yono-class emerged in the 2000s as a smaller, more agile variant optimized for torpedo attacks and export. Displacing around 130 tons with a crew of 2 plus up to 7 special forces personnel, these submarines feature two 533mm torpedo tubes for antisurface warfare and have a submerged speed of about 10 knots. North Korea exported Yono-class vessels to Iran starting in the early 2000s, where they influenced the development of the Iranian Ghadir-class. The class gained international attention in connection with the March 2010 sinking of the South Korean corvette Cheonan, where an international investigation attributed the loss of 46 sailors to a torpedo strike consistent with Yono-class capabilities, though North Korea denied involvement.^[108]^[109] Recent advancements in North Korea's submarine program include variants of the Sinpo-class, an experimental platform developed from the 2010s at the Sinpo South Shipyard, with ongoing construction and testing through 2025. Displacing approximately 2,000 tons—larger than traditional midgets but retaining coastal operational focus—the Sinpo-class has conducted verified submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM) tests, including a successful ejection in 2021 and a "new-type" SLBM firing in October 2021 from the East Sea. A prototype submarine in this class, launched in 2014, suffered damage during a 2021 test, highlighting ongoing developmental challenges, while a newer variant, the Hero Kim Kun Ok, was launched in September 2023 as North Korea's first dedicated ballistic missile submarine. In March 2025, North Korea announced development of a strategic nuclear-powered submarine under construction, disclosed with images, representing a significant evolution toward advanced underwater deterrence capabilities. These efforts underscore North Korea's push toward integrating strategic weapons into its submarine fleet for enhanced deterrence.^[110]^[111]^[112]

Iran

Iran's Islamic Republic of Iran Navy (IRIN) has expanded its midget submarine capabilities since the early 2000s to enhance asymmetric warfare options in the Persian Gulf, focusing on shallow-water operations for regional deterrence.^[9] These vessels, primarily indigenously produced, complement larger submarines by enabling covert missions in confined areas like the Strait of Hormuz.^[108] The Ghadir-class midget submarines entered service in 2007, with a displacement of approximately 120 tons and a crew of 6-9.^[108] Designed for short-range coastal patrols, these 29-meter vessels can carry two torpedoes or mines and operate at depths up to 200 meters for missions lasting several days.^[113] By 2025, Iran had built over 20 Ghadir-class submarines, forming a core component of its underwater fleet.^[9] In the 2010s, the IRIN introduced the Fateh-class, a larger semi-midget submarine with a displacement of around 600 tons, measuring 48 meters in length and accommodating a crew of about 20.^[114] Commissioned starting in 2019, these submarines feature advanced sonar and can deploy torpedoes, cruise missiles, or mines, with an operational depth exceeding 200 meters and endurance of up to 35 days.^[115] An air-independent propulsion (AIP) variant, unveiled in 2024, extends submerged patrol times beyond traditional diesel-electric limits, allowing for more prolonged stealthy operations.^[116] Strategically, Iran's midget submarines are optimized for mine-laying and anti-shipping roles in the Strait of Hormuz, where their small size aids in evading detection amid heavy shipping traffic.^[117] This capability was demonstrated during 2019 naval exercises in the Gulf, where Ghadir-class vessels successfully launched cruise missiles, underscoring their role in potential blockade scenarios.^[118] Production of these submarines occurs indigenously at facilities in Bandar Abbas, Iran's key southern naval base, supporting self-reliance amid international sanctions.^[113] By 2025, the IRIN's fleet included more than 25 small submarines, predominantly Ghadir and Fateh classes, bolstering underwater asymmetric threats in the Persian Gulf.^[9]

China

China's People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) initiated midget submarine development in the 1980s with the Type 032 class, a family of small coastal submarines designed for reconnaissance, sabotage, and special operations in littoral waters. These vessels, with displacements under 200 tons, represented an early effort to build indigenous underwater assets for asymmetric warfare, drawing on reverse-engineered foreign designs to enhance PLAN's near-shore capabilities.^[119] In the 2000s, the PLAN advanced its midget submarine program through concepts like the MS200, a 200-ton single-hulled design optimized for special forces insertion and stealthy coastal missions, featuring improved hydrodynamics for reduced acoustic signatures. By the 2010s, this evolved into the Hai-class midget submarines, approximately 100 tons, emphasizing low-observability features such as anechoic coatings and quiet propulsion to support covert operations in contested areas. These developments prioritized modularity for rapid deployment of elite units, marking a shift toward more sophisticated, mission-specific platforms. In February 2025, reports emerged of a new sail-less mini-submarine design, enhancing stealth capabilities for operations in areas like the Taiwan Strait.^[120]^[121] Recent expansions in the 2020s have included unmanned midget underwater vehicles (UUVs), such as extra-large variants deployed in the South China Sea for intelligence gathering, mine countermeasures, and swarm tactics, with some models achieving ranges exceeding 3,000 miles. Manned and unmanned assets together number over 10 units by 2025, integrated into carrier strike groups for multi-domain operations. Doctrinally, these submarines play a key role in island chain defense, enabling anti-access/area denial (A2/AD) strategies by disrupting adversary logistics and surveillance in the first island chain. For armament, they typically carry lightweight torpedoes and mines to target surface vessels in shallow waters.^[122]^[3] Technological advances in the PLAN's midget fleet include air-independent propulsion (AIP) systems, often Stirling-cycle engines, combined with lithium-ion batteries, providing up to two weeks of submerged endurance for persistent patrols without surfacing. These innovations, as seen in prototypes like the Type 041 mini-submarine, enhance operational flexibility in the oxygen-limited environments of the South China Sea, allowing sustained presence for blockade or reconnaissance missions.^[123]^[124]

Other Nations

Several European nations pursued limited midget submarine programs in the interwar and post-World War II periods, often adapting foreign designs for coastal defense or experimental purposes. In the 1930s, Finland developed the Saukko, a 99-ton midget submarine specifically designed for operations on Lake Ladoga, featuring a single hull and intended for minelaying and reconnaissance in shallow freshwater environments; it was launched in 1930 but saw no combat use during World War II due to operational limitations.^[125] Post-World War II, France incorporated captured German Seehund midget submarines into its navy, commissioning four units (S-621 to S-624) in the late 1940s for harbor defense trials and anti-submarine warfare experiments; these 15-ton, two-man craft were retired by the mid-1950s after limited service in joint U.S.-French exercises.^[126] Sweden acquired the British Stickleback midget submarine in 1958, renaming it Spiggen and using it through the 1960s as a special forces transport and training vessel with a crew of six and a displacement of around 30 tons submerged; it supported covert operations in the Baltic until decommissioning in 1971.^[40] Romania operated four Italian CB-class midget submarines during World War II, adapting them for Black Sea patrols with minor modifications for local conditions; these 36-ton, two-man vessels conducted reconnaissance and sabotage missions before being scuttled or captured in 1944.^[127] In Asia and other regions, smaller navies experimented with midget submarines in the mid-20th century, focusing on indigenous assembly or foreign acquisitions for littoral roles. Pakistan assembled three Cosmos-class (MG-110) midget submarines in the 1970s under license from Italy's Cos.Mo.S., each displacing 110 tons submerged and armed with torpedoes for special operations; these 28-meter craft replaced earlier SX-404 models and remained in service into the 1990s for coastal infiltration.^[128]^[61] Latin American countries also adopted compact midget designs for riverine and coastal security. Colombia commissioned two Intrepido-class midget submarines (ARC Intrépido and ARC Indomable) in the early 1970s, based on the Italian Cos.Mo.S SX-506 design with a 70-ton submerged displacement and a crew of four; these 23-meter vessels were used for training and anti-smuggling patrols along the Pacific and Caribbean coasts until retirement in the 1980s.^[129] By 2025, midget submarine programs in these nations are largely historical, with most vessels retired or scrapped due to advancements in larger conventional submarines and unmanned systems; no significant active fleets exist outside major operators like North Korea or Iran, though occasional experimental prototypes appear in countries such as Indonesia and Turkey for special forces support.^[3]

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SDVs are employed by US Navy SEAL operators. They are small free-flooding submersibles that can transport up to six combat-equipped SEALs.Missing: X- midget trials<|separator|>
[45]
Why do modern diesel electric submarines predominantly use lead ...
Aug 31, 2021 · Lead-acid batteries are reliable, robust, easily recharged, and exhibit almost zero fire risk. Mass on a submarine is pretty much irrelevant.
[46]
Chinese-Navys-First-Advanced-Submarine-Type-032 - H I Sutton
Feb 10, 2021 · In order to get a high performance out of such a small submarine very advanced silver-zinc batteries were to be used instead of the usual lead- ...
[47]
[PDF] Electric Propulsion Systems for Midget Submarines & SDV's
Electric Propulsion Systems designed for Midget Submarines. Low heat ... to DC to charge the hybrid batteries. Midget Submarine Electric Propulsion Systems.
[48]
X-class submarine - Wikipedia
The X class was a World War II midget submarine class built for the Royal Navy during 1943–44. It was substantially larger than the original Chariot manned ...
[49]
The Promise of Better Submarine Air-Independent Propulsion
However, nations pursuing new submarines were not convinced that midget submarine designs with our C3D technology could be scaled to serve as open-ocean ...Missing: challenges | Show results with:challenges
[50]
Full speed into tomorrow | Naval Group
Tested: The Naval Group FC2G AIP system can increase submerged endurance by several weeks at low speed without compromising stealth or submersion. Modular: The ...
[51]
Bushnell Turtle Midget Submarine Prototype - Military Factory
In the Turtle, the operator became the horsepower output and a hand crank was devised to spin two propellers, one for vertical movement and the other for ...
[52]
Russia-World-War-Two-Midget-Submarines - H I Sutton
Oct 23, 2020 · Midget submarines, those vessels with an underwater displacement of between 100-150 tons, have been considered essential assets in many navies ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[53]
AIP - A Historcal Perspective from Walter to Stirling - NSL Archive
The potential of AlP use in the near tenn is high for midget submarines and submersibles. The potential for use on submarines is less for auxiliary power ...
[54]
Yono Class / Ghadir Class - GlobalSecurity.org
Jun 26, 2019 · Name and model, Ghadir class submarine ; Manufacturer, Iran Defense Ministry of Defense Industries ; Year of construction, 2006 ; Launch, 2007.
[55]
Iran shows submarine-launched missile - Janes
Feb 27, 2019 · The Islamic Republic of Iran Navy (IRIN) showed an anti-ship missile being launched from one of its Ghadir-class midget submarines on 24 February.Missing: armament | Show results with:armament
[56]
Nasr / Nassir / Jask - cruise missile - GlobalSecurity.org
May 20, 2022 · This is an Iranian copy of a Chinese missile called C-704 designed to be carried by the Iranian Ghadir midget submarine. The missile was ...Missing: armament | Show results with:armament
[57]
SUBMARINE NEWS FROM AROUND THE WORLD - NSL Archive
Croatian Drakon 220 Midget Submarine: On 26 April ... inertial navigation system (INS). Additionally ... periscope with an infrared camera, a TV ...
[58]
Shallow Water Combat Submersible (SWCS) - GlobalSecurity.org
Jul 7, 2011 · Divers should be as unencumbered as feasible in order to allow operation of equipment such as sensors/navigation and reaction to emergencies.
[59]
Submarine Communications - GlobalSecurity.org
Jul 7, 2011 · ELF [Extremely Low Frequency 30 Hz - 300 Hz 10,000 Km - 1,000 Km wavelength] - This is the only band that can penetrate hundreds of meters below ...Missing: midget mother<|separator|>
[60]
[PDF] Iran's Asymmetric Naval Warfare - The Washington Institute
consist of six elements: surface vessels, midget and conventional submarines, missiles and rockets, naval mines, aviation, and military industries. Surface ...
[61]
Compact submarines for the littoral battlespace: the DGK case
Sep 1, 2025 · The DRASS DGK demonstrates that navies no longer need to choose between a narrowly focused midget and a costly large conventional boat that ...Missing: Galeazzi | Show results with:Galeazzi<|separator|>
[62]
Pakistan Submarine Capabilities - The Nuclear Threat Initiative
The Cosmo-class mini submarines are equipped for mine laying, coastal defense, and special forces operation.9. Modernization and Current Capabilities. The ...<|separator|>
[63]
Sang-O Class North Korean Diesel-Electric Submarine - ODIN
May 9, 2025 · ... subs, but larger than a midget submarine. It is apparently intended for use in coastal defense missions, minelaying and special forces insertion ...
[64]
North Korea's Asymmetric Submarine Doctrine - The Diplomat
Jul 23, 2014 · Additionally, North Korean mini-submarines have, from time to time, successfully reached South Korean shores undetected. In the notorious 1996 ...
[65]
Japanese midget submarine attack on Sydney Harbour
Kuttabul sank immediately, and 21 Allied naval ratings – 19 Australian and 2 British – were killed. Later, in the early hours of 1 June, the third midget ...
[66]
Submarine Attack on Sydney Harbour | Australian War Memorial
They missed the Chicago but one hit the barracks ship HMAS Kuttabul, killing 21 naval ratings. This midget submarine disappeared, its fate a complete mystery ...
[67]
Operation Source - September 1943 - RN Subs
In September 1943 six in X-Craft were towed by six Submarines to attack German Capital Ships in the Kaa Fjord in Norway. In all (apart from the Towing ...
[68]
Attack on the Tirpitz by Midget Submarines - Battleship Bismarck
The Attack on the German battleship Tirpitz by midget submarines on 22nd September, 1943, published in supplement to The London Gazette.
[69]
SSC Sang-o Class - GlobalSecurity.org
Jun 24, 2019 · The Sang-O (Shark) class submarines are used for special forces infiltration into South Korea and have at times been captured by ROK forces. ...Missing: facts | Show results with:facts
[70]
DSRV Mystic - U. S. Naval Undersea Museum
Sep 23, 2016 · Deep submergence rescue vehicle (DSRV) Mystic provided rapid-response submarine rescue capability to the U.S. Navy from 1970 to 2008.Missing: exploration | Show results with:exploration
[71]
[PDF] NATIONAL OCEANOGRAPHIC LABORATORY SYSTEM - UNOLS |
... Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicles MYSTIC (DSRV-1) and ... job of making the submersible a safe and effective scientific tool for deep ocean exploration.
[72]
Johnson-Sea-Link submersible | U.S. Geological Survey - USGS.gov
Dec 1, 2009 · The Johnson-Sea-Link, a manned submersible that can accommodate four people, is a critical component of these deep-coral ecosystem studies.Missing: NOAA reefs
[73]
Diving Deep into Midget Submarines: Understanding Their History ...
Jul 19, 2023 · Midget submarines, often referred to as mini-subs or X-craft, hold an intriguing and significant position in the annals of naval warfare.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[74]
HOV Alvin - Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
In June 1964, the world's first deep-diving submersible dedicated to scientific research was commissioned. What have we learned over the past 60 years? New ...Missing: midget | Show results with:midget
[75]
U-Boat Worx Unveils New Deepest-diving Tourist Submarine
Apr 8, 2016 · The Cruise Sub 5 and 7 are capable of diving to 1,140 meters making them the deepest-diving tourist submarine ever. Depending on the model, it ...Missing: specifications capacity
[76]
U-Boat Worx plumbs new depths with latest tourist subs
Apr 12, 2016 · The U-Boat Worx Cruise Sub can take 5, 7 or 9 people to 1140 m (3740 ft), making them the deepest-diving 5 and 7-person tourist submarines ...Missing: specifications capacity
[77]
C-Researcher Series – Submersibles to 3000 m | U-Boat Worx
The C-Researcher 3 LH – 500 has an impressive height of 185 cm and is capable of diving to depths of 500 meters, while the C-Researcher 3 LH – 1700 is only 230 ...Missing: tourist | Show results with:tourist
[78]
Deep Ocean Engineering: Underwater ROV, USV - Underwater ...
Deep Ocean Engineering provides integrated robotic solutions (ROV & USV) for various underwater applications in diverse operating environments.Contact Us · Products · About · ApplicationsMissing: midget rig Norwegian
[79]
Deep Rover - Submersible Rover - Deep Ocean Engineering
The Deep Rover is a submersible. The first generation was a one-man acrylic-hulled submersible reaching 1000m. The second generation holds two men.Missing: midget underwater inspection
[80]
[PDF] UNDERWATER INSPECTION/TESTING/MONITORING OF ...
This study aimed to identify underwater inspection requirements, assess the state-of-the-art, evaluate capabilities, and establish technology development ...Missing: midget | Show results with:midget
[81]
A hybrid remotely operated underwater vehicle for maintenance ...
The aim of this work is to design, develop, and evaluate underwater systems for the inspection and maintenance of net cages in aquaculture facilities.Missing: midget | Show results with:midget
[82]
A luxury full ocean depth submarine by Virgin Oceanic
Apr 18, 2012 · Designed by Graham Hawkes, the luxury superyacht submarine by Virgin Oceanic is the only piloted craft in the world that has 'full ocean ...Missing: 2010s | Show results with:2010s
[83]
Virgin Oceanic's Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea - IEEE Spectrum
Feb 29, 2012 · The six manned deep-sea submersibles operated by government agencies around the world are so heavy that they require specially equipped and ...Missing: luxury | Show results with:luxury
[84]
Ko-Hyoteki midget submarine - H I Sutton - Covert Shores
Dec 6, 2018 · Midget submarine attack on Pearl Harbor The popular account of Pearl Harbor records that the attack started at 0748hrs local time on 7th ...
[85]
Midget Submarines at Guadalcanal | Naval History Magazine
A Pearl Harbor veteran submarine, I-20, loaded the first Hyoteki destined to make an attack, HA-11, on 5 November. The same day Chiyoda returned to Truk. Two ...
[86]
Type-C Japanese Midget Submarine (U.S. National Park Service)
Mar 3, 2025 · Developed between 1942–1943, they were 81-feet long, weighed 49 tons, and were designed for a crew of three (two sailors and an engineer).
[87]
Sneak Craft Attack in the Pacific | Proceedings - U.S. Naval Institute
JAPANESE SNEAK CRAFT BECOME WEAPONS OF DESPAIR. In the year following the Japanese withdrawal from Kiska the role of the midget submarine was an extremely minor ...Missing: doctrine | Show results with:doctrine
[88]
On Japanese Naval Rearmament - June 1956 Vol. 82/6/640
The Japanese Peace Treaty of 1951 contained no such restrictions. The Peace Treaty signed at San Francisco has been hailed as a treaty of reconciliation. It ...
[89]
JMSDF (Cold War Japanese Navy) - Naval Encyclopedia
In 1956, the JMSDF at last commissioned its first domestically produced destroyer, Harukaze. As the Cold War intensified, the JMSDF main task became the anti- ...Missing: unmanned | Show results with:unmanned
[90]
Biber (Beaver) - Midget Submarines - German U-boats of WWII
From January through April 1945 the Molch and Biber midget boats went out on 102 sorties, lost 70 of their own and only sank 7 small ships with a total of 491 ...
[91]
Seehund (Seal) - Midget Submarines - German U-boats of WWII
These boats had a displacement of 17 tons submerged, a crew of 2 and carried two underslung torpedoes of type G7e. The Seehund had the range of 300 km at 7 ...
[92]
https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/submarines-by-country
[93]
German Submarine Developments 1945-1960s - Work in Progress
Jun 23, 2014 · The evolution of postwar German designed submarines - starting with the (what is now) TKMS 201 at the bottom of the diagram.<|separator|>
[94]
https://www.history.navy.mil/content/history/museums/nmusn/explore/photography/wwii/wwii-europe/italian-campaign/italian-ships/italian-cb-midget-submarines.html
[95]
Submarine Fleet Strength by Country (2025) - Global Firepower
'Midget' submarines are taken into account due to their clandestine attack nature. Data presented on this list is through 2025. Photograph of the bridge ...
[96]
Submarines by Country 2025 - World Population Review
Oct 28, 2025 · Global Fire Power tracks the most recent data on each nation's number of naval submarines. Landlocked countries typically do not have a standing ...
[97]
The Origins of the 10th Light Flottiglia - Regia Marina Italiana
Dec 26, 2023 · The new device, nicknamed “Maiale”, Italian for pig, was a modified electric torpedo. ... SLC (Slow Moving Torpedo also knows as maiale or pig).
[98]
CB Midget Submarines, Italian, 1941-43
CB midget submarines were ordered from Caproni, Milan, Italy, and were built from 1941-43. The submarines were used for coastal defense in the Black and ...
[99]
Italy's Daredevil Torpedo Riders - Warfare History Network
On a dark night in September 1941, moving at periscope depth, an Italian submarine edged into Gibraltar Bay near the British harbor. Quietly, six men wearing ...
[100]
The Italian Attack on the Alexandria Naval Base | Proceedings
The exploits of midget assault craft in World War II provided what is perhaps the brightest chapter in the whole of Italy's Naval Annals.
[101]
WW2 Italian Submarines, from ww1 to interwar and wartime models.
But the Regia Marina's first submersible was the Delfino in 1890, built at La Spezia by marine engineer Giacinto Pullino. Although laid down in 1889, she was ...<|separator|>
[102]
British Submarines in World War 2 - Naval-History.net
SEPTEMBER 1943. Atlantic. 22nd - Midget Submarine Attack on Tirpitz: Operation 'Source' - Battleship "Tirpitz" posed such a threat to Russian convoys and held ...
[103]
75th anniversary of the last VCs won by submariners - Royal Navy
Jul 31, 2020 · With nothing of Hitler's Navy left after Tirpitz was sunk in Norway, the Navy dispatched eight of its latest X-craft (“midget submarines”) to ...Missing: WWII | Show results with:WWII
[104]
Operation Gambit: Britain's D-Day X-Craft - Historic UK
Apr 21, 2024 · Two X-craft midget submarines were towed in secret and stationed off Sword and Juno beaches. Lying on the seabed, the 5 man crews waited for news that the ...
[105]
SBS: The Royal Navy's Special Boat Service - Grey Dynamics
In the past, there was an S Squadron. It specialised in small water-borne craft and mini-sub operations. However, it seems it was disbanded or reformed into Z ...Introduction · Motto, Symbols and History · SBS Organisation · EquipmentMissing: midget | Show results with:midget
[106]
X-1 / SSX-1 - GlobalSecurity.org
Jul 7, 2011 · The purpose was to test further the changes in pigment, turbidity, and surface tension caused by the passage of a submarine.Missing: American | Show results with:American<|separator|>
[107]
Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle DSRV - GlobalSecurity.org
Apr 9, 2019 · The DSRV is to provide a quick reaction, worldwide, all-weather capability to rescue personnel from disabled submarines (DISSUB) at depths of less than 610 ...<|separator|>
[108]
Mark VIII SEAL Delivery Vehicle - Military.com
The MK VIII MOD 1 SEAL Delivery Vehicle is a free-flooding wet submersible designed for undersea special operations including direct action, hydrographic ...
[109]
Report to Congress on Navy Large Unmanned Surface ... - USNI News
Mar 27, 2025 · The Navy wants to develop and acquire LUSVs, MUSVs, and XLUUVs as part of an effort to shift the Navy to a more distributed fleet architecture.
[110]
HII, partners achieve milestone in submarine-launched UUV ...
Oct 9, 2025 · A joint team has completed the first recovery of a second-generation unmanned undersea vehicle (UUV) REMUS 620 into a Virginia-class sub.
[111]
[PDF] The Iranian Sea-Air-Missile Threat to Gulf Shipping
Aug 14, 2014 · Its Kilo-class submarines can fire long-range homing torpedoes and lay smart and conventional mines. It acquired its first Ghadir-class 120-150-.<|control11|><|separator|>
[112]
Yono Class - GlobalSecurity.org
Oct 7, 2008 · Yugo Class Midget Submarine Yono Class Midget Submarine. In ... Armament was in the form of two 530mm torpedo tubes for torpedoes or mines.
[113]
Sinpo-class Submarine Damaged During October 19 Test Launch
Jan 7, 2022 · North Korea's SINPO-class experimental ballistic missile submarine suffered a malfunction likely resulting in damage during the October 19 ...
[114]
North Korea Launches New Ballistic Missile Submarine
Sep 11, 2023 · North Korea launched a new ballistic missile submarine, the Hero Kim Kun Ok, on September 6, 2023, at the Sinpo South Shipyard with Kim Jong-un ...
[115]
Iran Submarine Capabilities - The Nuclear Threat Initiative
In March 2024, Iran unveiled an updated Fateh-class submarine equipped with an air-independent propulsion system (AIP) plug. The Iranian Navy stated they plan ...
[116]
Iran Navy Modernization - GlobalSecurity.org
Apr 30, 2022 · In 1993, Iran bought two Russian Kilo-class submarines and eight mini-submarines from North Korea. All done in an effort to rebuild after the ...
[117]
Fateh (Conqueror / Victor) "semi-heavy" submarine
Sep 12, 2024 · Fateh is an upgrade over the 29-meter Ghadir class of subs that the Iranians had been building for years. In August 2010, four domestic-made ...Missing: details | Show results with:details
[118]
Iran's New Submarine Debuts At Massive War Games - Forbes
Sep 11, 2020 · By U.S. Navy standards Fateh, which means Conqueror, is actually a small submarine, about 157 feet long and 14 feet across. Its displacement ...
[119]
Iran unveils AIP version of Fateh-class submarine at DIMDEX 2024
Mar 8, 2024 · At the DIMDEX 2024, the Iran MoD showcased the the mockup of a Fateh-class submarine fitted with AIP capability.
[120]
Iran Beyond the Gulf | Proceedings - U.S. Naval Institute
Naval mines are critical to Iran's strategy in the Strait of Hormuz and the Persian Gulf. Iran has an inventory of more than 5,000 naval mines, which include ...
[121]
The Iranian Missile Threat - CSIS
May 30, 2019 · Iran claimed on February 28, 2019 to have tested a submarine-launched cruise missile, and released footage of its Ghadir-class submarines firing ...Missing: armament | Show results with:armament
[122]
Type 032 midget submarine - GlobalSecurity.org
Jan 8, 2021 · Type 032 midget submarine. On September 16, the official website of Harbin Engineering University issued an obituary stating: Deng Sanrui, an ...Missing: operational | Show results with:operational
[123]
China reveals new midget submarine design: MS200 - H I Sutton
Nov 16, 2017 · These differ from the MS200 by having Air Independent Power (AIP) which is probably a Sterling Generator closed-cycle diesel engine type.Missing: 100-200 | Show results with:100-200
[124]
China's New Extra-Large Submarine Drones Revealed - Naval News
Sep 16, 2022 · Secretly deployed to the South China Sea, two unknown underwater vehicles have been seen at Sanya naval base. This may be the first indication of a much larger ...Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
[125]
Neither Fish nor Fowl: China's Development of a Nuclear Battery AIP ...
Jan 22, 2025 · The Type 041 submarine could be sporting a novel, auxiliary nuclear powerplant in place of the Stirling engine previously employed in its AIP propulsion system.
[126]
Only China has mini-nuke submarine tech. Watch out, US Navy
Feb 12, 2025 · With its nuclear-charged battery, a Type 041 might be able to remain submerged for 20 days straight, according to Kirchberger and Carlson.
[127]
Saukko - Naval Encyclopedia
Saukko was in 1930 the world's smallest submarine. This Finnish model designed by Germany was designed to operate on lake ladoga.
[128]
Type XXVII-Class Midget Submarine - World War II Database
The tanker was reported as sunk by the German Seehund-type midget submarine U-5332, but the submarine did not report any attacks on this date. 13 Mar 1945 ...
[129]
The Romanian Navy in WW2 - Naval Encyclopedia
In addition Romania would receive soon 5 italian-built midget submarines of the CB-class, 6 british-built MTBs (Vedenia-class), but also three naval trawlers, ...
[130]
Cosmos Class MG110 - GlobalSecurity.org
May 9, 2023 · These mini-submarines can be used for various purposes like attacking enemy units in harbour with Frogmen/Charriots, at sea with torpedoes, at shore ...
[131]
Intrepido class (Cosmos SX 506 type) <I>midget submarines</I>
May 25, 2016 · Intrepido class (Cosmos SX 506 type) midget submarines ; Displacement, 70 tons submerged ; Dimensions, 23 x 2 x 4 meters (75.5 x 6.5 x 13 feet).Missing: 1960s | Show results with:1960s