Old Calendarists
Old Calendarists, also known as True Orthodox Christians, are dissident Eastern Orthodox groups that adhere to the traditional Julian calendar for determining the dates of immovable feasts, movable feasts, and fasts, in opposition to the Revised Julian calendar adopted by the Church of Greece in 1924.[1][2] This adherence stems from their view that the calendar reform constituted an uncanonical innovation, linked to broader modernist and ecumenist influences originating from a 1920 patriarchal encyclical and the 1923 Pan-Orthodox Congress.[3][2] The movement crystallized in Greece following the 1924 implementation, with initial resistance from clergy and laity who refused to commemorate New Calendar hierarchs, leading to persecutions and the emergence of parallel structures.[1][2] A pivotal development occurred in 1935 when three bishops reverted to the Old Calendar and consecrated additional bishops, resulting in their deposition by the state-recognized Church of Greece and the formation of distinct synods.[1] Internal divisions soon arose, notably the 1937 schism between the more moderate Florinites, led initially by Metropolitan Chrysostomos of Florina, and the stricter Matthewites under Bishop Matthew of Bresthena, who adopted a harder line against communing with New Calendar adherents.[1][2] Similar movements developed in Romania from 1924 and Bulgaria from 1968, often involving monastic revivals and claims of preserving unaltered Patristic tradition.[1] Today, Old Calendarist communities maintain independent hierarchies, with significant presence in Greece (including over 100 parishes and monastic houses), Romania, and the diaspora such as the United States, though they remain marginal relative to mainstream Orthodoxy and are generally regarded as schismatic by canonical churches.[1] Their defining characteristics include a rigorous anti-ecumenism, rejection of perceived grace in New Calendar sacraments by more radical factions, and emphasis on canonical rigor over administrative unity.[2][3] While subgroups like the Holy Synod in Resistance have occasionally pursued dialogue or limited recognition of other Orthodox as "ailing" rather than apostate, persistent internal schisms and isolation underscore the movement's contentious legacy.[1][2]Terminology and Definitions
Core Terms and Usage
Old Calendarists, also known as Palaioηmerologites in Greek (literally "Old Calendarians"), denote Eastern Orthodox Christians who reject the Revised Julian calendar adopted by the Church of Greece in 1924 and subsequent reforms in other autocephalous churches, insisting instead on the traditional Julian calendar for liturgical computations of fixed feasts and the date of Pascha.[1][4] This adherence stems from the view that calendar changes disrupt ecclesiastical unity with pre-20th-century Orthodox tradition and introduce irregularities in the paschal cycle, which relies on astronomical criteria established at the First Ecumenical Council in 325 AD.[5] The term "Old Calendarists" is predominantly employed by New Calendar Orthodox jurisdictions and external observers to describe these groups, often carrying a connotation of schismatic traditionalism, whereas adherents self-identify as "Genuine Orthodox Christians" (Gnisioi Orthodoxoi Christianoi) or "True Orthodox Christians" to emphasize preservation of unaltered patristic and conciliar practices against perceived modernist encroachments.[6][7] This self-designation underscores a broader ecclesiological stance that the post-1924 hierarchies compromised Orthodoxy through ecumenism and administrative innovations, rendering Old Calendarist synods the sole bearers of apostolic grace.[1] Usage of these terms varies by jurisdiction and historical phase: in Greece, it primarily references the schism originating in 1924–1935, encompassing factions like the Matthewites (followers of Bishop Matthew of Bresthena, emphasizing strict separation) and Florinites (from Bishop Chrysostomos of Florina, initially more conciliatory); in Romania, it applies to autonomous Old Calendarist bodies resisting Bucharest's 1924 alignment with the Revised Julian; analogous movements exist in Bulgaria and diaspora communities, though not uniformly termed "Old Calendarists."[8][1] The nomenclature avoids broader application to churches like the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (ROCOR), which retained the Julian calendar without formal schism until partial reconciliations in the 2000s.[4]Distinctions from Related Movements
Old Calendarists differ from Russian Old Believers primarily in the origins, timing, and focus of their respective schisms. The Old Believers, also known as Old Ritualists, rejected mid-17th-century reforms initiated by Patriarch Nikon of Moscow, which standardized liturgical texts, altered ritual practices such as the two-fingered sign of the cross to three fingers, and incorporated perceived Western elements into Russian Orthodox worship, leading to a split formalized around 1666–1667.[9] In contrast, Old Calendarists' divergence began in the 1920s, centered on resistance to the Revised Julian calendar's adoption by churches like the Patriarchate of Constantinople in 1924 and Greece in 1925, which they regarded as a violation of ancient canons and an entry point for ecumenical compromise rather than a comprehensive ritual overhaul.[1] Geographically and demographically, Old Believers remain predominantly Russian or Russian-diaspora communities, with historical estimates of up to 20 million adherents in the 19th century, though many subgroups lack priests (bezpopovtsy) and emphasize pre-Nikonian rites over calendar issues. Old Calendarists, however, are concentrated in Greece, Romania, and Bulgaria, with smaller diasporas; Greek groups claim 500,000–800,000 members across factions like the Matthewites and Genuine Orthodox Christians, while Romanian Old Calendarists number around 500,000 under autonomous hierarchies. Both movements preserve the Julian calendar, but Old Calendarists integrate anti-ecumenism as a core theological stance, rejecting sacraments from "New Calendarist" jurisdictions entirely in rigorist subgroups, unlike Old Believers whose critiques center on ritual purity without equivalent modern ecumenical opposition.[1] Old Calendarists are further set apart from canonical Eastern Orthodox churches that retain the Julian calendar, such as the Russian Orthodox Church or Mount Athos monasteries under various jurisdictions, which use it for fixed feasts and Paschalion while sustaining communion with Revised Julian-adopting bodies like the Ecumenical Patriarchate. These canonical entities view calendar variations as disciplinary rather than dogmatic, avoiding schism; Old Calendarists, by contrast, treat the 1923 Pan-Orthodox Congress proposals and subsequent reforms as heretical innovations warranting total separation, often anathematizing participants and limiting intercommunion even among themselves into competing synods.[10][11]Historical Context
Orthodox Calendar Traditions Pre-20th Century
The Eastern Orthodox Church utilized the Julian calendar for its liturgical and festal computations from the era of early Christianity onward, maintaining it as the standard until reforms in the twentieth century. Enacted in 45 BC under Julius Caesar, the Julian calendar approximated the solar year at 365.25 days by inserting a leap day every fourth year, providing a consistent framework that aligned with the temporal structures prevailing during the Church's formative period. This calendar underpinned the dating of fixed feasts—such as Nativity on December 25 and Theophany on January 6—and the movable cycle centered on Pascha, ensuring synchronized observances across Orthodox jurisdictions.[4] The First Ecumenical Council at Nicaea in 325 AD codified the Paschal reckoning, decreeing that Pascha occur on the first Sunday after the first full moon on or after the vernal equinox, fixed at March 21 Julian. This formula, derived from earlier Alexandrian computations but standardized for uniformity, prohibited alignment with the Jewish Passover date post-circumcision of Christ and emphasized Sunday observance to distinguish Christian practice. The council's canons aimed to eliminate quartodeciman discrepancies that had arisen in Asia Minor, mandating a common computation without reference to Jewish calendars, thereby embedding the Julian framework deeply into Orthodox paschalion traditions.[12][13] By the sixth century, the Church had established a uniform festal calendar and paschal tables, with no significant divergences in timing among Eastern patriarchates or autocephalous churches. When the Roman Catholic Church promulgated the Gregorian calendar in 1582 to rectify the Julian's drift—reaching about 10 days by then—the Orthodox synods declined adoption, viewing it as a unilateral papal innovation absent ecumenical consensus. Orthodox realms, including the Byzantine Empire until 1453 and subsequent Slavic states, employed the Julian calendar for both civil and ecclesiastical affairs, preserving unaltered the typikon regulations governing daily, weekly, and annual services. This continuity reflected a prioritization of conciliar tradition over astronomical precision, as the equinox's nominal fixity on March 21 served symbolic rather than strictly empirical purposes in liturgical theology.[4][14]The 1923 Pan-Orthodox Congress and Reforms
The Pan-Orthodox Congress convened in Constantinople from May 10 to June 8, 1923, under the initiative of Ecumenical Patriarch Meletius IV (Metaxakis), amid efforts to address perceived modernization needs within Eastern Orthodoxy following geopolitical upheavals such as the Bolshevik Revolution and the Greco-Turkish War.[15] Representatives attended from the Ecumenical Patriarchate, the Churches of Greece, Serbia, Romania, Cyprus, and Alexandria, though major entities like the Russian Orthodox Church (absent due to internal turmoil), the Patriarchate of Jerusalem, Georgia, and Mount Sinai declined participation or sent no delegates.[16] The gathering formed commissions to deliberate on seven principal topics, including calendar revision, ecumenical relations, and the establishment of a permanent Orthodox consultative body, reflecting influences from Protestant and Anglican observers present as non-voting guests.[16] A central outcome was the endorsement of the Revised Julian Calendar, a proposal developed by Serbian astronomer Milutin Milanković to rectify the Julian calendar's drift from the solar year while preserving ecclesiastical computations for Pascha (Easter).[17] This system aligns fixed feasts with Gregorian dates until approximately AD 2800 by omitting certain leap years, yet retains the Julian Paschal cycle to ensure Pascha follows the spring equinox and precedes Jewish Passover, as per the Nicene Canons.[18] The resolution urged Orthodox churches to adopt this calendar for uniformity in civil and liturgical fixed dates, framing it as a technical astronomical adjustment rather than doctrinal change, though critics later argued it undermined patristic precedents tying the calendar to unaltered apostolic tradition.[15] Following the congress, the Church of Constantinople implemented the Revised Julian Calendar on September 30, 1923 (Julian), transitioning to October 14, 1923 (revised).[19] The Church of Greece's Holy Synod approved adoption on February 1, 1924 (Julian date), under Archbishop Chrysostomos (Papadopoulos) of Athens, with the switch effective March 10, 1924 (revised), skipping 13 days in February to synchronize with the new system.[20] Similar reforms followed in Romania (1924) and Bulgaria (initially partial), while non-adopting churches like Russia and Jerusalem maintained the traditional Julian calendar, highlighting uneven reception and foreshadowing schismatic tensions over liturgical continuity.[15] These changes aimed at practical alignment with Western civil calendars but were contested by traditionalists for altering immovable feasts without ecumenical council authority.[21]Schism Origins
Developments in Greece (1924 Onward)
In February 1924, the Holy Synod of the Church of Greece approved the adoption of the Revised Julian calendar for immovable feasts, aligning with reforms proposed at the 1923 Pan-Orthodox Congress, while maintaining the Julian calendar for the calculation of Pascha.[1][22] Initial opposition among clergy and laity was limited and disorganized, with resisters continuing to use the Julian calendar in private or rural settings, but state-backed enforcement began to emerge by the mid-1920s.[8][22] By 1926, the official Church of Greece issued an encyclical declaring Old Calendarist sacraments invalid and devoid of grace, prompting intensified state interventions including church closures and arrests of priests.[23][24] Persecutions escalated between 1926 and 1929, involving violent clashes, imprisonment, and reported deaths among resisters, as authorities sought to suppress unauthorized Julian calendar services.[24][22] These measures, supported by the New Calendar hierarchy, reduced the movement to scattered monastic and lay communities without episcopal oversight until 1935. In May 1935, three metropolitans—Chrysostomos of Florina, Germanos of Demetrias, and Chrysostomos of Zakynthos—issued a pastoral encyclical condemning the New Calendar as schismatic and ecumenist, severing communion with the official synod and consecrating additional bishops to establish the Church of the Genuine Orthodox Christians of Greece.[3][22] The New Calendar synod responded by deposing these bishops and ordering further persecutions under Metropolitan Miron of Athens, leading to the imprisonment or exile of dozens of clergy; by 1940, at least ten Old Calendarist priests had died in custody.[3][22] Post-World War II, the movement organized more formally, with the 1950 election of Archbishop Spyridon as primate and the continued leadership of Chrysostomos of Florina until his death in 1955.[3] Persecutions persisted into the 1950s, including legal restrictions on Old Calendarist assemblies, but the groups began acquiring properties and monasteries, estimating membership between 500,000 and 800,000 by the late 20th century.[1][22] Internal divisions emerged in the 1960s, notably the 1963 schism led by Metropolitan Matthew of Bresthena, forming the strict "Matthewite" faction over disputes on the grace of New Calendar ordinations, contrasting with the "Florinite" approach of conditional reception.[3][22] Further factionalization occurred in the 1970s and 1980s, including the 1985 establishment of the Holy Synod in Resistance under Metropolitan Cyprian of Oropos and Fili, emphasizing dialogue while rejecting ecumenism; this group dissolved in 2014 amid unifications.[3] By the 1990s, multiple synods operated semi-autonomously, with ongoing legal battles for recognition and properties, though state tolerance increased compared to earlier decades.[22] These developments solidified the Old Calendarists as a fragmented yet enduring presence, prioritizing Julian calendar adherence amid claims of canonical fidelity against perceived modernist innovations.[1][3]Romanian Resistance and Autonomy
The Romanian Orthodox Church adopted the Revised Julian Calendar in 1924, following approval by its Holy Synod on November 13, 1923, in alignment with the 1923 Pan-Orthodox Congress recommendations.[25] This shift from the Julian Calendar prompted immediate resistance among traditionalist clergy and laity, particularly at the Skete of the Protection of the Theotokos (Slătioara) in northern Moldavia, where monks viewed the reform as an uncanonical innovation undermining Orthodox liturgical continuity.[25] In 1925, Hieromonk Glicherie (Iarca, 1891–1985) led a group of brethren from the skete in rejecting the new calendar, resulting in their expulsion by church authorities under Patriarch Miron Cristea.[26] Glicherie's resistance expanded into organized opposition, with petitions and protests erupting across regions like Bessarabia by the late 1920s, where Old Calendarists faced repression from both ecclesiastical and state authorities, often labeled as subversives despite their apolitical focus on liturgical fidelity.[27] Schisms intensified during 1934–1936, marked by uprisings and the defection of figures such as Bishop Galaction Cordun, who aligned with the movement after his defrocking, providing episcopal oversight.[25] In 1936, Glicherie was arrested amid efforts to consecrate bishops and establish independent structures, highlighting the movement's determination to maintain autonomous worship on the Julian Calendar.[28] Under communist rule, the 1948 Law on Religious Affairs severely curtailed Old Calendarist activities, forcing operations underground with continued persecutions, though some tolerance emerged sporadically compared to other dissident groups.[25] Galaction Cordun served as a key leader from 1955 until his death in 1959, consecrating successors like Glicherie, who became Metropolitan and solidified the group's apostolic claims amid isolation from mainstream Orthodoxy.[29] The Romanian Old Calendar Orthodox Church achieved formal autonomy through its own synod and monasteries, such as Slătioara, rejecting communion with the new calendar hierarchy on grounds of heresy.[29] Post-1989, the group sought legal recognition, gaining status as a religious minority by 1993 while preserving independence, with hundreds of thousands of adherents reported in earlier resistance phases.[25]