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Optical coating

An optical coating is a thin film or multilayer stack of dielectric or metallic materials applied to the surface of an optical component, such as a lens, mirror, or window, to modify its interaction with light by controlling reflection, transmission, absorption, or polarization.^[1] These coatings exploit the principles of optical interference, where light waves reflecting from multiple interfaces within the film layers interfere constructively or destructively depending on the film's thickness, refractive index, and the wavelength of light; for instance, a quarter-wave optical thickness (physical thickness times refractive index) produces a 180-degree phase shift that enables destructive interference for anti-reflection effects.^[2] The most common types include anti-reflection (AR) coatings, which reduce surface reflectance from about 4% (for uncoated glass in visible light) to about 1.2% per surface using single-layer materials like magnesium fluoride (refractive index 1.38) or multilayer broadband designs achieving under 0.5% reflectance over 100-200 nm bandwidths; high-reflection coatings, such as dielectric stacks exceeding 99.5% reflectivity at specific wavelengths or metallic mirrors like aluminum, silver, or gold for broadband performance; and specialized variants like beam splitters, polarizers, or protective overcoats for durability in harsh environments.^[1]^[2] Fabrication techniques typically involve physical vapor deposition methods, including vacuum evaporation (pioneered commercially in the 1930s for AR coatings), sputtering, or pulsed laser deposition, alongside chemical approaches like sol-gel processing or chemical vapor deposition to achieve precise layer thicknesses from nanometers to micrometers.^[2]^[3] Optical coatings are essential in numerous applications, enhancing light transmission in cameras and eyeglasses, boosting efficiency in lasers and solar cells, minimizing stray light in imaging systems, and enabling high-damage-threshold mirrors (up to 10-20 J/cm²) for high-power optics in telecommunications, medical devices, and scientific instruments.^[1]^[3] Their development has evolved from simple single-layer films in the early 20th century to complex rugate and graded-index designs today, driven by advances in materials like SiO₂, TiO₂, and ZrO₂ for UV to infrared spectral ranges.^[2]^[3]

Fundamentals

Definition and principles

Optical coatings consist of thin films, typically ranging from 10 nm to 10 μm in thickness, applied to optical surfaces to modify the reflection, transmission, absorption, or polarization of light.^[4] These films are engineered using materials with varying refractive indices to achieve precise control over light behavior at interfaces.^[5] The fundamental principles governing optical coatings stem from the interaction of light with boundaries between media of different refractive indices, as described by the Fresnel equations. These equations quantify the reflection and refraction at interfaces; for normal incidence, the amplitude reflection coefficient r is given by

r = \frac{n_1 - n_2}{n_1 + n_2},

where n_1 and n_2 are the refractive indices of the incident and transmitting media, respectively.^[4]^[6] For an uncoated glass surface in air (with n_{\text{air}} \approx 1 and n_{\text{glass}} \approx 1.5), this results in approximately 4% reflection per surface due to the index mismatch.^[5] This inherent reflection reduces light throughput in optical systems, motivating the use of coatings to mitigate such losses. In thin-film optical coatings, the key mechanism is interference arising from multiple reflections within the layered structure. Light waves partially reflected at each film interface interfere constructively or destructively depending on the film's thickness, the wavelength of light, and the refractive indices involved, leading to tailored optical properties.^[4] A critical aspect is the phase shift upon reflection: when light reflects off a medium with a higher refractive index (external reflection), it undergoes a 180° phase change, while reflection from a lower-index medium (internal reflection) does not, influencing the interference patterns.^[5] For instance, antireflection coatings exploit destructive interference to minimize reflection at targeted wavelengths.^[7]

Historical development

The foundations of optical coatings trace back to early observations of thin-film interference. In 1704, Isaac Newton conducted experiments with thin soap films, demonstrating how interference between light waves reflected from the film's surfaces produces vivid colors, laying the groundwork for understanding optical thin films.^[8] During the 19th century, advancements in telescope optics highlighted the practical challenges of surface reflections, which reduced light throughput in instruments.^[9] A pivotal milestone occurred in 1935 when Alexander Smakula, working at Carl Zeiss, developed the first practical single-layer anti-reflection coating using vacuum evaporation, enabling precise control of light reflection through dielectric layers to enhance transmission in optical systems.^[10] During World War II in the 1940s, these coatings found critical military applications, including on aircraft windshields to improve pilot visibility by reducing glare and on periscopes for submarines and tanks to minimize detection risks.^[11] Postwar progress built on evaporation techniques pioneered by John Strong in the 1930s and 1940s, who developed vacuum evaporation methods to deposit durable metallic and dielectric films, such as aluminized mirrors for telescopes that resisted tarnishing.^[12] High-reflection coatings, refined in the postwar period, proved essential for early laser mirrors following the 1960 invention of the laser, enabling efficient beam reflection in resonators.^[13] By the 1960s, ion-assisted deposition emerged as a key advancement, using ion beams during film growth to enhance adhesion and mechanical durability of coatings for demanding environments.^[14] In the 21st century, around the 2010s, nanostructured and metamaterial-based optical coatings began to proliferate, leveraging subwavelength patterns to achieve unprecedented control over light manipulation, such as broadband antireflection surpassing traditional multilayer designs.^[15]

Materials and Fabrication

Common materials

Optical coatings commonly employ dielectric, metallic, and semiconductor materials, selected based on their refractive indices, absorption characteristics, and compatibility with substrates to achieve desired optical performance across various wavelengths. Dielectrics provide low-loss, transparent layers essential for interference-based functionalities, while metals offer high reflectivity but may suffer from environmental degradation. Semiconductors bridge optical and electrical properties, and emerging hybrids introduce flexibility for advanced applications.^[16] Among dielectrics, magnesium fluoride (MgF₂) serves as a low-index material with a refractive index of approximately 1.38 in the visible range (0.4–0.7 µm), making it ideal for ultraviolet to visible antireflection applications due to its transparency from 0.11 to 7.5 µm and high laser damage threshold.^[17]^[18] Silicon dioxide (SiO₂), with a refractive index of about 1.46 at visible wavelengths, offers excellent durability and resistance to thermal shock as fused silica, enabling its use in robust coatings across 0.21–2.5 µm.^[19]^[20] Titanium dioxide (TiO₂) provides a high refractive index of around 2.61 in the visible spectrum (0.43–1.53 µm), facilitating high-reflectivity structures while maintaining low absorption in that range.^[21] Zirconium dioxide (ZrO₂), with a refractive index of approximately 2.1–2.2 in the visible range, is valued for its high durability and use in UV to IR coatings.^[22] Metallic materials are prized for their broadband reflectivity but require protection against oxidation or tarnishing. Aluminum exhibits the highest reflectance among metals in the ultraviolet (200–400 nm) and infrared (3–10 µm) regions, though it readily forms an oxide layer that can alter performance over time.^[23] Silver delivers superior reflectivity of over 98% in the visible range (e.g., 98.7% at 0.59 µm), but it tarnishes upon exposure to sulfur compounds, necessitating protective overcoats.^[24] Gold specializes in infrared applications, maintaining high reflectivity beyond 1 µm with inherent resistance to oxidation, as evidenced by its complex refractive index (n ≈ 0.28, k ≈ 2.93 at 1 µm).^[24] Semiconductor materials like indium tin oxide (ITO) combine transparency with conductivity, featuring a refractive index of approximately 1.83 in the visible (0.25–1.0 µm) for use in transparent conductive layers with low extinction (k ≈ 0.003).^[25] Zinc sulfide (ZnS) acts as an infrared dielectric with a refractive index of about 2.37 across 0.4–14 µm, valued for its broad transmittance in the 8–12 µm thermal band and mechanical robustness.^[26] Material selection hinges on refractive index matching to minimize reflections at interfaces, compatibility of thermal expansion coefficients with the substrate to prevent delamination under temperature variations, and low absorption coefficients in the target wavelength range—for instance, materials with negligible absorption below 200 nm for extreme ultraviolet (EUV) applications.^[27]^[28] Emerging hybrid organic-inorganic materials, such as polymer-based composites, enable flexible coatings by integrating organic components for bendability while retaining inorganic optical properties, as demonstrated in dynamic photonic structures.

Deposition techniques

Optical coatings are typically fabricated using vacuum-based deposition methods that ensure precise control over film thickness, refractive index, and uniformity, which are critical for achieving desired optical properties. Physical vapor deposition (PVD) techniques dominate the field due to their ability to produce high-quality, low-loss films suitable for multilayer stacks.^[3] These processes involve the transfer of material from a source to the substrate in a controlled vacuum environment, minimizing contamination and enabling atomic-scale deposition.^[29] Thermal evaporation, a foundational PVD method, heats the source material—such as metals or oxides like TiO₂ for high-index layers—using resistive or electron-beam sources in a vacuum chamber to vaporize it, allowing atoms or molecules to condense on the substrate.^[3] This technique operates at vacuum levels of 10⁻⁵ to 10⁻⁷ Torr and substrate temperatures up to 300°C, with deposition rates ranging from 0.1 to 10 nm/s, enabling flexible production for short runs but potentially leading to columnar microstructures if not optimized.^[3] Sputtering, another PVD variant, employs a plasma (often argon) to bombard a target material, ejecting atoms that deposit onto the substrate; magnetron sputtering enhances uniformity and rate while maintaining low substrate temperatures.^[29] Typical parameters include vacuum pressures of 10⁻³ to 10⁻⁶ Torr and deposition rates of 0.1–1 nm/s, resulting in denser films with better adhesion compared to evaporation, though it requires higher energy input.^[3] Chemical vapor deposition (CVD), particularly plasma-enhanced CVD (PECVD), offers advantages for uniform coating on complex geometries by decomposing precursor gases in a plasma at lower temperatures.^[29] In PECVD, films form at pressures around 0.1 Torr and substrate temperatures of 200–400°C, with rates of 1–10 nm/min, producing conformal layers suitable for specialized optical components while reducing thermal stress on heat-sensitive substrates.^[3] Alternative methods include sol-gel spin coating, a wet-chemical approach where a precursor solution is spun onto the substrate, dried, and annealed to form oxide films, offering low-cost deposition for simple antireflection layers at rates controlled by spin speed (typically 1000–5000 rpm) and ambient to 600°C annealing.^[3] Ion beam assisted deposition (IBAD) enhances PVD by simultaneously bombarding the growing film with low-energy ions (0.2–2 keV), operating at 10⁻⁵ Torr vacuum and rates of 0.1–0.5 nm/s, which densifies the structure, reduces stress, and improves environmental stability without elevating substrate temperatures significantly.^[30] Key process parameters—such as vacuum levels (10⁻⁵ to 10⁻⁷ Torr for most PVD), substrate temperatures (room temperature to 300°C), and deposition rates (0.1–10 nm/s)—directly influence film quality by affecting adatom mobility and microstructure, with higher vacuums minimizing defects but increasing equipment costs.^[3] Quality control during deposition relies on in-situ monitoring; quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) measures mass accumulation to track thickness and rate in real-time with sub-nanometer precision, while ellipsometry assesses refractive index and optical constants by analyzing polarized light reflection.^[31] These tools ensure precise layer control, enabling high-performance coatings with minimal variability.^[3]

Types of Coatings

Antireflection coatings

Antireflection coatings are optical thin-film layers designed to minimize light reflection at interfaces, thereby maximizing transmission through surfaces such as lenses or windows. These coatings exploit wave interference to cancel out reflected rays, enhancing overall optical efficiency in devices where stray reflections can degrade performance. By reducing surface reflectance from typical values of 4-5% per interface for glass-air boundaries to much lower levels, antireflection coatings improve image quality and light throughput.^[32] The simplest antireflection design is a single-layer coating with a quarter-wave optical thickness, given by d = \frac{\lambda}{4n}, where \lambda is the design wavelength and n is the refractive index of the coating material. This thickness positions the reflections from the air-coating and coating-substrate interfaces to undergo destructive interference, effectively suppressing the net reflection at that wavelength. A common material for such coatings is magnesium fluoride (MgF₂), with a low refractive index of approximately 1.38, applied to glass substrates; this reduces reflectance from about 4% to around 1% at the target wavelength in the visible spectrum.^[32]^[33] For broader spectral coverage, multilayer antireflection coatings stack alternating high- and low-index layers to achieve more uniform low reflectance over extended wavelength ranges. V-coatings, consisting of two layers with specific thicknesses and indices, provide high performance in narrow bands (around 10 nm width) by shaping the reflectance curve into a V-like minimum. Graded-index multilayer designs, where the refractive index varies continuously across the stack, extend effectiveness to wider angular incidences by mimicking a gradual transition from air to substrate.^[34]^[5] Advanced multilayer antireflection coatings can achieve reflectance below 0.5% across the visible spectrum (400-700 nm), significantly boosting transmission efficiency. However, performance is angularly dependent; at incidence angles exceeding 30°, the effective path length through the layers increases, shifting the interference conditions and raising reflectance. For an ideal single-layer antireflection on glass (refractive index ≈1.5) in air (refractive index ≈1.0), the required effective coating index is n_{\text{eff}} = \sqrt{n_{\text{substrate}} \cdot n_{\text{air}}} \approx 1.22, though real materials approximate this value.^[35]^[36]^[5] Practical examples include antireflection coatings on eyeglass lenses, which reduce glare and internal reflections to improve visual clarity and comfort, and on camera objectives, where they minimize ghosting and flare for sharper images.^[34]^[37]

High-reflection coatings

High-reflection coatings are optical thin-film structures designed to maximize the reflection of light at specific wavelengths, primarily through constructive interference in multilayer dielectric stacks. These coatings, often referred to as dielectric mirrors or Bragg reflectors, consist of alternating layers of high- and low-refractive-index materials, each with a quarter-wave optical thickness at the design wavelength, enabling reflectivities exceeding 99% over a finite bandwidth.^[38] Common material pairs include titanium dioxide (TiO₂, high index ≈2.4) and silicon dioxide (SiO₂, low index ≈1.45), deposited via techniques like electron-beam evaporation or ion-beam sputtering to achieve precise control over layer properties.^[38]^[39] The reflectivity R of such a quarter-wave stack with p periods (total layers N = 2p) can be calculated using the formula:

R = \left( \frac{1 - \frac{n_s}{n_o} \left( \frac{n_l}{n_h} \right)^{2p}}{1 + \frac{n_s}{n_o} \left( \frac{n_l}{n_h} \right)^{2p}} \right)^2

where n_o is the refractive index of the incident medium (typically 1 for air), n_s is the substrate index, n_h and n_l are the high and low layer indices, respectively; increasing p enhances R, with values >99% achievable for 8 periods using TiO₂/SiO₂.^[38] This design outperforms metallic mirrors, which provide broadband reflection (e.g., >90% across visible to near-IR for silver) but suffer from higher absorption losses (typically 1-5%) and limited durability due to oxidation, whereas dielectric stacks exhibit near-zero absorption in the visible and infrared regions for enhanced efficiency in low-loss applications.^[40]^[39] Wavelength selectivity is inherent to these coatings, as the high-reflection band centers where layer thicknesses equal \lambda / (4n), allowing tuning by adjusting thicknesses; for instance, stacks optimized for 1064 nm serve as cavity mirrors in Nd:YAG lasers, reflecting >99.5% to support high-Q resonators.^[39]^[41] However, a key limitation is the laser-induced damage threshold, typically 15-20 J/cm² or higher for 10-ns pulses at 1064 nm in advanced ion-beam-sputtered dielectric mirrors, beyond which thermal or mechanical failure occurs due to absorbed energy in defects or interfaces.^[42]

Transparent conductive coatings

Transparent conductive coatings are thin films designed to exhibit both high electrical conductivity and optical transparency, typically in the visible spectrum, enabling their use in devices where electrical functionality must coexist with light transmission. These coatings are primarily composed of doped metal oxides, with indium tin oxide (ITO) being the most widely adopted material due to its favorable balance of properties. ITO films achieve average visible transmittance exceeding 90% while maintaining sheet resistances below 100 Ω/sq, making them suitable for demanding optoelectronic applications.^[43]^[44] The structure of these coatings consists of thin layers of doped metal oxides, often deposited to thicknesses on the order of 100-300 nm to optimize performance. A key metric for evaluating their efficacy is the figure of merit, defined as the ratio of DC conductivity (σ_dc) to optical conductivity (σ_op), where values greater than 100 indicate high-quality transparent conductors capable of efficient charge transport without significant light absorption.^[45] ITO exemplifies this through its degenerate n-type semiconductor nature, with a bandgap above 3.7 eV contributing to low optical losses. Alternatives to ITO include fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO), which offers similar transparency and conductivity but with greater chemical stability, and graphene, prized for its exceptional electron mobility and flexibility despite challenges in large-scale uniformity.^[46]^[47] Deposition of these coatings commonly employs sputtering techniques, such as DC or reactive magnetron sputtering, to produce uniform films on substrates like glass or flexible plastics. This method allows precise control over film thickness and composition, ensuring adhesion and minimal defects.^[48] Performance in transparent conductive coatings involves a fundamental trade-off: thinner films enhance optical transparency by reducing absorption and scattering, while thicker films improve electrical conductivity by providing more charge carriers. For instance, ITO films around 150 nm thick often balance these attributes, yielding sheet resistances of 20-50 Ω/sq with over 85% transmittance. These properties underpin applications in touchscreens, where the coating serves as the sensing electrode, enabling capacitive detection through direct contact while preserving display clarity.^[45] A primary challenge for these coatings, particularly ITO, is their brittleness on flexible substrates, leading to cracking under mechanical strain and degradation of conductivity. This limitation has spurred research into more compliant alternatives like graphene to support emerging flexible electronics.^[49]

Specialty coatings

Specialty optical coatings encompass advanced designs tailored for niche applications requiring unique optical properties beyond standard antireflection or high-reflection functionalities. These include multilayer structures for extreme ultraviolet (EUV) wavelengths, phase-correcting films for wavefront management, and resonant systems exploiting interference effects for selective spectral control. Extreme ultraviolet coatings are essential for operations at wavelengths around 13.5 nm, where conventional single-layer mirrors fail due to high material absorption. These coatings typically employ periodic multilayer stacks of molybdenum and silicon (Mo/Si), consisting of 40-50 bilayers with a period of approximately 7 nm, achieving normal-incidence reflectivity of about 70% despite the inherent absorption in this regime.^[50] This performance builds on principles of high-reflection multilayers but adapts to EUV challenges through precise periodic structuring to constructively interfere reflected waves. Fabrication demands ultra-clean vacuum environments during deposition, such as magnetron sputtering, to prevent contamination from residual gases or particles that could degrade reflectivity or introduce defects.^[51] Phase correction coatings address wavefront distortions, particularly in aspheric lenses where non-uniform phase delays arise from surface curvature. These coatings compensate by incorporating varying thickness profiles across the optic, modulating the optical path length to restore a flat wavefront and minimize aberrations like spherical distortion.^[52] Such designs are achieved through tailored deposition techniques that control layer thickness gradients, ensuring phase alignment without altering overall transmission significantly. Fano-resonant coatings leverage interference between resonant and non-resonant pathways to produce asymmetric spectral line shapes, enabling sharp enhancements in absorption or transmission at targeted wavelengths. These structures utilize coupled resonators, such as nanocavities in thin films, to generate the characteristic Fano profile, which offers steeper dispersion than symmetric Lorentzian resonances for applications requiring high selectivity.^[53] Other notable specialty coatings include dichroic filters, which selectively reflect or transmit specific color bands for efficient wavelength separation, and rugate filters featuring continuously varying refractive index profiles to suppress unwanted sidelobes in bandpass responses. Dichroic designs, often based on multilayer dielectrics, provide clean color isolation by exploiting angle-dependent interference.^[54] Rugate filters, in contrast, approximate sinusoidal index modulation through graded compositions, yielding smoother rejection bands compared to discrete-layer alternatives.^[55]

Applications

In optical devices

Optical coatings play a critical role in enhancing the performance of precision optical instruments by minimizing light losses and unwanted reflections. In telescopes, antireflection (AR) coatings applied to corrective lenses and other optical elements boost light collection efficiency and reduce ghosting artifacts, which are caused by stray reflections within the system. For instance, the Hubble Space Telescope employs magnesium fluoride (MgF₂) overcoats on aluminum mirrors and AR coatings on instrument lenses to cover a broad spectral range from ultraviolet to near-infrared, thereby improving image clarity and contrast by suppressing internal reflections.^[56] High-reflection (HR) coatings on telescope mirrors, often dielectric multilayers, achieve reflectivities exceeding 99.9%, enabling near-total light utilization for faint astronomical observations and maintaining high system efficiency over extended exposures.^[57] In laser systems, dielectric coatings are essential for defining cavity performance. Output couplers utilize partially reflective dielectric mirrors to transmit a controlled fraction of the intracavity light while reflecting the rest to sustain lasing, typically achieving reflectivities of 90-99% depending on the design wavelength. End mirrors, in contrast, employ highly reflective dielectric stacks for near-total reflection (>99.9%) to confine the beam effectively. In vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs), distributed Bragg reflectors (DBRs)—periodic dielectric multilayers—serve as integrated mirrors with reflectivities over 99.5%, enabling compact, efficient emission perpendicular to the wafer surface.^[58]^[59]^[60] Microscopy benefits from AR coatings on immersion objectives, which reduce surface reflections at the glass-immersion medium interface, thereby minimizing spherical aberrations and improving resolution for high-numerical-aperture imaging. Water or oil immersion objectives, coated with multilayer AR films optimized for visible wavelengths, enhance light transmission and contrast by limiting flare from refractive index mismatches.^[61]^[62] A notable application is in the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO), where ultra-low-loss dielectric coatings on interferometer mirrors exhibit optical absorption below 1 part per million (ppm), with measured values of 0.2-0.4 ppm at 1064 nm, ensuring minimal thermal noise and high sensitivity for detecting gravitational waves.^[63] Overall, these coatings enable greater than 95% optical throughput in multi-element systems like advanced telescopes and laser cavities, significantly amplifying signal-to-noise ratios compared to uncoated optics.

In electronics and displays

Optical coatings play a crucial role in electronics and displays by enhancing performance, visibility, and user interaction while minimizing energy loss and aesthetic distractions. In liquid crystal displays (LCDs) and organic light-emitting diode (OLED) screens, antireflection (AR) and anti-glare coatings reduce surface reflections from ambient light, significantly improving image contrast and readability, particularly in bright environments. These coatings can lower luminous reflectance to below 1%, representing a reduction of over 75% compared to uncoated glass surfaces, which typically exhibit 4-8% reflectance. For instance, moth-eye-like nanostructured AR films on flexible substrates achieve transmittance up to 96% with haze under 1.5%, maintaining high image quality indices near 97% even under sunlight.^[64] Additionally, oleophobic topcoats are often applied over these AR layers to repel oils and fingerprints, preserving clarity and ease of cleaning on touch-enabled devices. Transparent conductive coatings, such as those using indium tin oxide (ITO), enable capacitive sensing in touchscreens by providing a low-resistivity layer with high optical transmittance exceeding 85% in the visible spectrum. ITO films, typically 100-200 nm thick, form the electrode grid that detects finger proximity through changes in capacitance, supporting multitouch functionality in smartphones and tablets without compromising display aesthetics. These coatings are sputter-deposited onto glass or plastic substrates, ensuring flexibility and durability in consumer electronics. In photovoltaic applications within electronics, such as integrated solar cells for portable devices, AR coatings boost light absorption and overall efficiency. For example, polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) antireflection coatings on back-contact perovskite solar cells increase short-circuit current density by approximately 21.5% relative to uncoated cells, contributing to enhanced power conversion efficiency through reduced reflections.^[65] High-reflection (HR) coatings on LED reflectors and cavities further optimize light extraction in displays and lighting modules. Distributed Bragg reflectors (DBRs) composed of alternating dielectric layers, such as SiO₂ and TiO₂, achieve reflectivities over 99% in the visible range, redirecting internally trapped light toward the output surface and increasing luminous efficacy by up to 7-8%. This is particularly vital in backlit LCDs and direct-view OLEDs, where efficient photon recycling reduces power consumption.^[66] Representative examples include multilayer AR stacks on smartphone screens, which combine dielectric thin films (e.g., MgF₂/SiO₂) to suppress reflections across multiple interfaces, enhancing outdoor usability. Similarly, architectural glass in electronic building facades incorporates self-cleaning coatings, often photocatalytic TiO₂-infused layers, that decompose organic contaminants under UV exposure while maintaining high transmittance for integrated displays or sensors. These applications underscore the integration of optical coatings for both functional and aesthetic benefits in modern electronics.^[67]

Challenges and Advances

Durability and limitations

Optical coatings are susceptible to various degradation mechanisms that compromise their performance over time, particularly under environmental and operational stresses. Delamination often occurs due to thermal cycling, where mismatches in the coefficients of thermal expansion between the coating layers and the substrate generate interfacial stresses, leading to cracking and peeling. Abrasion represents another key vulnerability, as the relatively soft nature of many dielectric materials used in coatings (such as MgF₂ or SiO₂) results in a hardness lower than that of the underlying substrate, causing surface wear from mechanical contact. Additionally, exposure to high humidity can induce corrosion, where moisture ingress promotes chemical reactions at interfaces, accelerating delamination and optical degradation.^[68]^[69] To evaluate and quantify these durability issues, standardized metrics and tests are employed in the industry. Adhesion is commonly assessed via tape pull tests, such as the L-T-90 method, where cellophane tape is applied and rapidly removed to measure the degree of coating removal, providing a qualitative indicator of interfacial bonding strength. The laser-induced damage threshold (LIDT) quantifies resistance to high-intensity light, measuring the fluence at which coatings exhibit permanent damage like pitting or ablation, critical for laser applications. Environmental stability is tested against MIL-STD-810 standards, which simulate conditions like temperature cycling, humidity, and salt fog to predict long-term performance in harsh settings.^[70]^[71]^[72] Mitigation strategies focus on enhancing inherent robustness without altering core optical properties. Applying hard overcoats, such as aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃) layers deposited via techniques like pulsed laser deposition, increases surface hardness and barrier properties against abrasion and corrosion. For space applications, encapsulation with conformal thin films, often using atomic layer deposition, protects coatings from atomic oxygen and vacuum outgassing, extending operational lifespan in extraterrestrial environments.^[73]^[74]^[75] Despite these approaches, optical coatings face inherent limitations that restrict their versatility and adoption. Performance is highly sensitive to angle of incidence and wavelength, as multilayer designs optimized for specific conditions exhibit reduced reflectivity or increased absorption outside their narrow bandwidths, limiting broadband or off-axis use. Custom multilayers for extreme ultraviolet (EUV) applications, requiring precise nanoscale layering, incur very high costs due to specialized vacuum deposition and metrology needs.^[76] In practical cases, such as antireflection coatings on consumer optics, scratch-prone surfaces remain a common issue without meticulous care, as soft substrates and thin protective layers yield to everyday abrasion.

Recent innovations

Recent innovations in optical coatings have leveraged advanced materials and fabrication techniques to enhance performance across various applications, particularly since 2020. Metamaterials, featuring subwavelength structures, have enabled breakthroughs in light manipulation, such as perfect absorption and negative refraction. For instance, plasmonic nanostructures based on truncated cone and resonator designs have achieved broadband solar absorption exceeding 95% across visible to near-infrared wavelengths, improving efficiency in photovoltaic devices.^[77] Atomic layer deposition (ALD) has emerged as a key method for producing highly precise, conformal optical coatings on complex geometries, with layer thicknesses controlled to approximately 0.1 nm per cycle. This technique allows for uniform antireflective coatings on curved or three-dimensional surfaces, such as polymer lenses, reducing reflection to below 0.5% at 633 nm while maintaining mechanical integrity at low deposition temperatures compatible with sensitive substrates.^[78]^[79] Bio-inspired designs, particularly moth-eye nanostructures mimicking corneal textures, have advanced broadband antireflection without relying on traditional multilayers. These subwavelength gratings, fabricated via scalable roll-to-roll nanoimprint lithography, achieve average reflectance below 1% over 400–800 nm and offer robust, angle-insensitive performance for applications like flexible photovoltaics.^[80] Integration of quantum dots into optical coatings has facilitated tunable color filters for next-generation displays, with post-2023 developments yielding efficiency gains through enhanced color conversion layers. These layers, incorporating colloidal quantum dots, have doubled optical efficiency in micro-LED devices while preserving over 90% Rec. 2020 color gamut, enabling brighter, more vibrant screens with lower power consumption.^[81] Sustainability efforts have focused on eco-friendly alternatives to indium tin oxide (ITO), such as silver nanowire networks, which eliminate indium dependency and reduce environmental impact from rare-earth mining. These conductive coatings maintain high transmittance above 85% at 550 nm and sheet resistances under 20 Ω/sq, providing a viable, flexible substitute that cuts indium use by nearly 100% in transparent electrodes for electronics.^[82]^[83] As of 2025, further advances include optical coatings tailored for augmented reality (AR) eyewear, enhancing visual clarity and integrating smart device functionality, and plasma-assisted reactive magnetron sputtering (PARMS) for durable, high-performance coatings in space missions.^[84]^[85]

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Common Infrared Optical Materials and Coatings - Photonics Spectra
The optical materials selected for an optical system depend upon the application, the required system performance and the environment in which the system is to ...
[25]
Recent developments in deposition techniques for optical thin films ...
The most significant processes for optical coating manufacture are variants of vacuum deposition. Thermal evaporation is the traditional process and still ...
[26]
[PDF] Ion Beam Assisted Deposition for Optical Coatings: R&D to Production
Ion Beam Assisted Deposition (IBAD) involves vacuum depo- sition processes which incorporate concurrent energetic ion bombardment and material deposition.
[27]
[PDF] Extending the Life of Quartz Crystals for Optical Coatings
The quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) is widely used for in situ monitoring and control of the deposition of optical/di- electric thin films.
[28]
https://www.photonics.com/Articles/Common-Infrared-Optical-Materials-and-Coatings-A/a25495
[29]
Advancements and Challenges in Anti-Reflective Coatings
Sep 29, 2025 · For instance, single-layer MgF2 can lower glass reflectance from ∼4% to ∼1%, while sol–gel derived silica coatings achieve transmittance above ...
[30]
Anti-reflection Coatings - RP Photonics
So-called V coatings have a high performance only in a narrow bandwidth (order of 10 nm), whereas broadband coatings offer moderate performance but in a wide ...Single-layer Anti-reflection... · Multilayer Coatings · Gradient Index Coatings
[31]
Graded-Index Fluoropolymer Antireflection Coatings for Invisible ...
We demonstrate a five-layer, step-graded AR coating that reduces the solar spectrum-averaged (400 < λ < 2000 nm) reflectance of acrylic plastic to <0.5%.
[32]
https://www.edmundoptics.com/knowledge-center/application-notes/lasers/anti-reflection-coatings/
[33]
Anti-Reflective Coatings | Precision Processing | Nikon About Us
Anti-reflective coatings reduce surface reflections to make light easier to see. For example, in glasses, they reduce inner reflections to make your field ...
[34]
[PDF] 8. Multilayer Films
The simplest periodic thin film system is a quarter-wave stack which is made up of a number of ... If p becomes 8 (16 layers) the reflectivity is greater than.
[35]
Quarter-wave Mirrors - RP Photonics
For a given wavelength and number of layer pairs, a quarter-wave mirror is the structure which can result in the highest reflectance. Quarter-wave stacks are ...
[36]
Highly Reflective Coatings - Edmund Optics
Highly reflective coatings minimize loss when reflecting light, often using multilayer dielectric coatings for higher reflectivity than metallic mirrors.<|control11|><|separator|>
[37]
Nd:YAG Laser Line Mirrors - Thorlabs
These Nd:YAG mirrors cover fundamental to 4th harmonic wavelengths, have high reflectance, operate from 0° to 45° AOI, and come in Ø1/2", Ø19 mm, Ø1", and Ø2" ...
[38]
[PDF] Optical Components - EKSMA Optics
Dichroic Mirrors with High Transmission new. Coating. Technology. Ion Beam Sputtering (IBS). Laser Damage Threshold. >10 J/cm2, 8 nsec pulse, 1064 nm typical.
[39]
Characterization of transparent conductive ITO thin films deposited ...
Indium tin oxide (ITO) thin films have attracted intensive interest because of their unique characteristics of good conductivity, high optical transmittance ...
[40]
ITO Coatings - Abrisa Technologies
This single layer ITO coating provides an average transmittance of 90% over the visible spectrum (400-700nm) with resistivity of 120 ohms/sq. Standard tolerance ...
[41]
Flexible transparent conductors based on metal nanowire networks
A ratio of direct current conductivity to optical conductivity, σdc/σop, is often used as a figure of merit to evaluate the properties of a transparent ...
[42]
Thin Film Indium Tin Oxide Transparent Conductors
Aug 30, 2025 · Indium Tin-Oxide (ITO) is a degenerate n-type semiconductor with a bandgap above 3.7 eV and is a widely used transparent conducting oxide (TCO) ...
[43]
Graphene compared to fluorine-doped tin oxide as transparent ...
Graphene could replace widely used transparent conductors (TC) like tin oxides due to its high transparency and electrical conductivity.
[44]
High-quality transparent conductive indium oxide film deposition by ...
May 30, 2022 · The employed deposition technique leads to superior thin film quality: The high plasma density increases the chance of collision between the ...
[45]
Transparent Conducting Oxide Nanocrystals: Synthesis, Challenges ...
Jul 8, 2023 · On the other hand, the brittleness of these TCOs restricts their usage in flexible substrate. However several alternatives such as metal ...
[46]
[PDF] Multilayer reflective coatings for extreme-ultraviolet lithography
... extreme-ultraviolet (EUV) lithography. Near-normal incidence (5”) reflectances of 67.5% at 13.4 nm are now routinely achieved with Mo/Si multilayers; while ...
[47]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2213343722004249
[48]
Coating design by optimizing field penetration to minimize phase ...
We will discuss examples based on phase correction errors due to thickness variation, but the concepts apply equally well to phase variations versus angle or ...
[49]
Fano resonant optical coatings platform for full gamut and high purity ...
Jul 5, 2023 · The resonant interference between the nanocavities produces the well-known asymmetric Fano resonance line-shape. Fig. 1: Spectral properties of ...
[50]
https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/310916
[51]
https://opg.optica.org/oe/abstract.cfm?uri=oe-15-21-13997
[52]
Mirrors for Space Telescopes: Degradation Issues - MDPI
MgF2 coating, for example, is used as a protective layer on Al in Hubble Space Telescope optics, covering the wavelength range from 110 nm to near infrared.
[53]
High-reflective coatings for ground and space based applications
Nov 17, 2017 · High-reflective coatings are indispensable in order to manufacture mirrors with highest possible reflectivity. The maximum reflectivity can be ...Missing: formula | Show results with:formula
[54]
Laser Output Coupler | Dielectric coated optics - Altechna
A laser output coupler is a semi-transparent dielectric mirror used in a laser cavity. It has the function of transmitting part of the circulating intracavity ...
[55]
Output Couplers – mirrors - RP Photonics
An output coupler is usually a semi-transparent dielectric mirror used in a laser resonator. Its function is to transmit part of the circulating intracavity ...
[56]
Distributed Bragg Reflectors for GaN-Based Vertical-Cavity Surface ...
A distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) is a key building block in the formation of semiconductor microcavities and vertical cavity surface emitting lasers ...
[57]
Microscopy Basics | Objectives - Zeiss Campus
One of the most significant improvements in objective design during recent years is the enhancement of antireflection coating technology, which aides in ...
[58]
Properties of Microscope Objectives | Nikon's MicroscopyU
The single-layer lens coatings once utilized to reduce glare and improve transmission have now been supplanted by multilayer coatings that produce transmission ...
[59]
[PDF] Technical Description of Advanced LIGO Detector by Subsystem
Absorption in the test mass high-reflectivity coatings is specified at less than. 0.5 ppm, and actual coatings show measured absorption of 0.2—0.4 ppm. Other ...
[60]
https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/9/8/1593
[61]
Solution-processed antireflective coating for back-contact perovskite solar cells
### Quantitative Data on AR Coating Efficiency Boost in Solar Cells
[62]
https://www.microscopyu.com/microscopy-basics/properties-of-microscope-objectives
[63]
Transparent, self-cleaning, scratch resistance and environment ...
Oct 20, 2021 · Transparent, self-cleaning, scratch resistance and environment friendly coatings for glass substrate and their potential applications in outdoor ...Experimental Section · Ftir And Uv Absorbance... · Dsc-Tga Analysis
[64]
Interfacial Delamination at Multilayer Thin Films in Semiconductor ...
Jul 14, 2022 · In this work, the effect of thermomechanical stress on the failure of multilayered thin films on Si substrates was studied using analytical calculations and ...<|separator|>
[65]
Degradation types of reflector materials used in concentrating solar ...
This review paper presents a survey of the durability tests most commonly used (mechanical abrasion/erosion, humidity, temperature, thermal cycling, UV ...
[66]
Multi-Regional Natural Aging Behaviors and Degradation ... - NIH
Sep 29, 2025 · Fluctuations in temperature and humidity affected the degradation ... Moisture ingress caused coating delamination, decomposition, shedding, and ...
[67]
(PDF) Specifications and Standards for Optical Coating Durability
Aug 5, 2019 · ... tests requirements according to MIL-STD-810G are used in addition. to ... An LT-90 adhesion test (where standardized cellophane tape is pulled ...
[68]
[PDF] How Do You Test Optical Coatings?
Again, a commonly utilized adhesion test is that of MIL-C-48497. This test is performed as follows: A piece of 1/2" wide cellophane tape conforming to FED Spec.
[69]
Optical Filter Reliability Testing - Newport
The humidity test prescribed in MIL-STD-810E is used to simulate the effects of prolonged exposure to climatic conditions to which the coating or assembly may ...
[70]
Optically transparent and durable Al2O3 coatings for harsh ...
In this study, we intended to test our hypothesis that clear and pore free alumina coating can be uniformly distributed on glass prisms by ultra short pulsed ...Missing: overcoats encapsulation
[71]
Semiconductor Encapsulation Solutions - ALD Applications - Veeco
ALD can deliver ultra-thin encapsulation with superior conformallity and thickness control making it the technique of choice for flexible electronics.Missing: mitigation durability hard overcoats space
[72]
[PDF] Space product assurance
Feb 1, 2018 · For optical coatings, the adhesion test shall be performed according to. ISO 9211-4:2012, Conditioning method 2, Adhesion, Degree of severity.
[73]
[PDF] EUV multilayer coatings: potentials and limits
Development of HT multilayers mainly focuses on the improvement of optical performance. Our limits: • Development of HT- multilayers with T max. > 600oC is ...
[74]
Optical Coatings and Cost - Esco Optics, Inc.
Dec 2, 2020 · Coating cost depends on the coating type, layers, and number of parts. For example, a simple AR coating for 100 pieces may cost $750, or $375 ...
[75]
Nanoindentation Hardness and Practical Scratch Resistance ... - MDPI
This work presents fundamental understanding of the correlation between nanoindentation hardness and practical scratch resistance for mechanically tunable anti ...
[76]
Plasmonic Nanostructures for Broadband Solar Absorption Based ...
In this study, a high-performance meta-structure solar absorber (MSSA) based on a tungsten truncated cone structure combined with a film resonator structure ...
[77]
Atomic layer deposition of conformal anti-reflective coatings on ...
Apr 28, 2022 · AR coatings on polymer lenses can be deposited by industrial standard processes, e.g., via sputtering for the surface finishing of eyeglasses, ...
[78]
Anti-Reflective Coatings Produced via Atomic Layer Deposition for ...
Such coating deposited via atomic layer deposition (ALD) decreased the reflection from 3.3% to 0.1% at a wavelength of 633 nm for one surface of hybrid organic– ...
[79]
Bioinspired antireflective flexible films with optimized mechanical ...
Jan 28, 2021 · This work describes the fabrication process of moth eye antireflective poly (methyl methacrylate) transparent films via roll to roll thermal nanoimprint ...Missing: commercialized | Show results with:commercialized
[80]
A Review on Quantum Dot‐Based Color Conversion Layers for Mini ...
Aug 3, 2023 · The integration of the CLC layer doubled the optical efficiency of the micro-LED display device while maintaining the color gamut of ≈90% Rec.Missing: gains post-<|separator|>
[81]
Composites of Shellac and Silver Nanowires as Flexible, Biobased ...
Sep 18, 2025 · AgNWs are more environmental friendly than indium tin oxide, and offer solution processability, high conductivity, and high optical transparency ...Missing: post- | Show results with:post-
[82]
Silver Nanowire Film vs ITO: Which One Is Better? - Huake Tek
Rating 5.0 · Review by 演示Mar 29, 2025 · Silver nanowire film provides a more sustainable alternative by reducing dependency on indium resources. ... environmentally friendly than ITO ...Missing: 90% 2020