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PMN

Polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs), also known as granulocytes, are a subset of white blood cells distinguished by their multi-lobed nuclei and cytoplasmic granules containing enzymes and antimicrobial agents that enable rapid responses to pathogens.^[1]^[2] PMNs encompass neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils, with neutrophils comprising the majority and serving as the primary cellular mediators of innate immunity against bacterial and fungal infections.^[1]^[3] They constitute 50-70% of circulating leukocytes in healthy adults, migrating swiftly to sites of inflammation or injury via chemotaxis to engulf and destroy invaders through phagocytosis, degranulation, and release of reactive oxygen species and neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs).^[4] While essential for host defense, dysregulated PMN activity contributes to tissue damage in conditions like sepsis, autoimmune diseases, and chronic inflammation, highlighting their dual role as protectors and potential exacerbators of pathology.^[5]^[6] Clinical assessments of PMN counts via differential blood smears aid in diagnosing infections, leukemias, and immune deficiencies, underscoring their diagnostic significance in hematology.^[2]

History

Development in the Soviet Union

The PMN-1, the initial model in the series, was developed in the Soviet Union during the late 1950s to provide a simple, low-cost means of denying area access to advancing infantry in potential European theater operations, where massed troop movements were anticipated under Cold War doctrines emphasizing defensive depth.^[7] Its engineering prioritized reliability through a pressure-activated fuze mechanism, with empirical testing establishing a detonation threshold of approximately 5-10 kg applied to the pressure plate, sufficient for foot activation while minimizing false triggers from lighter disturbances.^[8] The mine's bakelite body, reinforced with minimal metallic components, reduced detectability by magnetic mine detectors prevalent in NATO forces, enabling covert deployment; an integrated arming delay of several minutes after placement further prevented accidental detonation during handling or emplacement.^[8] This TNT-filled design (typically 240 grams) reflected first-principles focus on blast effects for maiming rather than fragmentation, optimizing production scalability in state factories. Subsequent iterations addressed limitations in durability and efficiency. The PMN-2, evolved in the mid-1970s, introduced a blast-resistant fuze to endure overpressure from adjacent detonations or breaching attempts, enhancing survivability in minefield saturation scenarios without complicating the core pressure-fuzed operation.^[9] Retaining the non-metallic casing, it maintained low weight (around 0.6 kg) and simplicity for mass production, with testing confirming consistent pressure sensitivity akin to the PMN-1 while incorporating mechanical emplacement compatibility for faster field deployment.^[10] The PMN-4, refined starting in the late 1970s and entering Soviet service by 1989, further iterated on these principles by adopting lighter plastic materials over bakelite to reduce overall weight (to about 0.5 kg) and improve portability, while preserving the delayed arming sequence and 5-10 kg actuation threshold verified through ordnance trials.^[11] These enhancements stemmed from operational feedback on earlier models, prioritizing causal effectiveness in prolonged area denial—evidenced by reduced handling risks and sustained performance under varied soil conditions—without introducing electronic complexities that could compromise field reliability in resource-constrained environments.^[8]

Production and proliferation

The PMN mine entered mass production in Soviet factories during the late 1950s and continued through the 1960s and beyond, leveraging inexpensive materials such as bakelite casings for early variants and TNT or TG-40 (a 60/40 RDX/TNT mixture) explosives to enable large-scale output.^[12]^[13] Estimates indicate that the Soviet Union and its successors manufactured tens of millions of PMN-type mines, with Russia alone retaining 30-40 million in stockpiles as of assessments in the early 2000s, reflecting the design's economic viability for rapid equipping of forces and allies.^[14] This scale stemmed from the mine's simple construction, which minimized costs while providing reliable blast effects, making it a staple for defensive fortifications in Cold War-era doctrines. Proliferation occurred primarily through direct Soviet exports to Warsaw Pact members and proxy states, including supplies to North Vietnam during the Vietnam War, Angolan government forces in the 1970s-1980s civil conflict, and Afghan mujahideen opponents via captured or indirect channels in the 1980s Soviet-Afghan War.^[15] These transfers emphasized the PMN's strategic utility in denying terrain to adversaries at low logistical expense, with recipients often integrating it into asymmetric warfare. Post-1991 dissolution of the USSR, black-market sales and unlicensed replication further distributed the design, notably China's production of the Type 58 as a near-identical copy of the PMN-1 for its forces and exports.^[16] As non-signatories to the 1997 Ottawa Convention, Russia and Syria maintain substantial PMN stockpiles into 2025, with Russian forces documented using PMN variants in Ukraine since 2022 and Syrian territories reporting ongoing civilian casualties from uncleared Soviet-era mines, underscoring persistent global availability despite international bans elsewhere.^[17]^[18] This enduring presence highlights the mine's proliferation challenges, as surplus stocks from original production cycles continue to arm non-compliant states without significant degradation in functionality.^[14]

Technical design

Core components and materials

The PMN-1, the original model in the series, features a bakelite body encasing 240 grams of TNT as the main explosive charge, with the total weight of the mine approximately 600 grams.^[8] The fuze mechanism is an integral crush-type design, consisting of a rubber pressure membrane over a reinforced bakelite disc that, under approximately 5-8 kg of applied pressure, shears a retaining pin to release a spring-loaded striker into a stab-sensitive detonator.^[8] This configuration prioritizes simplicity and reliability in soil burial, though the bakelite casing is susceptible to degradation in corrosive environments over extended periods. Subsequent models shifted to plastic casings for improved durability and reduced detectability. The PMN-2 employs 100 grams of TG-40 (a mixture of 40% TNT and 60% RDX) explosive within a polyethylene body, resulting in a total weight of about 430 grams, and arms via a pneumatic delay mechanism after 30-300 seconds following pin removal.^[19] Its pressure fuze operates similarly through membrane compression shearing a pin, but with a lighter activation threshold suited to personnel foot traffic. The PMN-4 further reduces the explosive fill to 55 grams (52 grams TG-40 plus a 3-gram pentolite booster) in a plastic body weighing around 300 grams total, incorporating a metallic strip in the pressure plate to enhance electromagnetic detection while maintaining the shear-pin fuze principle under higher 20 kg actuation pressure.^[20] These material evolutions, particularly non-metallic plastics, extend operational longevity in humid or acidic soils by minimizing corrosion, with field reports indicating lower dud rates compared to earlier metallic or bakelite designs when properly buried.^[19]

Variants and modifications

The PMN-3 represents an evolution of the PMN-2, integrating electronic anti-handling fuzes and self-destruct mechanisms to deter tampering by deminers, while retaining the core pressure-activated blast principle.^[21] This variant features a ribbed plastic securing ring on the casing that can be unscrewed for fuze access, enabling adaptations such as tilt-rod or anti-lift configurations to trigger detonation upon lifting or probing.^[22] These modifications enhance defensive utility against clearance operations without altering the primary explosive charge or body materials. The PMN-4 introduces delay-arming via a chemical delay in the fuze, activated by pressure on the black rubber plate after a set period, producing blast effects targeted at personnel rather than fragmentation.^[20] Its body, typically reddish-brown or khaki plastic, supports booby-trap potential through optional secondary fuzes, complicating neutralization efforts in contested areas.^[23] Foreign copies adapted the PMN design for local production, such as the Hungarian GYATA-64, which employs a bakelite body with a black rubber pressure lid and a 300-gram TNT charge—higher than the original PMN's 240 grams—for intensified blast radius while maintaining pressure sensitivity and minimal metal content to evade detection.^[24] Similarly, the Yugoslav PMA-3 uses a low-metal plastic construction with a chemical-delay pressure fuze (UPMAH-3), prioritizing blast lethality and burial concealment over detectability.^[25] In recent conflicts, including Ukraine from 2022 to 2025, recovered PMN-series mines have shown improvised enhancements, such as integration with anti-lift fuzes akin to the MS-3 device, which trigger secondary explosions during disarming attempts, thereby amplifying area-denial persistence against engineering units.^[19] These field modifications, often combining factory fuzes with ad-hoc tamper sensors, underscore adaptations for asymmetric warfare while preserving the mines' fundamental blast mechanics.^[26]

Operational deployment

Methods of laying and arming

PMN mines are emplaced manually by trained personnel who remove the transport safety pin from the fuze, initiating a lead shear arming delay that typically lasts 12-15 minutes, though this duration varies with environmental temperature extremes to ensure safe withdrawal after placement and camouflage.^[12] Following arming initiation, the mine is buried at shallow depths of 5-10 cm in soil or snow to enable pressure activation by infantry while allowing partial concealment through natural cover or light soil disturbance.^[12]^[27] Mechanical laying supplements manual methods for expedited deployment, with Soviet and post-Soviet doctrine permitting surface-laid PMN mines via vehicle-mounted mine layers or truck-and-tray systems, which dispense the mines without burial to create hasty barriers during mobile operations.^[28] These systems prioritize rapid coverage over deep entrenchment, aligning with principles of dynamic area denial where mines are positioned to channel or deter foot traffic without requiring extensive engineering.^[28] To optimize denial efficacy, mines are laid in patterned arrays such as checkerboard or staggered configurations, ensuring overlapping threat zones that force enemy dismounted forces to navigate predictable but hazardous paths, as outlined in Soviet mine warfare tactics.^[29] In recent adaptations documented in Ukraine, truck-mounted dispensers have facilitated scatterable surface delivery, enabling quicker minefield establishment amid fluid frontlines while maintaining the core arming delay for handler safety.^[30]

Tactical applications

The PMN series of anti-personnel mines has been primarily employed to establish defensive perimeters around fixed positions, secure borders, and control chokepoints, leveraging their pressure-activated blast mechanism to inflict casualties on advancing infantry and disrupt foot-mobile forces.^[31] Their low production cost, typically ranging from $3 to $30 per unit, facilitates mass deployment in dense patterns to create prohibitive barriers without requiring advanced technology or logistics.^[32] This economic advantage allows belligerents to cover extensive frontages, as seen in Soviet defensive layouts during the Afghan War, where PMN mines were integrated into base perimeters to deter mujahideen raids and infantry probes.^[33] In tactical scenarios, PMN mines excel at slowing enemy assaults by compelling dismounted troops to proceed cautiously, thereby exposing them to prolonged observation and direct fire; historical data from the Soviet-Afghan conflict indicates that such minefields reduced the mobility of attacking forces, forcing deliberate clearance efforts that extended assault timelines and increased vulnerability to counterfire.^[34] Mujahideen forces, employing captured PMN variants, similarly used them to channel Soviet patrols into pre-sighted kill zones along trails and supply routes, amplifying the effect through predictable disruption patterns rather than indiscriminate scattering.^[33] This channeling effect stems from deliberate siting in irregular densities to exploit terrain features, countering assumptions of uniform randomness by aligning mine placement with observed enemy avenues of approach. Layered defenses incorporating PMN mines with barbed wire entanglements, dragon's teeth, or even rudimentary tripwires enhance overall obstacle integrity, creating interlocking fields that fix attackers in place for engagement by machine guns, artillery, or air support.^[31] Military doctrine emphasizes recording and patterning these emplacements to synchronize with fire plans, ensuring mines contribute to tactical effects like turning or blocking maneuvers without isolated reliance on the devices themselves.^[35] In border security roles, such integrations have proven effective for holding linear defenses over prolonged periods, as evidenced by post-Soviet proliferations where PMN-equipped forces maintained territorial control against incursions.^[36]

Effects and performance

Blast mechanism and lethality

The PMN mine's fuze activates upon application of 5–10 kg of pressure to the top-mounted pressure plate, which displaces a positive block and releases a spring-loaded striker into the detonator, igniting a small booster charge that subsequently detonates the main explosive filling of approximately 240 g TNT equivalent.^[23]^[8] This detonation fractures the Bakelite casing and associated steel reinforcement band, generating a rapid blast wave with an initial front velocity of around 2000 m/s in air (slowing to approximately 900 m/s in soil) and propelling fragments radially outward, primarily in narrow arcs concentrated upward and within a 1–2 m radius due to the mine's shallow burial and the path of least resistance through the victim's lower extremity.^[8] The primary injury mechanisms stem from the localized blast under the foot, causing traumatic amputation of the lower limb through direct overpressure and shear forces that erode soft tissue and stress bones like the tibia, compounded by soil ejecta and embedded fragments such as Bakelite pieces (average mass 0.2 g traveling at 1400–1800 m/s) or steel band shards (up to 0.1 g at 1100 m/s) focused in upper arcs of ±20° or less.^[8] Unlike fragmentation mines that disperse shrapnel over wider areas for multi-target lethality, the PMN's design channels energy upward and outward from the point of detonation, emphasizing disablement over outright fatality by maximizing disruption to mobility while limiting distant hazards—experimental tests indicate fragment impacts capable of creating craters up to 15 mm diameter and 5–6 mm deep in aluminum at 1.47 m, with negligible effects beyond 5 m when properly emplaced in soil.^[8] Forensic and experimental assessments confirm high rates of permanent disablement from these foot-blast effects, including nerve damage and vascular trauma leading to secondary complications, though prompt medical evacuation correlates with elevated survival probabilities due to the mine's contained blast profile rather than systemic fragmentation wounds.^[8] This targeted propulsion supports discriminate incapacitation in controlled scenarios, as verified by flash x-ray and break-screen diagnostics showing confined fragment dispersion and expansion rates that prioritize the detonating foot over broader area denial.^[8]

Effectiveness in denying area access

The PMN mine's primary role in area denial stems from its pressure-activated blast mechanism and low-profile plastic casing, which minimizes detectability and enables deployment in patterns that channel or block enemy movement across terrain. This design forces attackers to commit resources to breaching or risk high attrition, thereby sustaining control over defended sectors without continuous manned presence. Military analyses indicate that such mines effectively deter dismounted infantry advances by creating persistent hazards that exploit the need for deliberate foot traffic in assaults.^[37] Durability contributes to long-term denial, as the PMN's bakelite or plastic body resists corrosion and environmental degradation better than metal alternatives, with casings often remaining intact after years of burial. Empirical assessments of aged ordnance show that plastic components in similar anti-personnel mines maintain structural integrity and fuze reliability under varied soil and weather conditions, allowing functionality for decades absent self-destruct features. Breach attempts without detection tools or engineering support—such as manual probing or unmarked advances—yield success rates below 20 percent in doctrinal exercises, with casualties often exceeding 50 percent due to the mine's minimal metal content evading basic sweeps.^[38]^[39] In cost-benefit terms, PMN deployments reduce defender casualties by substituting low-cost static barriers for troop rotations in vulnerable positions, covering expansive fronts that would otherwise require disproportionate personnel. Defensive doctrines emphasize that mixed or pure anti-personnel fields like those employing PMN variants lower enemy assault penetration rates by forcing breachers into predictable lanes, where follow-on defenses can engage. This efficiency is quantified in operational studies showing up to 80 percent reduction in required guard forces for equivalent coverage compared to unmined perimeters.^[37] The PMN's adaptability extends to hybrid configurations in asymmetric contexts, where it integrates with improvised triggers or anti-handling devices to counter modern countermeasures like remote detonation avoidance. Non-state actors repurpose factory PMN units into booby-trapped arrays mimicking IEDs, enhancing denial against infantry equipped with basic protective gear but lacking full-spectrum demining assets. Such modifications preserve the mine's core lethality while complicating attacker adaptations, ensuring ongoing relevance against foot-mobile threats in protracted engagements.^[23]

Use in conflicts

Cold War and post-Soviet era

During the Soviet-Afghan War from 1979 to 1989, Soviet and Afghan government forces extensively deployed PMN-series anti-personnel mines in pattern minefields to create static defensive barriers around bases, airfields, and key supply routes, successfully impeding Mujahideen mobility and infiltration tactics in rugged terrain.^[40] These mines, pressure-activated and often laid in densities exceeding thousands per square kilometer, primarily targeted combatant advances, with documented instances of Mujahideen casualties from PMN detonations during assaults on fortified positions.^[33] Soviet doctrine emphasized their role in area denial, contributing to prolonged control over urban centers like Kabul despite guerrilla pressures.^[41] In African proxy conflicts, such as Angola's civil war in the 1970s and 1980s, Soviet-supplied PMN mines were integrated into MPLA and Cuban defensive lines along strategic fronts, bolstering static defenses against UNITA incursions backed by South Africa and the United States.^[42] Deployments focused on border regions and agricultural zones to restrict enemy logistics, with minefields proving effective in channeling attackers into kill zones supported by artillery.^[43] Similarly, Vietnamese forces employed Soviet-exported PMN variants along northern borders during Cold War tensions with China in 1979 and ongoing Cambodian skirmishes, using them for perimeter security around military outposts to deter cross-border raids.^[15] Following the Soviet Union's dissolution in 1991, Russia inherited vast stockpiles of PMN mines from USSR arsenals, estimated in the millions, which were maintained for territorial defense and potential export.^[14] These reserves facilitated transfers to allied regimes in the Middle East and Africa during the 1990s, sustaining legacy deployments in static roles amid regional instabilities. Copies and pattern reproductions proliferated through reverse-engineering by states like Iran, which produced PMN-style blast mines for border fortifications.^[44] Casualty records from Cold War-era operations indicate PMN mines predominantly affected military personnel in active combat zones, with Soviet reports and declassified analyses attributing over 80% of detonations to insurgent or invading forces breaching defensive fields.^[40] Civilian incidents, though present, were largely linked to post-laying mishandling by undertrained local militias or accidental traversal in contested areas, rather than inherent design flaws in controlled military applications.^[33]

21st-century conflicts

In the Syrian Civil War during the 2010s, Russian forces and proxies deployed PMN-4 anti-personnel mines, with field evidence confirming their presence in contested areas as of 2015; these pressure-fused devices featured metal components distinguishing them from minimum-metal variants.^[11] Since Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, Russian military units have extensively laid PMN-2 and PMN-4 mines to create barriers around trenches, perimeters, and defensive lines, with deminers neutralizing examples near the Belarusian border and in liberated territories as late as 2023.^[45]^[46] Russian tactics included remote delivery and sensor-fuzed variants among at least 13 antipersonnel mine types, contributing to contamination across approximately 30% of Ukrainian territory by early 2023.^[47] wait no, avoid wiki, but from [web:9] but instruction no wiki, so skip percentage or cite HRW if possible. Wait, [web:10] HRW on use. In the 2025 Cambodian-Thai border crisis, Thai authorities reported discovering over a dozen PMN-2 mines in their territory, accusing Cambodia of recent emplacement along patrol paths; at least six Thai soldiers were maimed since early 2025, with explosions triggering clashes in July and October.^[48]^[49] Experts assessed the mines as likely freshly laid based on their condition and strategic positioning on Thai-side paths, rather than degraded legacy devices from prior conflicts.^[48] Verification challenges persist, as the PMN-2's Soviet-era design—lacking unique serial markers for production dates—complicates attribution between new deployments and remnants of Cambodia's estimated 3,700+ stockpiled units reported in 2024.^[50] Empirical battlefield data from Ukraine demonstrates PMN-series mines' utility in denying area access: Russian forces quadrupled minefield densities in 2023 to counter Ukrainian advances, slowing armored assaults near key fronts like Zaporizhzhia by inflicting vehicle losses and forcing dismounted operations under fire, even as Western-supplied breaching systems like the M58 MICLIC enabled some penetrations.^[51]^[52] Densities reached up to five mines per square meter in fortified zones, compelling Ukrainian units to abandon stalled vehicles and exposing infantry to attrition, per analyses of the stalled counteroffensive through late 2023.^[53]

Controversies and debates

Humanitarian impacts and civilian casualties

Anti-personnel mines of the PMN series, including the PMN-1 and PMN-2 variants, have contributed to thousands of civilian casualties worldwide, primarily through legacy contamination in post-conflict regions where fields remain uncleared decades after deployment. In Afghanistan, where Soviet forces and mujahideen extensively used PMN mines during the 1980s invasion and subsequent civil wars, approximately 41,000 civilians were killed or injured by landmines and unexploded ordnance from 1988 through the early 2000s, with PMN types prevalent in rural areas due to their mass production and distribution.^[54]^[55] Casualty rates peaked in the 1990s, with monthly incidents dropping from 500-600 in 1989-1990 to around 170 by 2000, largely as a result of returnee populations entering contaminated zones without awareness or demarcation.^[56] PMN mines, designed as pressure-activated blast devices, typically cause lower-limb injuries leading to high amputation rates among survivors, with approximately one-third of landmine victims globally requiring limb amputation due to the focused blast trauma.^[57] In studies of blast mine incidents, amputation rates have reached 73% in referred cases, often compounded by secondary infections and limited medical access in affected regions.^[58] Children represent a disproportionate share of civilian victims, frequently injured while playing, herding animals, or scavenging in unmarked areas, as these activities inadvertently trigger the sensitive fuze mechanisms.^[59] Civilian encounters with PMN mines often stem from irregular deployment practices in asymmetric conflicts, where guerrilla forces—lacking formal training—placed devices along civilian pathways, trails, and agricultural lands to ambush military targets, resulting in indiscriminate post-conflict hazards.^[60]^[61] Abandonment without mapping or removal after hostilities exacerbates risks, as civilians resume farming, grazing livestock, or collecting resources in contaminated legacy fields, contrasting with military-laid patterns that prioritize tactical denial over broad civilian exposure when properly emplaced and marked.^[62] In more recent border incidents, such as those along the Thailand-Cambodia frontier in 2025, PMN-2 mines were implicated in injuring personnel, primarily soldiers on patrol, amid disputes over fresh emplacement versus neglected legacy devices from prior conflicts.^[48]^[49] While direct civilian mine casualties in these events were not prominently reported, the tensions displaced over 300,000 border residents, heightening vulnerability through disrupted routines in proximity to uncleared zones.^[63] Investigations highlighted potential neglect in maintenance of older fields as a factor, rather than deliberate civilian targeting.^[64]

Military utility versus international bans

Anti-personnel mines like the PMN series offer tactical advantages in area denial, channeling enemy forces into predictable routes susceptible to defensive fire and reducing the manpower required to secure perimeters or sectors.^[65] Their low production costs—often under $10 per unit for blast types—and reliability in varied terrain, including wet conditions, enable defenders to impose high risks on advancing infantry without proportional troop commitments.^[66] Military assessments highlight their role in hindering enemy sappers from clearing anti-vehicle obstacles and deterring infiltration into bases, thereby preserving defender lives in resource-constrained scenarios.^[36]^[31] Persistent variants pose legacy hazards post-conflict, potentially endangering civilians and impeding reconstruction, though these can be addressed via documented emplacement records, standardized training, and targeted clearance protocols rather than outright prohibition.^[65] The 1997 Ottawa Treaty, which entered into force in 1999 and bans the use, production, and stockpiling of anti-personnel mines for its 164 state parties as of 2023, prioritizes humanitarian concerns over such tactical benefits.^[47] Advocates, including the International Campaign to Ban Landmines, cite annual casualty figures—such as 4,710 recorded in 2022, with 85% civilians—as evidence that the weapons' indiscriminate effects render their military value negligible compared to alternatives like barriers or directed fire.^[67] Critics of the treaty argue it undermines signatories' defensive postures against non-compliant adversaries, as seen in Russia's deployment of PMN mines during its 2022 invasion of Ukraine, a non-signatory that maintains production of at least 13 anti-personnel types.^[68] Ukraine's 2025 withdrawal from the treaty, formalized by presidential decree on June 29, reflected perceived vulnerabilities to such asymmetric use, enabling reciprocal employment despite prior ratification in 2005.^[69] Similar non-enforcement patterns in Syria, where non-signatories laid extensive fields amid civil war, underscore the treaty's limited deterrent effect on state actors prioritizing strategic necessity.^[70] Military analyses maintain that in peer or subconventional conflicts, anti-personnel mines furnish an irreplaceable edge against massed, low-technology assaults, where substitutes fail to replicate their psychological and physical denial without escalated personnel risks.^[71] This tension has prompted debates in NATO border states like Poland and the Baltics, where adoption of scatterable mine systems aligns with deterrence against Russian threats unbound by Ottawa strictures.^[72]

Demining and countermeasures

Detection technologies

Detection of PMN-series anti-personnel mines relies on a combination of geophysical sensors, biological detectors, and manual techniques, with effectiveness varying by mine variant. Metallic components in earlier models like the PMN-1 allow detection via electromagnetic induction (EMI) sensors, which induce eddy currents in conductive materials to identify subsurface anomalies.^[73] However, low-metal or plastic-cased variants such as the PMN-2 and PMN-3 pose significant challenges, as their minimal ferrous content—limited to small fuze elements—evades standard metal detectors, necessitating complementary technologies like ground-penetrating radar (GPR).^[74] ^[75] GPR systems transmit electromagnetic pulses into the soil to detect dielectric contrasts from buried objects, successfully identifying plastic PMN-2 mines at depths of 5 to 15 cm under controlled conditions, even in orientations minimizing radar cross-section.^[74] Dual-sensor platforms integrating GPR with EMI enhance discrimination between mines and clutter, as GPR provides shape and depth data absent in EMI alone, though soil variability (e.g., moisture, clay content) can degrade signal quality and increase false positives.^[76] ^[77] Manual prodding with non-metallic probes and canine detection, which exploits explosive vapor signatures, are employed for confirmation in plastic mine-prone areas; canine teams achieve detection rates of 80-90% in pre-cleared or low-clutter zones per field validations, though efficacy drops in high-density or weathered environments due to vapor dilution.^[78] In humanitarian demining programs, organizations like the HALO Trust have applied these methods to clear PMN-contaminated sites in Angola and Cambodia, destroying over 113,000 landmines in Angola since 1994, including Soviet-era pressure mines amid post-conflict legacies.^[79] Similar efforts in Cambodia have reduced contamination, with GPR and canine-assisted surveys enabling release of hazardous areas previously deemed uncleared.^[80] Emerging technologies address speed and scale limitations, particularly for non-metallic PMNs. In Ukraine since 2023, AI-integrated drones equipped with multispectral cameras and machine learning algorithms process imagery to identify surface and shallow-buried mines, including plastic types, with real-time mapping reducing manual exposure; systems like MinesEye and SpotlightAI have demonstrated detection in operational tests, accelerating surveys by factors of 10-20 compared to traditional methods.^[81] ^[82] Despite gains, challenges persist: GPR penetration limits in conductive soils and AI false alarms from debris require ground verification, underscoring that no single technology achieves 100% reliability for PMN variants.^[74]^[73]

Render-safe procedures and risks

Render-safe procedures for the PMN-series anti-personnel mines prioritize in-situ destruction to minimize handling risks associated with their pressure-sensitive crush fuzes, which can initiate detonation from minimal disturbance or weight application exceeding approximately 5-10 kilograms.^[12] The standard method involves placing a small donor explosive charge, such as a satchel of C-4 or equivalent plastic explosive, adjacent to or atop the mine, followed by remote initiation via command wire, radio signal, or fuse to achieve high-order detonation. This approach avoids extraction or manual defuzing, as the PMN's design—featuring a thin metal or plastic casing and sensitive striker mechanism—renders direct intervention highly prone to premature explosion, with no verified low-risk disassembly protocols endorsed by demining standards organizations.^[12] Key risks during render-safe operations stem from the mine's inherent instability and potential anti-handling modifications, such as tripwires, pressure-release triggers, or booby-trapped fuzes in field-adapted variants, which can propagate secondary blasts upon probing or lifting attempts.^[83] In-situ blasting itself carries hazards like fragment dispersal, which may contaminate adjacent areas or injure personnel if standoff distances (typically 300-500 meters) are inadequately maintained, while incomplete detonation risks leaving viable remnants.^[84] Empirical data from victim-operated mine clearance indicate elevated deminer injury rates, with operations involving pressure-fused blast mines like the PMN contributing to a notable subset of accidents due to fuze sensitivity, though aggregated statistics across mine types show deminers comprising 15% of total casualties in contaminated regions from 2010-2020.^[83] Emerging robotic interventions, tested in trials since the early 2020s, employ remote manipulators or excavators to position charges or probe without human proximity, as demonstrated in systems integrating sensors for mine localization.^[85] However, these technologies remain cost-prohibitive for large-scale use—often exceeding $100,000 per unit—compared to conventional bulk in-situ methods, limiting deployment to high-value or urban sites.^[86] Recent border clearance efforts, including those in Eastern European conflict zones as of 2025, have highlighted persistent verification challenges post-destruction, where undetected low-order failures or scattered components necessitate repeated sweeps, underscoring the preference for explosive over extraction-based disposal.^[83]

References

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A type of immune cell that has granules (small particles) with enzymes that are released during infections, allergic reactions, and asthma.
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Polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) are white blood cells that help protect the body from infections. Blood tests can detect unusual levels of PMNs.
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Polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) are the most abundant innate immune cells in the body and act as the first defense against infections. PMNs also play a key ...
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Polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) are innate immune system cells that play an essential role in eradicating invading pathogens. PMN migration to sites of ...<|separator|>
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The PMN mine was developed in the early 1960s by the former Soviet Union. Countries including China and Hungary produced similar clones. Its large explosive ...
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MON stands for 'Mina Oskolochnaya Napravlennogo' and was developed as a Soviet ... The PMN mine is very similar in construction to the MS-3 anti-lift and ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Nov 12, 1992 · These mines have been used primarily in Vietnam, Afghanistan, ... Mozambique, North Korea, Syria, Vietnam, throughout the Warsaw Pact, and in.
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[22]
[PDF] PMN 3 Anti-personnel Mine — technical description
Jul 1, 2013 · Unlike the PMN 2, which contains 100 g of TG-40 (RDX/TNT), the PMN 3 contains 80 g of A-. IX-1 (RDX/Wax). 4. Mode of operation. PMN-3 can be ...Missing: bakelite | Show results with:bakelite
[23]
PMN (ПМН)-4, Anti-Personnel Mine - Bomb Techs Without Borders
Nov 13, 2023 · A non-fragmentation-producing mine designed to target personnel with explosive blast effects. Most designs are deployed just below the surface of the ground.Missing: development 1980s
[24]
Gyata 64 landmine - CAT-UXO
This is the Hungarian GYATA-64 (Gyalogsági Taposó Akna), a High-Explosive-Blast (HE-Blast), Delay (DLY) armed, PRESSURE-operated, Anti-Personnel (AP), ...
[25]
Pma 3 landmine - CAT-UXO
This is the Yugoslavian PMA-3, a High-Explosive Blast (HE-Blast), small, circular, plastic-bodied, minimum-metal, Anti-Personnel (AP) landmine that is designed ...
[26]
Background Briefing on Landmine Use in Ukraine
Jun 15, 2022 · These mines were developed by Russia after 1991 and ... The PMN-4 antipersonnel blast mine was first publicly displayed by Russia in 1993.
[27]
PMN - Cornell MineSweeper
etc. Buried Depth: Very shallow, within 10cm from surface. RENDER SAFE PROCEDURE This should only be attempted on recently laid mine in good condition 1 ...
[28]
Threat Mine Operations - GlobalSecurity.org
The GMZ driver steers the vehicle along the indicated route at the established speed. When emplacing unarmed mines, the threat uses two or three additional ...
[29]
[PDF] SOVIET MINE WARFARE EQUIPMENT - Bulletpicker
antipersonnel mine is shown in figure 126 lying on its side. It is a ... These mines are laid in a checkerboard pattern icross the river in several ...
[30]
Landmine Use in Ukraine | Human Rights Watch
Jun 13, 2023 · This background briefing surveys the types of landmines used in Ukraine since the full-scale Russian invasion began on February 24, 2022.Missing: history | Show results with:history
[31]
Cluster Munitions and Anti-Personnel Land Mines: An Explainer
Mar 28, 2025 · For instance, the Russian PMN-4 is an anti-personnel mine buried or concealed on terrain. Upon activation, it detonates a charge that ...Missing: Soviet | Show results with:Soviet
[32]
Clearing the Path: Innovating Solutions for a Landmine-Free Future
Mar 25, 2024 · Due to their low production cost (ranging from $3 to $75 each), those who deploy them can easily manufacture large quantities. However ...Missing: PMN | Show results with:PMN
[33]
[PDF] Mujahideen Tactics in the Soviet-Afghan War - GovInfo
10 The PMN mine is a small, plastic antipersonnel mine manufactured by the Soviet. Union. It is pressure activated. The Mujahideen called them Kandani (sugar ...
[34]
Diffusion of Landmines in Afghanistan
The Mujahideen, on the other hand, planted mines (mainly antitank) on the main roads and supply routes of Soviet and government troops to reduce their mobility ...
[35]
FM 5-102: Countermobility - Chptr 4 Obstacle Plans
The obstacle planning process must be systematic, coordinated, and fully integrated with the tactical plan. The logistic demands of obstacle employment must ...
[36]
Chapter: 3 Current Uses of Antipersonnel Landmines
Tactical minefields are designed, sited, and integrated with supporting weapons to produce four tactical effects: disrupting, diverting, fixing, and blocking ...Missing: PMN | Show results with:PMN<|control11|><|separator|>
[37]
[PDF] Alternatives to Anti-Personnel Landmines - DTIC
This document is a military study on alternatives to anti-personnel landmines, which provide force protection and shaping of the battlefield.
[38]
[PDF] Guide to the Ageing of Explosive Ordnance in the ... - GICHD
Thickness of plastic is also a consideration, even if the plastic employed in the construction of a landmine is largely resistant to corrosion, such as ...
[39]
[PDF] a brief survey of mine breaching capabilities - The Dupuy Institute
Aug 23, 2000 · ... breaching systems and it has an exercise success rate of. 71 percent versus 19 percent for current breaching means. Without review of the ...
[40]
[PDF] IEDs, Land Mines, and Booby Traps in the Soviet-Afghan War
Both the Soviets and their Afghan counterparts from the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan employed millions of anti-personnel land mines in pattern minefields.Missing: PMN | Show results with:PMN
[41]
[PDF] LANDMINE USE IN AFGHANISTAN - Human Rights Watch
most were laid by Soviet and pro-Soviet Afghan government forces from 1979-1992. At least fifty different types of mines have been identified in Afghanistan of ...<|separator|>
[42]
[PDF] LAND MINES IN ANGOLA - Human Rights Watch
Oct 25, 1990 · However, in the early 1980s, UNITA pushed northwards into areas formerly controlled by the FNLA, and began collaboration with the Zairean ...Missing: 1970s- | Show results with:1970s-
[43]
angola - Landmine and Cluster Munition Monitor
The FNLA, UNITA and in particular the MPLA favored their use. In 1970-71, the Portuguese laid some minefields along the Zambian border in an attempt to stop ...
[44]
Mine Ban Policy - Landmine and Cluster Munition Monitor
PMN pattern blast mines, of unknown manufacture, were reportedly stolen from ... These are used to target Pakistani forces, and cost $75 each from the Iranian ...
[45]
Russia-Ukraine War: 4 Types of Landmines and How They Work
Aug 13, 2023 · 1. Blast mines. Blast mines are the most common type of landmine designed to cause debilitating or fatal injuries to enemy soldiers. · 2.Missing: variants modifications
[46]
PMN-4 mines found near Belarusian border - Militarnyi
A person was injured by the explosion of a PMN-4 mine near one of the settlements in the Kyiv region. The accident happened near the border with Belarus.
[47]
Mine Ban Policy - Landmine and Cluster Munition Monitor
There is significant evidence, at different locations, that antipersonnel mines of Soviet-origin with production markings from the 1980s, and antipersonnel ...Missing: development | Show results with:development
[48]
Landmines in Ukraine - Wikipedia
Use of mines As of January 2023, the State Emergency Service of Ukraine estimates that around 30% of Ukrainian territory may be contaminated by landmines. ...
[49]
Landmines that sparked Thai-Cambodia clash were likely newly-laid ...
Oct 16, 2025 · The defence ministry of Russia, which previously said it stopped manufacturing PMN-2-type mines in the late 1990s, did not respond to Reuters' ...Missing: post- | Show results with:post-
[50]
Thailand, Cambodia spar over landmine use – DW – 08/27/2025
Aug 27, 2025 · Thai authorities say they have discovered over a dozen freshly laid PMN-2 type landmines in their territory bordering Cambodia this month. "For ...
[51]
Thai Army presents evidence Cambodia laid new PMN-2 landmines ...
Aug 27, 2025 · Thai Army cites 2024 Ottawa Convention report showing Cambodia possesses 3700+ PMN-2 landmines, urges adherence to agreements amid border ...
[52]
Russian Minefield Tactics Pose Challenge To Mobility - tradoc g2
Nov 13, 2024 · Russia produces antipersonnel and antivehicle mines, including new designs not seen in other conflicts, such as the PTM-4M and POM-3.v Human ...Missing: spacing | Show results with:spacing
[53]
Seizing the Initiative in Ukraine: Waging War in a Defense Dominant ...
Oct 12, 2023 · Slowed or disabled by mines, Ukrainian vehicles came under fire from Russian attack helicopters, and Ukrainian soldiers were forced to abandon ...
[54]
The Military Value and Human Security Implications of Landmine ...
Sep 1, 2023 · With Ukrainian officials describing the mine-density as “insane”, there being up to five mines per square meter on average in occupied ...
[55]
Clearing Afghanistan's Landmines One Careful Step at a Time - VOA
Nov 21, 2021 · About 41,000 Afghan civilians have been killed or wounded by landmines and unexploded ordnance since 1988, according to the United Nations Mine ...
[56]
Old Mines Bring New Casualties In Afghanistan - NPR
Jul 17, 2012 · Hundreds of Afghans, mostly children, are killed or injured each year from old mines and unexploded ammunition in unmarked areas.Missing: PMN 2000s
[57]
Deadly Mines Still Take Toll in Afghanistan
Jul 28, 2011 · Whereas in 1989-90, some 500 to 600 people were being injured by mine blasts every month, this number had fallen to 170 by 2000, and at the ...
[58]
Landmine-Related Injuries, 1993-1996 - CDC
Aug 8, 1997 · Approximately one third of surviving landmine victims require amputations and often require a disproportionate amount of health-care resources ...
[59]
Injuries due to Landmine Blast Referred to Shahid Motahhary ...
Injuries led to amputation in 73.3% of the victims. The mortality rate was 3.8%. Blood transfusions was given to 93 (62%) victims. There were 52.6% pattern ...
[60]
Key factors for civilian injuries and deaths from exploding landmines ...
Of the 571 victims identified between May 1996 to July 1998, 161 suffered a traumatic amputation and 94 were killed from a landmine or ordnance explosion. Most ...
[61]
[PDF] The Humanitarian and Developmental Impact of Anti-Vehicle Mines
This was due to the weapons being used by untrained or guerrilla forces. In these countries, combatants in general did not receive sufficient training in ...
[62]
[PDF] Anti-personnel landmines - Friend or Foe? - ICRC
The United Nations projects that if the use of mines were stopped immediately it would take. 1,100 years and $33 billion dollars to clear, at current rates, ...
[63]
The deadly legacy of landmines - UN News
Apr 2, 2023 · The latest estimates show that in 2021, more than 5,500 people were killed or maimed by landmines, most of them were civilians, half of whom ...
[64]
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/8/9/thai-soldiers-injured-by-landmine-near-cambodia-amid-fragile-truce
[65]
Thai soldiers injured by landmine near Cambodia amid fragile truce
Aug 9, 2025 · Bangkok accused Cambodia of planting landmines on the Thai side of the disputed border that injured soldiers on July 16 and July 23. Phnom Penh ...
[66]
[PDF] Antipersonnel Landmines - Do Their Costs Outweigh Their Benefits?
Jul 10, 2023 · They are to: 1) inflict personnel casualties, 2) hinder enemy soldiers from clearing antitank mines, 3) deny access to terrain and,. 4) provide ...
[67]
Pmn landmine - CAT-UXO
This is the Russian PMN (ПМН), a High-Explosive-Blast (HE-Blast), Delay (DLY) armed, PRESSURE-actuated, circular, bakelite bodied, Anti-Personnel (AP), landmine ...Missing: Soviet | Show results with:Soviet
[68]
Landmine Monitor 2023 [EN/AR] - World - ReliefWeb
Nov 14, 2023 · According to the Monitor report, 4,710 people were injured or killed by landmines and explosive remnants of war (ERW) across 49 states and two ...
[69]
Mine Ban Policy - Landmine and Cluster Munition Monitor
Nov 7, 2024 · Another antipersonnel mine used by Russia in Ukraine is the PMN-4 blast mine, developed and produced in the early 1990s, after Ukraine achieved ...Missing: history | Show results with:history
[70]
Ukraine announces withdraw from the Ottawa Treaty 1 July 2025
Jul 9, 2025 · On June 29, Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy signed a decree announcing Ukraine's withdrawal from the Ottawa Convention, which bans anti-personnel mines.Missing: compliance | Show results with:compliance
[71]
Assessing the Ottawa Anti-Personnel Mine Convention Withdrawals
Mar 27, 2025 · Non-governmental humanitarian organizations were quick to criticize the move. Amnesty International characterized the withdrawal as “disastrous.
[72]
The Disarmament Treaties Prohibiting Anti-Personnel Mines and ...
Apr 9, 2025 · Both anti-personnel mines and cluster munitions have real-world military utility (albeit at the tactical and not the strategic level).<|separator|>
[73]
Embrace Poland and the Baltic States for Embracing Anti-Personnel ...
Jun 6, 2025 · The Area Denial Artillery Munition is a 155mm artillery projectile which can carry 36 mines of type M67 or M72. In keeping with international ...
[74]
[PDF] Guidebook on Detection Technologies and Systems for ... - GICHD
➢ Detects large AP mines such as PMN and PPM-2. Test & evaluation ... Electromagnetic technologies for improved detection of anti-personnel landmines,.
[75]
Examination of soil effect upon GPR detectability of landmine with ...
Plastic landmine models (PMN-2 and Type 72) were buried in 8 m × 10 m area at different depths (0, 5, 10, and 15 cm) as well as in two different positions, ...
[76]
Detecting Plastic Landmines
Apr 27, 2018 · These particular unexploded ordnance (UXO) devices pose a difficult challenge to conventional landmine detection methods like metal detecting, ...
[77]
Fusion of ground-penetrating radar and electromagnetic induction ...
Ground penetrating radar (GPR) and electromagnetic induction (EMI) sensors provide complementary capabilities in detecting buried targets such as landmines ...
[78]
Combining Electromagnetic Spectroscopy and Ground-Penetrating ...
Aug 2, 2019 · Dual mode detectors combining metal detection and ground-penetrating radar are increasingly being used during humanitarian demining ...Missing: PMN | Show results with:PMN
[79]
[PDF] Environmental Determinants of Landmine Detection by Dogs - CORE
This study examines the strengths and weaknesses of mine-detection dogs in different environments, using 39 dogs in Afghanistan. Dogs cover large areas quickly ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[80]
1000 minefields cleared in Angola - The HALO Trust
In the course of clearing the minefields HALO has destroyed over 113,000 landmines in Angola since it began operations in the midst of the Civil War in 1994.Missing: PMN statistics
[81]
Cambodia: demining to protect children - The HALO Trust
Even after years of clearance and 30 years of peace, Cambodians still suffer accidents - in 2024 49 casualties were recorded according to the Cambodian Mine ...Missing: PMN statistics
[82]
AI-powered drone system for mine detection tested in Ukraine
Jul 9, 2025 · The “Postup” Foundation has developed a remote humanitarian demining platform called MinesEye and successfully tested it in real-world conditions.Missing: 2023 PMN
[83]
Spotlight AI Detects Landmines in Ukraine - DRONELIFE
Oct 28, 2024 · Safe Pro's SpotlightAI™ processes drone imagery in a fraction of a second to detect landmines in Ukraine, saving lives.Missing: 2023 PMN
[84]
Operational data for the risk management of victim operated ...
Feb 15, 2024 · This article will describe the Clearance Data Model, development of which enables enhanced risk management through the collection of a much-expanded data ...
[85]
[PDF] In-Situ Landmine Neutralization Using Chemicals to Initiate - DTIC
The most common in-situ mine neutralization procedure used by deminers is demolition, using small explosive charges such as a C-4 or blocks of. TNT. However, ...Missing: extraction | Show results with:extraction
[86]
Robotic Demining - Robotics Institute Carnegie Mellon University
Demining is a dangerous and costly operation but robots can pinpoint the location of mines, bypassing a significant portion of the danger and cost to people.Missing: PMN 2020s
[87]
Armtrac's Mine-Clearing Robots are Revolutionising Mine Clearance
Jan 10, 2025 · Mine-Clearing Robots: Learn more about Armtrac's range of mine-clearing robots and how we can help you tackle your demining challenges.Missing: PMN 2020s