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Plate

Plate is a word with several meanings, most commonly referring to a flat, rigid object or structure. It can denote items in various fields, including: For tectonic plates specifically, see [[Natural Sciences#Geology]].

Culinary Uses

Tableware

A plate is a flat, shallow, typically circular dish used in dining to hold and present individual portions of food for consumption.^[1] Designed primarily for serving meals at the table, it facilitates the arrangement and eating of food, distinguishing it from deeper vessels like bowls.^[2] Plates are commonly made from a variety of materials suited to different uses, including ceramic (encompassing earthenware and stoneware for durability and everyday settings), porcelain and bone china for fine dining due to their translucency and strength, glass for transparent or decorative options, and plastic or melamine for lightweight, shatter-resistant casual or outdoor applications.^[3] Porcelain, fired at high temperatures to achieve a non-porous surface, remains one of the most prevalent choices for its elegance and resistance to staining.^[4] Melamine, a synthetic resin, offers affordability and heat resistance but is less formal.^[5] The historical development of plates traces back to ancient civilizations, where early pottery forms emerged in Mesopotamia around 6000 BCE through hand-molding and firing of clay in primitive kilns to create simple flat vessels for food storage and serving.^[6] By circa 4000 BCE, the invention of the potter's wheel in the region revolutionized production, enabling more uniform shapes and widespread use in daily life.^[7] Over millennia, this evolved into refined techniques; porcelain plates, originating in China during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE) and later perfected in Europe as "fine china" in the 18th century, introduced vitreous, high-fired bodies prized for their whiteness and durability in formal tableware.^[8] Various types of plates cater to specific courses and dining needs, with dinner plates being the standard for main entrees at 10–12 inches in diameter to accommodate generous portions.^[9] Side plates, typically 6–8 inches, serve bread, appetizers, or utensils; salad plates (around 7–8.5 inches) hold lighter starters; and dessert plates (7–9 inches) are used for sweets to control portion sizes.^[10] These sizes promote balanced table settings and portion control across meals.^[11] Cultural practices influence plate usage, with Middle Eastern cuisines often favoring larger shared platters (up to 18 inches or more) for communal meals like mezze or tagines, emphasizing hospitality and group dining.^[12] In contrast, many Asian traditions, such as in China and Japan, incorporate smaller individual plates or bowls (6–8 inches) alongside shared dishes, aligning with chopstick use and rice-based meals served in compact forms.^[13] Plates are manufactured through techniques like throwing on a potter's wheel, where clay is centered and shaped by hand for custom, artisanal pieces; slip casting, involving pouring liquid clay slurry into plaster molds for precise, repeatable forms ideal for mass production; and glazing, a final firing process applying a glassy coating to enhance waterproofing, aesthetics, and durability.^[14] These methods, refined over centuries, allow for both functional and decorative outcomes in ceramic tableware.^[15]

Food Preparation and Serving

In professional kitchens, plating techniques emphasize visual appeal to enhance the dining experience, with methods such as stacking for height, fanning ingredients like vegetables or proteins in a radial pattern, and saucing through drizzling or swiping to add color and texture contrast.^[16] These approaches not only highlight flavors but also create balanced compositions that draw the eye across the plate.^[17] Plates play a key role in food safety by utilizing heat-resistant materials like porcelain or ceramic, which withstand high temperatures during hot serving to maintain food integrity without cracking or leaching contaminants.^[18] Proper selection of food-grade plates, such as those made from high-density polyethylene, minimizes cross-contamination risks by preventing chemical migration into food through regular maintenance and material choice.^[19]^[20] Specialized plates include warming varieties, often preheated in ovens or microwaves to retain heat and keep food at optimal serving temperatures longer, reducing bacterial growth risks during delays.^[21] Compartmented plates, typically divided into sections for proteins, vegetables, and grains, promote portion control and separation of foods, making them ideal for children's meals to encourage balanced nutrition without mixing textures or flavors.^[22] During the Victorian era, silver plates were integral to banquet serving practices, where elaborate multi-course meals featured dedicated silver platters and dishes for each food type, symbolizing wealth and facilitating service à la russe style with individual plating from shared pieces.^[23]^[24] Modern trends favor eco-friendly disposable plates made from bamboo or bagasse, byproducts of fast-growing plants that decompose in months under composting conditions, offering a sustainable alternative to traditional plastics.^[25]^[26] Plastic disposable plates exacerbate environmental impacts, with up to 80% ending in landfills and contributing significantly to the 11 million tons of annual restaurant plastic waste due to low recycling rates.^[27]^[28]

Geographical Features

Rivers and Waterways

The Platte River in Nebraska, stretching 310 miles from its formation at the confluence of the North and South Platte Rivers near the city of North Platte to its junction with the Missouri River east of Omaha, serves as a vital waterway in the Great Plains region.^[29] The river's main tributaries, the North Platte originating in northern Colorado and the South Platte from central Colorado, converge in western Nebraska, creating a braided channel system historically characterized by wide, shallow flows that support diverse riparian habitats.^[30] Ecologically, the central Platte River Valley functions as a critical stopover for the midcontinent population of sandhill cranes, with approximately 500,000 birds staging there each spring to rest and forage, relying on the river's unobstructed channels for safe roosting amid threats from habitat loss and altered hydrology.^[31] Historically, the Platte River played a pivotal role in early American exploration and westward expansion. The Lewis and Clark Expedition encountered the river's mouth on July 21, 1804, during their upstream journey along the Missouri, noting its turbid, wide expanse as a landmark in their journals.^[32] Later, from the 1840s to 1860s, the Platte Valley corridor became the primary route for the Oregon Trail, accommodating over 300,000 emigrants who followed its length for reliable water, grass for livestock, and relatively flat terrain, though the river's shallow, braided nature often required ferries or fords at crossings near settlements like Fort Kearny.^[33] Beyond the main Platte, smaller waterways bearing similar names contribute to regional hydrology. The Little Platte River in northwestern Missouri, a tributary of the Platte River, drains approximately 65 square miles and is monitored by the U.S. Geological Survey for discharge, with historical data showing variable flows influenced by seasonal precipitation and upstream land use.^[34] In Colorado, the Platte River's headwaters include segments of the North and South Platte, where the North Platte maintains an average discharge of approximately 808 cubic feet per second at key gauges near the Wyoming border,^[35] supporting irrigation diversions before merging downstream. Environmental challenges have intensified since the early 20th century, particularly due to water diversions for irrigation that have substantially reduced the Platte's flows. Upstream reservoirs and canals, developed extensively from the 1930s onward, have halved peak spring flows in the central Platte compared to pre-development levels, leading to channel narrowing, increased vegetation encroachment, and diminished habitat for migratory birds and endangered species like the whooping crane. As of 2025, the Platte River Recovery Implementation Program continues to address these issues through targeted water releases and habitat restoration, including a historic environmental pool release from Chatfield Reservoir in January 2025.^[36]^[37] These alterations, including groundwater pumping and transbasin imports totaling over 414,000 acre-feet annually, have shifted the river from a wide, braided system to a more incised and regulated channel, with mean annual discharges dropping to about 1,274 cubic feet per second in regulated reaches.^[30]

Settlements and Regions

Platte County, Nebraska, is a prominent administrative region associated with the name "Platte," encompassing approximately 35,000 residents (2025 estimate).^[38] The county's economy is predominantly driven by agriculture, with about 85% of land use dedicated to farming activities such as irrigated row crops, dryland grains, and forage production.^[39] Key settlements within the county include the city of Columbus, which serves as the largest urban center and county seat with a population exceeding 25,000 (2025 estimate).^[40] Other notable locations bearing similar names include Platte City, Missouri, the county seat of Platte County in that state, established as part of the county's organization on December 31, 1838.^[41] Founded around 1837 by settler Zadock Martin and formally incorporated in 1843, Platte City has historically functioned as an administrative and commercial hub near the Platte River.^[41] In Germany, Plate is a small municipality in the Ludwigslust-Parchim district of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, with a population of about 3,391 as of late 2023.^[42] The naming of these settlements traces back to the French term "plate," meaning "flat," which early explorers applied to describe the broad, shallow Platte River and its surrounding low-lying landscapes in the American Midwest.^[43] This etymology reflects the region's characteristic flat terrain, briefly contextualized by the nearby Platte River that influenced settlement patterns.^[43] Culturally, the Platte region in the American Midwest bears influences from indigenous groups such as the Pawnee and Oto-Missouria tribes, who inhabited the area along the Platte River valley for centuries before European arrival, utilizing it for villages, hunting, and trade.^[44] European settlers, primarily from Germany, Ireland, and Scandinavia, arrived in the 19th century, drawn by fertile lands during westward migration, blending their agricultural traditions with indigenous land-use practices amid the challenges of frontier expansion.^[45]

Natural Sciences

Geology

Tectonic plates are rigid segments of the Earth's lithosphere, consisting of the crust and uppermost mantle, that average approximately 100 km in thickness and float on the semi-fluid asthenosphere beneath.^[46] These plates, numbering around a dozen major and several minor ones, cover the entire surface of the Earth and interact at their boundaries to shape geological features. The theory of plate tectonics, which unifies these movements, originated with Alfred Wegener's 1912 proposal of continental drift, suggesting that continents had once formed a supercontinent called Pangaea before drifting apart.^[47] This idea gained robust support in the 1960s through Harry Hess's evidence of seafloor spreading, where new oceanic crust forms at mid-ocean ridges and spreads outward, providing a mechanism for plate motion.^[48] Interactions at plate boundaries produce distinct geological phenomena and are categorized into three primary types. At divergent boundaries, plates pull apart, allowing magma to rise and form new crust, as seen along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge where the Eurasian and North American plates separate.^[49] Convergent boundaries occur where plates collide, leading to subduction of one plate beneath another or continental collision; for instance, the ongoing convergence of the Indian and Eurasian plates has uplifted the Himalayas over millions of years.^[50] Transform boundaries feature plates sliding laterally past each other, generating strike-slip faults like the San Andreas Fault in California, where the Pacific and North American plates grind alongside one another.^[51] Plate movements occur at rates typically between 1 and 10 cm per year, comparable to the growth of human fingernails, and are primarily driven by thermal convection currents in the mantle, where heat from the Earth's core causes hotter, less dense material to rise and cooler material to sink.^[52]^[53] These motions are modeled as rotations around Euler poles, with the linear velocity at a point on the plate given by the equation v = \frac{2\pi r}{T}, where r is the distance from the rotation pole and T is the rotation period in years.^[54] The seven primary tectonic plates are the Pacific Plate (the largest, covering much of the ocean floor), North American Plate, Eurasian Plate, African Plate, Antarctic Plate, Indo-Australian Plate, and South American Plate.^[55] In addition, several minor plates influence regional dynamics, including the Nazca Plate off South America, the Cocos Plate near Central America, the Philippine Plate in the western Pacific, and the Caribbean Plate.^[56] As of 2025, continuous GPS monitoring by global networks has documented variations in plate velocities, including accelerated post-seismic deformations in fault zones following major earthquakes since 2020, such as the left-lateral strike-slip movements observed after the 2023 Mw 7.8 Kahramanmaraş earthquake sequence in Turkey.^[57] These observations, combined with InSAR data, highlight how seismic events can temporarily enhance slip rates along plate boundaries, informing hazard assessments.^[58]

Biology and Medicine

In plant biology, the cell plate is a transient structure formed during cytokinesis, the final stage of cell division, where it serves as the precursor to the new cell wall separating daughter cells. This process begins in late anaphase or telophase, with Golgi-derived vesicles accumulating at the equatorial plane of the mitotic spindle to form a tubulovesicular network that expands and fuses, maturing into a fenestrated plate that eventually connects to the parent cell walls.^[59]^[60] The involvement of Golgi stacks is critical, as they produce and transport the vesicles containing cell wall polysaccharides and enzymes necessary for plate assembly, distinguishing plant cytokinesis from the contractile ring mechanism in animal cells.^[61] In human anatomy, several bony plates contribute to the structure of the skull and facial region. The orbital plate of the ethmoid bone, also known as the lamina papyracea, is a thin, fragile sheet forming the medial wall of the orbit and separating it from the ethmoidal air cells.^[62]^[63] Similarly, the palatine process of the maxilla is a horizontal bony projection that extends medially from the maxilla, forming the anterior two-thirds of the hard palate and contributing to the floor of the nasal cavity.^[64] The horizontal plate of the palatine bone complements this by forming the posterior one-third of the hard palate.^[65] In medicine, metallic plates are widely used in orthopedic surgery for internal fixation of bone fractures, providing stability to promote healing. Titanium plates, valued for their biocompatibility, corrosion resistance, and low modulus of elasticity closer to bone, have been employed since the mid-20th century, with significant advancements in the 1960s through the AO Foundation's development of rigid fixation systems.^[66]^[67] A key innovation was the dynamic compression plate (DCP), introduced in the 1970s but building on 1960s compression techniques, which uses eccentric screw placement to generate interfragmentary compression along the fracture line, reducing stress shielding and cortical porosity.^[68] These plates are typically applied via open reduction and internal fixation, with titanium preferred over stainless steel in some cases to minimize infection rates and implant failure.^[69] Dental plates encompass prosthetic and orthodontic appliances designed to replace or align teeth. In prosthodontics, partial dentures feature acrylic or metal plates that rest on the gums and remaining teeth, supporting artificial teeth to restore masticatory function and aesthetics.^[70] Orthodontic plates, such as removable appliances like bite plates or palatal expanders, apply controlled forces to correct malocclusions, jaw discrepancies, or habits like thumb-sucking by influencing tooth position and maxillary growth.^[71] In microbiology, agar plates—commonly housed in shallow cylindrical dishes known as Petri dishes—are essential for culturing microorganisms. Invented in 1887 by German bacteriologist Julius Richard Petri while working under Robert Koch, the Petri dish consists of a flat bottom and a slightly larger lid to prevent contamination, enabling the solidification of nutrient agar into a thin layer for streaking or pouring microbial samples.^[72] This tool revolutionized bacteriology by allowing isolated colony growth for identification and study, remaining a standard in labs today.^[72] Evolutionarily, plate-like dermal structures appear in various reptiles and dinosaurs as protective adaptations. In reptiles such as crocodilians and some lizards, osteoderms—bony plates embedded in the dermis—form armored scales that provide defense against predators and environmental hazards, with hierarchical collagen arrangements enhancing flexibility and strength.^[73] Among non-avian dinosaurs, dermal plates are evident in ornithischians like ankylosaurs and stegosaurs, where they manifest as large, polygonal ossifications or scutes integrated into the skin, likely serving thermoregulatory and antipredator roles during the Mesozoic era.^[74] These structures highlight convergent evolution in sauropsid integument, retaining reptilian traits even as some lineages developed feathers.^[75]

Physics

In physics, plates serve as fundamental models for understanding phenomena in mechanics, electrostatics, optics, and acoustics, where their geometry and material properties influence wave propagation, stress distribution, and field interactions. The study of plates dates back to the mid-19th century, with significant advancements in thin elastic plate theory pioneered by Gustav Kirchhoff in his 1850 doctoral thesis, which established key assumptions for analyzing bending under load by treating the plate as a two-dimensional continuum with negligible thickness relative to lateral dimensions.^[76] This framework, later refined by Augustus Love in 1888, underpins classical plate theory and has been widely applied to predict deflections and stresses in isotropic materials.^[77] In mechanics, the bending of thin plates under transverse loading is governed by Kirchhoff's plate theory, which derives the biharmonic equation for the transverse deflection w(x, y) of a plate subjected to a distributed load q(x, y):

\nabla^4 w = \frac{q}{D},

where \nabla^4 is the biharmonic operator, and D = \frac{E h^3}{12(1 - \nu^2)} represents the flexural rigidity, with E as the Young's modulus, h as the plate thickness, and \nu as the Poisson's ratio.^[78] This equation arises from equilibrium considerations and the assumption that shear deformations are negligible, allowing the plate's response to be captured through moments and curvatures rather than full three-dimensional elasticity. For example, in a simply supported rectangular plate under uniform load, solutions to this equation yield maximum deflections scaling with load magnitude and inversely with rigidity, providing essential insights for structural analysis.^[79] In electrostatics, parallel plate configurations form the basis of the ideal capacitor, consisting of two conducting plates of area A separated by distance d, where the capacitance C is given by

C = \frac{\epsilon_0 A}{d},

with \epsilon_0 as the vacuum permittivity ($8.85 \times 10^{-12} \, \mathrm{F/m}).^[80] This formula derives from Gauss's law applied to the uniform electric field E = \sigma / \epsilon_0 between the plates, where \sigma is the surface charge density, and assumes d \ll \sqrt{A} to neglect fringing fields. The model quantifies stored energy as \frac{1}{2} C V^2, where V is the potential difference, and remains a cornerstone for understanding charge storage in isolated systems.^[81] In optics, birefringent wave plates—thin plates of anisotropic material like quartz—manipulate light polarization by introducing a phase shift \delta between orthogonal components:

\delta = \frac{2\pi}{\lambda} \Delta n \, d,

where \lambda is the wavelength, \Delta n = |n_e - n_o| is the birefringence (difference between extraordinary and ordinary refractive indices), and d is the plate thickness.^[82] A quarter-wave plate achieves \delta = \pi/2, converting linear polarization to circular by retarding one axis by a quarter wavelength, while a half-wave plate with \delta = \pi rotates linear polarization by twice the angle between the incident plane and the fast axis. These devices are essential for controlling polarization states in interferometry and laser systems, with material choices like calcite ensuring minimal dispersion over visible wavelengths.^[83] In acoustics, vibrating plates contribute to sound production in percussion instruments, such as cymbals, where thin circular metal plates exhibit complex modal vibrations under impact. The free vibrations of these plates involve in-plane and flexural modes, leading to rich spectra with inharmonic overtones due to nonlinear coupling and material damping, as analyzed through plate wave equations extended from Kirchhoff theory.^[84] For instance, cymbal strikes excite thousands of modes, with frequencies scaling as \sqrt{D / \rho h} (where \rho is density), producing sustained decays and metallic timbres characteristic of such instruments.^[85]

Engineering and Technology

Construction

In construction and civil engineering, plates serve as critical structural components for load-bearing and connection purposes. Structural steel plates, governed by standards such as ASTM A36 for general structural applications including bridges and buildings, are typically available in thicknesses ranging from 3/16 inch to 6 inches, providing a balance of strength and weldability.^[86]^[87] These plates exhibit a minimum yield strength of 36 ksi and are widely used in fabricating beams, columns, and gussets due to their formability and cost-effectiveness.^[88] Base plates are essential for anchoring steel columns to concrete foundations, distributing loads and facilitating stability. Designed according to the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) codes, such as those in the Steel Construction Manual, base plates incorporate anchor bolts whose sizing and placement account for tensile, shear, and moment forces through calculations for bolt embedment and plate thickness.^[89]^[90] The AISC Design Guide 1 provides detailed procedures for these connections, ensuring compliance with tolerances for anchor rod positioning to prevent misalignment during erection. Shear plates, often made of malleable iron or steel, enhance timber connections by embedding into wood members to transfer lateral loads efficiently, reducing the need for multiple bolts.^[91] In timber framing, these plates are installed in pairs on either side of a joint, promoting shear resistance and increasing overall joint capacity in applications like trusses and beams.^[92] Historically, iron plates played a pivotal role in 19th-century bridge construction, with wrought iron plates used for their tensile strength in truss and arch designs, as seen in early structures like the Iron Bridge in England completed in 1779, which marked a shift from wood to metal frameworks.^[93] By the mid-1800s, wrought iron plates were combined with cast iron components in American and European bridges to handle compressive and tensile stresses, enabling longer spans and greater durability over wooden predecessors.^[94] In modern applications, prefabricated concrete plates form integral parts of flooring systems, offering rapid installation and reduced on-site labor through precast elements like hollowcore slabs that span up to 50 feet while supporting live loads.^[95] These systems, such as T-SLAB, integrate with steel reinforcements for multi-story buildings, enhancing construction efficiency. Sustainability efforts in steel plate usage have advanced, with domestic structural steel achieving an average recycled content of 93%, reflecting high recovery rates from demolition—estimated at 98% for construction steel—compared to earlier decades when virgin materials dominated.^[96]^[97]

Electronics

In vacuum tubes, the anode plate serves as the positively charged electrode that collects electrons emitted from the heated cathode, enabling unidirectional electron flow essential for rectification and signal amplification in early electronic circuits.^[98] This component, often a cylindrical metal structure surrounding the cathode, was pivotal in John Ambrose Fleming's 1904 oscillation valve, which rectified high-frequency wireless signals for improved detection in telegraphy receivers.^[98] Lee de Forest's 1906 Audion triode further advanced the design by incorporating a control grid between the cathode and anode plate, allowing modulation of electron flow for audio amplification and revolutionizing radio technology by enabling practical radiotelephony and long-distance communication in the 1900s.^[99] By 1907, these tubes were integrated into U.S. Navy radio sets, and during World War I, over 200,000 units supported military communications, marking their historical significance in transitioning from spark-gap transmitters to amplified broadcast systems.^[98] Printed circuit boards (PCBs) utilize thin copper plates etched onto fiberglass substrates to form conductive pathways for electronic components, forming the backbone of modern circuit integration. The manufacturing process begins with imaging a photoresist on copper-clad fiberglass laminates, followed by chemical etching to remove excess copper and define circuit traces, after which the boards are inspected and laminated for multilayer configurations.^[100] Multilayer PCBs, which stack multiple copper layers separated by insulating prepreg (epoxy-impregnated fiberglass), can reach up to 50 layers through sequential lamination under heat and pressure, enabling high-density designs for complex devices like smartphones and servers while minimizing size and weight.^[101] This etching and layering technique, refined since the 1950s, supports advanced routing of signals and power, with electrolytic plating ensuring reliable interlayer connections via drilled vias.^[100] In lithium-based batteries, thin-film solid-state plates made from lithium metal or alloys serve as anodes, paired with solid electrolytes to achieve higher energy densities compared to traditional liquid-electrolyte designs by reducing inactive components and enhancing safety. These plates enable compact stacking in monolithic configurations, where prototypes have demonstrated energy densities exceeding 500 Wh/kg, approaching theoretical limits for lithium systems.^[102] For instance, 2023 advancements in thin-film solid-state lithium batteries have produced record values over 500 Wh/kg through optimized electrode-electrolyte interfaces, supporting applications in wearables and electric vehicles with improved cycle life and thermal stability.^[102] Such designs mitigate dendrite formation during charging, a common issue in liquid systems, by using solid ceramic or polymer separators that confine lithium plating.^[103] Touchscreen technology employs indium tin oxide (ITO)-coated glass plates as transparent conductive layers for capacitive sensing, where the ITO film creates an electrostatic field that detects touch via changes in capacitance between the user's finger and the plate.^[104] Applied via sputtering onto the glass substrate, the ITO layer—typically 100-200 nm thick—maintains optical clarity above 80% while providing sheet resistance of 10-100 ohms per square, essential for multi-touch gestures in devices like smartphones and tablets.^[104] This parallel-plate-like structure relies on basic capacitance principles, where the dielectric glass separates conductive layers to form a sensor grid.^[104] Recent advancements as of 2025 have introduced flexible OLED plates leveraging organic semiconductors for bendable displays and wearable electronics, achieving stretchability up to 70% strain without performance degradation. These plates use solution-processed organic layers, such as electron transport materials blended with additives like PFN-Br and Triton X-100, to maintain morphological stability under deformation, yielding luminance over 3,000 cd/m² and efficiencies around 5 cd/A.^[105] Integrated with stretchable silver cathodes via low-rate evaporation, such designs support conformable applications in health monitoring and augmented reality, building on organic semiconductor properties for lightweight, low-power emission.^[105]

Printing and Photography

In printing, offset lithography relies on aluminum plates that are anodized to form a porous oxide layer, enabling selective ink retention on image areas while repelling it from non-image regions through a hydrophilic coating. This process, which transfers ink indirectly from the plate to a rubber blanket and then to paper, was accidentally invented in 1904 by Ira Washington Rubel, a lithographer in Nutley, New Jersey, who discovered that a dampened lithographic stone could print offset onto paper after an error in his press.^[106]^[107] The anodization step, typically achieved via sulfuric acid electrolysis, enhances plate durability and allows for high-volume runs of up to 1 million impressions per plate in commercial applications.^[108] Photogravure printing employs etched copper plates to achieve exceptionally fine tonal gradations and high-quality reproductions, particularly for art books, magazines, and fine art prints. Developed from William Henry Fox Talbot's photoglyphic engraving patented in 1852 and 1858, the process involves coating a polished copper plate with a light-sensitive carbon tissue, exposing it to create a gelatin resist of varying thicknesses, and then etching with ferric chloride solutions of decreasing strengths to produce recessed cells proportional to image density—the deeper cells hold more ink for darker tones.^[109]^[110] This intaglio method yields continuous-tone images with subtle gradations, superior to halftone processes, and remains valued for its archival stability in limited-edition reproductions.^[111] Photographic plates, central to early image capture, evolved from metal to glass supports coated with silver halide emulsions sensitive to light. The Daguerreotype process, introduced in 1839 by Louis Daguerre, used silver-plated copper sheets sensitized with iodine vapor to form silver iodide, exposed in a camera obscura, and developed with mercury vapor to yield a unique positive image—marking the first practical photographic medium but limited by its one-off nature and fragility.^[112] By the 1850s, the wet collodion process on glass plates, invented by Frederick Scott Archer in 1851, replaced it; these plates were coated with collodion (nitrocellulose dissolved in ether and alcohol) mixed with potassium iodide, sensitized in silver nitrate, exposed while wet, and developed to produce negatives that could be printed multiple times.^[113] The cumbersome requirement for immediate processing led to the 1880s innovation of dry plates by George Eastman, who in 1880 patented a gelatin-based emulsion of silver bromide on glass, allowing pre-coated, storable plates that democratized photography and persisted in professional use until the 1950s, when flexible film largely supplanted them.^[114]^[115] Modern advancements in plate technology include computer-to-plate (CTP) systems, which digitally expose printing plates directly via laser, bypassing film intermediates and reducing prepress waste—such as chemicals and materials—by up to 90% while improving registration accuracy and enabling faster turnaround.^[116] Introduced in the 1990s, CTP has transformed offset and flexographic printing by integrating with digital workflows, minimizing environmental impact through processless plates that require no wet development.^[117]

Transportation

License plates, also known as vehicle registration plates, are standardized tags typically made of metal or plastic that display alphanumeric codes for identifying motor vehicles. These plates serve as essential components for regulatory compliance, traffic enforcement, and vehicle ownership verification in transportation systems.^[118] The first license plates were issued in France on August 14, 1893, under the Paris Police Ordinance, marking the initial formal requirement for motor vehicle registration and identification.^[119] In the United States, license plate issuance began with New York in 1901, and designs have since varied by state, incorporating unique formats, colors, and symbols to reflect local identity while adhering to federal standards for visibility and durability.^[120] Many U.S. states adopted retroreflective materials for license plates starting in the 1960s to enhance nighttime visibility and reduce counterfeiting.^[121] International design standards for license plates are outlined in the 1968 Vienna Convention on Road Traffic, which requires vehicles in cross-border travel to display a distinguishing sign of the country of registration alongside the alphanumeric code, ensuring uniform recognition across signatory nations.^[122] The convention promotes safety by standardizing placement on the front and rear of vehicles, with no specific size mandated but emphasizing legibility.^[123] In the European Union, a common format prevails with plates measuring 520 mm by 110 mm for passenger cars, featuring a blue strip on the left displaying the EU flag and country code to facilitate seamless international movement.^[124] Vanity and specialty license plates allow vehicle owners to customize alphanumeric combinations for personal expression or support causes, generating additional revenue for state programs. In California, for instance, personalized plates incur an original application fee starting at $50, with annual renewals at $40, while specialty designs can exceed $100 initially to fund environmental or arts initiatives.^[125] These custom options must still comply with character limits and content restrictions to avoid offensive material, balancing personalization with public safety.^[121] Beyond road vehicles, plates play critical roles in maritime and aviation identification. Ship nameplates, required under International Maritime Organization (IMO) regulations, must permanently and conspicuously mark the vessel's name on the bow and stern, often using raised or cut metal lettering at least 200 mm high for visibility, alongside the IMO number etched on the hull for global tracking.^[126] For aircraft, data plates—permanently affixed metal tags—contain essential details including the manufacturer's name, model designation, builder's serial number, and type certificate number if applicable, as mandated by Federal Aviation Administration standards to verify airworthiness and ownership.^[127] As of 2025, technological advancements have introduced RFID-embedded smart license plates, integrating radio-frequency identification chips into standard tags for enhanced functionality in transportation systems. These smart plates enable automated toll collection by allowing vehicles to pass through gantries without stopping, using RFID readers to deduct fees from linked accounts and reduce congestion.^[128] Additionally, they support real-time vehicle tracking for traffic management and law enforcement, with embedded chips providing secure data transmission while maintaining backward compatibility with traditional optical recognition systems.^[129] Adoption is growing in regions like Europe and parts of Asia, where pilots demonstrate up to 99% accuracy in identification under varying weather conditions.^[130]

Materials

Metal Plates

Metal plates are flat, rolled products made from various metallic alloys, primarily used in industrial settings for their strength, durability, and versatility. These plates are typically produced in thicknesses ranging from a few millimeters to several inches, serving as foundational materials in manufacturing and engineering. Common compositions include carbon steels for general-purpose applications, stainless steels for environments requiring corrosion resistance, and specialized alloys for high-wear scenarios.^[131] Among the primary types, carbon steel plates, such as mild steel variants, offer a balance of affordability and mechanical performance suitable for structural and fabrication needs. Stainless steel plates, exemplified by the 304 grade (also known as 18/8 stainless), provide superior corrosion resistance due to their chromium-nickel composition, making them ideal for exposure to moisture, chemicals, or food processing environments. Alloy plates like AR500, a high-carbon abrasion-resistant steel, are engineered for extreme durability, featuring a hardness of 477–534 Brinell hardness number (BHN) to withstand impacts and wear in demanding conditions.^[132]^[133]^[134] Production of metal plates primarily involves rolling processes to achieve desired thickness and surface quality. Hot rolling occurs at temperatures above 900°C, where the steel is passed through rollers in a reheated state to refine grain structure and produce plates up to several inches thick, often used for heavy industrial applications. Cold rolling follows, typically at room temperature or slightly elevated, to further reduce thickness and improve surface finish, with tolerances governed by standards like ISO 9445, which specifies dimensional accuracy for cold-rolled stainless steel wide strip and plate/sheet, ensuring variations no greater than ±0.15 mm for thicknesses between 0.3 and 8.0 mm. These processes enhance uniformity and mechanical properties while minimizing defects.^[135] Key properties of metal plates include tensile strength, hardness, and thermal conductivity, which vary by alloy type. For mild carbon steel plates, tensile strength typically ranges from 400 to 550 MPa, providing sufficient load-bearing capacity for most structural uses. Hardness is measured on the Brinell scale, with mild steel at 120–150 BHN for ductility and AR500 at 477–534 BHN for abrasion resistance. Thermal conductivity differs significantly: carbon steels exhibit around 45–50 W/m·K, facilitating heat dissipation in machinery, while stainless steels like 304 have lower values of 15–25 W/m·K, offering better insulation in thermal applications.^[132]^[136]^[137] In general industrial applications, metal plates serve as bases for machinery, providing stable platforms for assembly lines, testing equipment, and heavy equipment supports. They are also briefly referenced in construction for base plates anchoring structural columns. The global steel plate market reached approximately 43 million tonnes in 2024, with forecasts projecting growth to around 44–45 million tonnes in 2025 driven by infrastructure and manufacturing demands. In Europe, steel recycling rates stand at about 85%, supporting sustainable production through scrap-based electric arc furnaces.^[138]^[139]^[140]

Non-Metal Plates

Non-metal plates encompass a diverse range of materials such as ceramics, polymers, composites, and glass, valued for their non-conductive properties, lighter weight compared to metals, and specialized applications in industries requiring corrosion resistance or electrical insulation. These plates often provide superior chemical stability and tailored mechanical performance, making them suitable for environments where metallic alternatives would degrade or introduce conductivity issues. Ceramic plates, particularly those made from advanced materials like boron carbide, are widely used in industrial applications such as body armor due to their exceptional hardness and ability to disrupt projectiles. Boron carbide plates can stop 7.62mm armor-piercing ammunition, offering high protection levels in military contexts while remaining lighter than equivalent steel plates.^[141] This material's ceramic composition shatters upon impact to absorb and dissipate energy, preventing penetration without the need for additional metallic backing in standalone configurations.^[142] Polymer plates, including acrylic and polycarbonate sheets, are prized for their transparency, impact resistance, and UV resistance properties, enabling use in outdoor signage, protective barriers, and architectural glazing. Acrylic sheets exhibit inherent UV resistance, degrading by only about 3% over a 10-year outdoor exposure period, maintaining clarity without yellowing or warping.^[143] In contrast, polycarbonate sheets require a UV coating to achieve similar longevity, absorbing ultraviolet radiation to prevent transmission and degradation, though uncoated versions may begin to yellow within 5-7 years of outdoor exposure.^[144] Both materials offer impact strengths far exceeding glass—polycarbonate up to 250 times greater—while providing lightweight alternatives for non-structural applications.^[145] Composite plates, such as carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP), deliver a strength-to-weight ratio approximately five times that of steel, allowing for significant weight reductions in high-performance structures. In aerospace applications, CFRP plates are employed in aircraft fuselages and wings, where their tensile strength exceeds 3,500 MPa while weighing only about 1.5 g/cm³, compared to steel's 7.8 g/cm³ density.^[146] This superior ratio enables fuel efficiency gains, as seen in modern commercial jets where CFRP components reduce overall aircraft weight by up to 20%.^[147] Glass plates are produced via the float glass process, invented by Pilkington Brothers in 1959, which involves floating molten glass on a tin bath to create uniform, distortion-free sheets. This method yields plates with thicknesses ranging from 1 to 25 mm, suitable for windows, tabletops, and optical uses, with standard production sizes up to 3.3 m by 6 m.^[148] The process ensures parallel surfaces and consistent quality, revolutionizing flat glass manufacturing by replacing older, labor-intensive drawing techniques.^[149] Environmental considerations have driven the development of biodegradable non-metal plates, such as those made from polylactic acid (PLA), a biopolymer derived from renewable resources like corn starch. PLA plates decompose in 3-6 months under industrial composting conditions at temperatures above 58°C, breaking down into water, carbon dioxide, and organic matter without leaving microplastics.^[150] This rapid degradation supports sustainable practices in disposable tableware and packaging, reducing landfill persistence compared to traditional plastics that may take centuries to break down.^[151]

Sports and Recreation

Baseball

In baseball, home plate serves as the foundational element at the apex of the diamond-shaped playing field, marking the starting and ending point for offensive plays. It is a five-sided slab of whitened rubber, formed by taking a 17-inch square and removing two corners to create one 17-inch edge facing the pitcher, two adjacent 8.5-inch sides, and two 12-inch sides that converge at a point toward the catcher.^[152] This pentagonal design, set flush into the ground with the point aligned at the intersection of the extended foul lines from first and third bases, typically features black borders along its edges for visibility to umpires and players, though the official rules specify only whitened rubber construction.^[153] The plate's precise dimensions and orientation ensure consistent judgment of plays, as defined in Major League Baseball's Official Rules, Rule 2.02.^[152] Home plate's primary functions revolve around determining the strike zone, safe or out calls on base runners, and the culmination of scoring or innings. The strike zone is the area over the plate from the midpoint between the batter's shoulders and the top of their uniform pants to the hollow beneath the kneecap, with any pitch passing through this vertical plane and within the plate's boundaries counted as a strike; three strikes result in an out, potentially ending a batter's turn or an inning.^[154] For runners, touching the plate after rounding the bases scores a run, while a defensive tag or force out at the plate can prevent scoring and end the play.^[152] The umpire positioned behind the catcher calls balls and strikes based on the plate's edges, and safe/out decisions at home are critical in close plays, often involving slides or collisions.^[153] The concept of home plate evolved significantly from baseball's early days in the mid-19th century. In Alexander Cartwright's Knickerbocker Rules of 1845, which formalized many modern aspects of the game, "home" was simply a stake or base marker, typically wooden, placed at the starting point without specified dimensions beyond the 42-pace distance to second base.^[155] By the 1840s and 1850s, wooden stakes or stones served as rudimentary home bases amid informal play, but as the sport professionalized, hazards from hard materials led to changes; in 1868, rules adopted a 12-inch square flat plate, and by 1887, white rubber became standard to reduce injury risks during slides.^[156] The current pentagonal shape was introduced in 1900 to better align with foul lines and aid umpires in calling balls and strikes, replacing earlier circular or square forms.^[157] Pitching mechanics are directly tied to home plate's position, with the pitcher's rubber—a 24-by-6-inch white slab—placed on the mound and aligned parallel to the plate's front edge. The distance from the front of the rubber to the back point of home plate is exactly 60 feet 6 inches, a standard established in 1893 after experimentation with shorter distances like 50 feet in the 1880s to balance offense and defense.^[158] This measurement ensures pitches travel at high velocities while allowing batters reaction time, and the mound's 10-inch elevation above plate level adds strategic depth to delivery.^[153] In variations like softball, home plate maintains a similar pentagonal shape and 17-inch width but operates within a smaller field; for example, the pitching distance is 43 feet in fastpitch, emphasizing speed and underhand delivery over baseball's overhand style.^[159]

Other Sports

In weightlifting, competition plates refer to the standardized discs loaded onto barbells during Olympic-style lifts, adhering to specifications set by the International Weightlifting Federation (IWF). These plates, particularly the larger ones weighing 25 kg (red), 20 kg (blue), 15 kg (yellow), and 10 kg (green), measure 450 mm in diameter with a tolerance of ±1 mm and are typically covered in rubber or plastic for durability and noise reduction during drops.^[160] The 45 lb (approximately 20.4 kg) disc, a common imperial standard in non-IWF competitions, mirrors the 20 kg plate in size and function, often featuring color-coded rims for quick identification.^[161] In equestrian sports, a breastplate is a key piece of horse tack designed to secure the saddle and prevent it from slipping backward, especially during dynamic movements like jumping or galloping. Constructed primarily from leather for traditional durability and flexibility, modern variants incorporate nylon or synthetic blends like biothane for enhanced weather resistance and low maintenance.^[162] These attachments connect to the saddle's front and girth, distributing pressure evenly across the horse's chest without restricting breathing. Golf practice aids include putting alignment plates, specialized tools that assist players in achieving proper stance and stroke path on the green. Devices like the Putting Plates feature a flat, mirrored or textured surface to guide foot positioning and ensure square putter alignment, promoting muscle memory for consistent rolls.^[163] Such aids emphasize visual feedback for eye line and shoulder alignment, reducing common errors in setup without altering the natural putting motion.^[164] Historically, plate armor played a central role in medieval jousting, a competitive sport where knights clad in steel plates protected themselves from lances and impacts during mounted charges. Evolving from chain mail in the 13th century to full articulated steel suits by the 15th century, these plates—often 4–6 mm thick on the torso^[165]—prioritized frontal reinforcement to absorb direct hits while allowing mobility for the tilt.^[166] This design influenced modern sports protective gear, such as padded plates in American football shoulder harnesses or ice hockey blockers, which retain layered impact absorption principles adapted with lightweight composites.^[167] In niche cue sports like snooker, rest plates form part of the cue support system, providing a stable, elevated platform for the cue tip when bridging over obstructing balls. These attachments, often undulant or cross-shaped metal heads on extendable rests, enable precise shots without disturbing the table setup, as described in specialized patents for billiards equipment.^[168]

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The object of this book is to record the history of the evolution of the thermionic vacuum tube, to trace its complex genealogy, and to present essential facts ...
[98]
[PDF] A Nonlinear History of Radio - SMIrC Lab
The year 1907 also saw the patenting, by Lee de Forest, of the first electronic device capa- ble of amplification: the triode vacuum tube. Unfortunately, de ...
[99]
How to Build a Multilayer PCB Stack-up | Sierra Circuits
Mar 9, 2021 · PCBs are manufactured by layering an epoxy pre-impregnated fiberglass sheet between the copper layers. These layers are laminated together under ...
[100]
Is possible to fabricate 50 layer PCB? - RayPCB
Yes! It is even possible to fabricate 50 layers PCB like any single-layered or doubled-layered PCB. But before, jumping into the guideline you must have known ...
[101]
Monolithically-stacked thin-film solid-state batteries - Nature
Jun 5, 2023 · The specific energy of Li-ion batteries has improved greatly in recent decades, with record values >500 Wh kg−1—close to predicted specific ...
[102]
Manufacturing Scale-Up of Anodeless Solid-State Lithium Thin-Film ...
Perspective October 20, 2023. Manufacturing Scale-Up of Anodeless Solid-State Lithium Thin-Film Batteries for High Volumetric Energy Density Applications.
[103]
The Role of Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) in Touchscreens - Nelson Miller
Mar 19, 2021 · Capacitive touchscreens can still use a glass top layer, but it must be coated with a conductive material, which is where ITO comes into play.
[104]
Intrinsically stretchable OLEDs with a designed morphology ... - Nature
Jul 26, 2024 · We developed a sequentially coated is-OLED and confirmed the maintenance of the designed morphologies of each layer and a highly stretchable metallic is- ...
[105]
Chapter 10. Modern Publishing Transformations - History of the Book
Around 1904, offset printing and the photo-halftone were invented (somewhat accidentally) in the United State by Ira Rubel. Offset was a modification of ...
[106]
[PDF] Report (pdf) - USGS Publications Warehouse
To begin the operation, four pre-grained anodized aluminum plates, after being properly cleaned, are surface treated with a silicate compound. This is ...<|separator|>
[107]
[PDF] Aluminum Lithographic Printing Plates from China and Japan
antidumping duties on presensitized offset aluminum printing plates from China, Hong Kong,. European Union, and United States with an applied rate of $2.35 ...Missing: retention | Show results with:retention
[108]
[PDF] PHOTOGRAVURE - Getty Museum
In Talbot's 1852 method, the steel plate was etched with a solution of platinum chloride to form a printing plate. Talbot changed the process in 1858 by ...
[109]
History of Photogravure - heliogravuere.de
He patented his technique “Photoglyphic Engraving” in 1852 and 1858 which was later to become known as photogravure: Talbot developed an etching resist over ...
[110]
The Photogravure Process
The gelatin image on the copper plate, now called a resist, is then dried. Next the plate is placed in a succession of etching baths. Etching begins in sequence ...
[111]
The Daguerreian Era and Early American Photography on Paper ...
Oct 1, 2004 · The daguerreotype process, employing a polished silver-plated sheet of copper, was the dominant form of photography for the first twenty years of picture ...
[112]
The Collodion process - Smarthistory
The plate was exposed still wet and then developed by inspection under red light. Once the plate was washed and dried, it was coated with a protective varnish.
[113]
George Eastman | Kodak
By 1880, he had not only invented a dry plate formula, but had patented a machine for preparing large numbers of the plates. He quickly recognized the ...
[114]
https://www.kodak.com/en/company/page/george-eastman-history/
[115]
[PDF] Computer-to-Plate Lithographic Printing Introduction - NEWMOA
Nov 7, 2006 · Makeready time and associated paper waste is reduced with the automated system as well. Plate size is a constraint with DI systems which are ...
[116]
Learn about Computer to Plate CTP technology - HC Aluminum
Aug 6, 2025 · Computer to Plate (CTP) reduces material costs and waste by eliminating the need for film and related chemicals used in traditional processes.
[117]
First Automobile License Plate Laws Introduced
Aug 14, 2023 · The history of license plates for automobiles dates back to the Paris Police Ordinance of August 14, 1893.
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https://automotivehistory.org/history-of-license-plates/
[119]
https://www.mamotorworks.com/corvette/knowledgelibrary/exterior/license-to-drive-a-history-of-license-plates
[120]
Appendix 1F - Fees - California DMV
Special Interest License Plate Fees ; Original · $50 ; Renewal · $40 ; Replacement/Substitute · $35 ; Reassignment · $15 ; Exchange · **.
[121]
Vienna Convention on Road Traffic [of] 1968 - UNTC
The Convention was prepared and opened for signature by the United Nations Conference on Road Traffic, held at Vienna from 7 October to 8 November 1968.
[122]
[PDF] Convention on Road Traffic - UNECE
All vehicles in international traffic must meet the technical requirements in force in their country of registration when they first entered into service. 2 ...
[123]
https://unece.org/DAM/trans/conventn/crt1968e.pdf
[124]
Special Interest and Personalized License Plates Orders
Be prepared to pay for your license plate. All credit/debit card transactions include an additional 1.95% payment processing fee.Sequential Plate · Choosing Your License Plate · Personalized Plate · Next Section
[125]
[PDF] 1. Ship Name should be permanently and conspicuously marked on ...
2. Ship Name, Port of Registry and IMO number permanently and conspicuously marked on stern. The marking is by cutting metal plate for the letters or perforated ...
[126]
14 CFR Part 45 -- Identification and Registration Marking - eCFR
§ 45.13 Identification data. (2) Model designation. (3) Builder's serial number. (4) Type certificate number, if any. (5) Production certificate number, if any.
[127]
RFID Vehicle Tracking System — InfraMarker by Berntsen
Sep 25, 2025 · Electronic Toll Collection, Vehicles have passive (or semi-passive) RFID tags mounted (often on windshield or license plate). Toll-readers (RFID ...
[128]
High Security Registration Plates Market - 2035
Aug 19, 2025 · The integration of RFID chips within license plates supports automated tolling, traffic monitoring, and connected vehicle applications.
[129]
https://www.futuremarketinsights.com/reports/high-security-registration-plates-market
[130]
Plate | Good Metals Company
AR 500, Standard specification published by the ASTM for cold-formed welded and seamless carbon steel structural tubing in round, square, and rectangular shapes ...
[131]
What is Mild Steel? Properties & Manufacturing Guide - Protolabs
Oct 7, 2025 · Tensile strength, 400 – 550 MPa, Provides enough structural capability for most general uses. ; Yield strength, 250 – 400 MPa, Varies with grade ...Missing: thermal conductivity
[132]
https://www.protolabs.com/en-gb/resources/blog/properties-of-mild-steel/
[133]
AR500 Steel Plate, Sheet | Abrasion Resistant Alloy Steel
Mar 13, 2025 · AR500 steel is a high-carbon alloy with 477–534 HBW hardness, known for extreme abrasion resistance, uniform hardness depth, and controlled ...
[134]
Tolerances to ISO 9445 for cold rolled narrow and wide strip, plate ...
ISO 9445 defines tolerances for cold rolled narrow and wide strip, plate/sheet, and cut lengths, with different values for each product type.
[135]
Clifton Steel Tensalloy™ Blue AR500 Abrasion-Resistant ... - MatWeb
This alloy has higher levels wear resistance and hardness than AR400 and AR450 but the formability is inferior. Outstanding wear and impact-resistant properties ...<|separator|>
[136]
Thermal Conductivity of Steel: Carbon, Alloys and Stainless Steels
May 4, 2021 · The thermal conductivity of steel is measured at approximately 45 W/(mK), which is extremely low compared to copper and aluminum that exhibit a ...
[137]
Steel Base Plates and Their Role in Manufacturing - Kloeckner Metals
Oct 4, 2024 · Steel base plates find applications in various industrial manufacturing processes. They are used in the fabrication of machine frames, ...
[138]
Steel Plate Market Size, Share, Analysis and Forecast 2035
The global steel plate market was 43 million tonnes in 2024 and is projected to reach 60 million tonnes in 2035, with a 3.32% CAGR.
[139]
[PDF] Metal Can Sustainability & Recycling Fact Sheet - 2024
85.5% in. Europe for steel packaging (source below). Supportive Data: • 2023 IAI study conducted by Roland Berger with 2022 data for used beverage containers in.<|separator|>
[140]
Military to buy bullet-resistant ceramic plates - Taipei Times
Aug 5, 2025 · BODY ARMOR: The new boron carbide bullet-resistant ceramic plates are capable of protecting against up to 7.62mm armor-piercing ammunition ...
[141]
https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2025/08/05/2003841484
[142]
https://bulletproofzone.com/blogs/bullet-proof-blog/what-is-level-iv-body-armor
[143]
Polycarbonate and Protection from UV Radiation. What does this ...
Aug 5, 2021 · The material absorbs UV radiation and does not allow it to be transmitted through. Even a very thin sheet of polycarbonate would absorb UV rays ...
[144]
Polycarbonate Sheets vs. Acrylic Sheets - Polymershapes
Jan 14, 2020 · Acrylic is known for being about 10 times more impact resistant than glass, while polycarbonate is about 250 times more impact resistant than ...
[145]
Is Carbon Fibre Stronger Than Steel? – A Quick Comparison
May 1, 2024 · Carbon fibre is stronger per unit weight than steel. In strength-to-weight ratio, it is five times lighter and hence five times stronger than steel.What is Carbon Fibre? · What is Steel? · Key Differences Between...
[146]
The Advantages of Carbon Fiber in the Aerospace Industry –
Dec 1, 2024 · Carbon fiber is significantly stronger than aluminum and weighs about 40% less. This makes it an incredibly useful material in the aerospace industry.
[147]
Float Glass Process - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
After cooling and annealing, glass sheets with uniform thicknesses in the ~1–25 mm range and flat surfaces are produced. The float glass process is used to ...
[148]
The Glass Industry and the Pilkington Float Process - Oxford Academic
Since its development and introduction in 1959, the float process has almost totally displaced other methods of manufacturing flat glass. It completely replaced ...
[149]
https://academic.oup.com/book/2966/chapter/143655897
[150]
The Life Cycle Assessment for Polylactic Acid (PLA) to Make It a Low ...
It should also be noted that compostability is the same as biodegradability but under aerobic conditions for 6–12 weeks [29,30]. The EoL options help with the ...
[151]
[PDF] Official Baseball Rules 2019 Edition - MLB.com
2.02 Home Base It shall be set in the ground with the point at the intersection of the lines extending from home base to first base and to third base; with the ...
[152]
Field Dimensions | Glossary - MLB.com
Home plate: Home plate is a 17-inch square of whitened rubber with two of the corners removed so that one edge is 17 inches long, two adjacent sides are 8 1/2 ...Missing: 2.02 | Show results with:2.02
[153]
Strike Zone | Glossary - MLB.com
The official strike zone is the area over home plate from the midpoint between a batter's shoulders and the top of the uniform pants.
[154]
Knickerbocker Rules - Baseball Almanac
4TH. The bases shall be from "home" to second base, forty-two paces; from first to third base, forty-two paces, equidistant.
[155]
The Field: Evolution of the Batter's Area - 19th Century Baseball
Home Base was changed to a 12 inch square flat plate in 1868 ... The American Association changed the composition of Home Base to only white rubber but the ...
[156]
How Home Plate Lives Up to Its Name - The Atlantic
Mar 31, 2014 · Physically, symbolically, and historically, Home has evolved to become a unique part of the game and sport of baseball. It deserves deeper ...
[157]
Why is the baseball mound 60 feet, 6 inches away? - MLB.com
Aug 9, 2021 · The distance of “60 feet, 6 inches” between the pitching rubber and the back tip of home plate commanded somewhere in the Old Testament or the Dead Sea Scrolls.
[158]
[PDF] 2025 USA Softball Rule Book
Official Softball Diamond Dimensions ... Home Plate: There is only one home plate on each softball field, with the exception of.
[159]
Equipment - International Weightlifting Federation |
All lifts must be executed on the competition platform. The platform must be square, level and measuring four (4) metres on each side.
[160]
IWF Weightlifting Competition Plate - 25 kg - Eleiko
4–19 day delivery Free 30-day returnsThe plates measure 450mm in diameter with a 50.5mm (+-0.05) centre hole for a precise and secure fit on the bar sleeve and are calibrated to IWF specifications.
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https://eleiko.com/equipment/plates/weightlifting/3085231-25-eleiko-iwf-weightlifting-competition-plate-25-kg
[162]
Putting Plates
Putting Plates are an innovative training tool to help golfers achieve consistent putting strokes, fine-tune their stroke, improve alignment, and build muscle ...About · Shop · Custom Putting Plates Set · Putting Plates Bag
[163]
Best Putting Aids 2025 - Our six favorite aids to help you hole more ...
Jul 28, 2025 · Some decide to simply use tees and alignment sticks whilst others use putting mirrors. We believe some also use putting mats and practice greens ...
[164]
A Brief Look at Jousting Armor - Maidens and Manuscripts
Oct 1, 2018 · Jousting armor first started as chain mail. Eventually, steel plate was used. As time wore on, jousting armor became more and more heavy.
[165]
The Evolution of Body Armor - How Modern Technology is ...
From the iron-plated suits worn by medieval knights to today's lightweight, modular systems, technological advancements have made tactical gear lighter, more ...
[166]
Cue Rest Patents and Patent Applications (Class 473/42)
Abstract: A rest for use in playing snooker, billiards and similar ... The cue rest plate can define an undulant surface with multiple valleys and peaks.