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Production control

Production control is a core component of manufacturing operations management, encompassing the systematic planning, scheduling, dispatching, monitoring, and expediting of production processes to optimize the use of labor, materials, machinery, and facilities while ensuring on-time delivery and adherence to quality standards.^[1] It focuses on translating production plans into actionable workflows, continuously tracking performance against established benchmarks, and implementing corrective actions to address deviations such as delays or resource shortages.^[2] In essence, production control bridges the gap between strategic production planning and day-to-day execution, enabling manufacturers to maintain efficiency in dynamic environments ranging from small-scale assembly to complex systems like aerospace or automotive production.^[1] The primary functions of production control include routing, which determines the sequence of operations and the path of work through the production facility; scheduling, which assigns specific timelines and allocates resources to meet production targets; and dispatching, which authorizes the release of work orders to initiate manufacturing activities.^[1] Additional key functions encompass expediting, involving the monitoring of progress and acceleration of delayed tasks through coordination with procurement, engineering, and other departments; follow-up or progressing, which tracks ongoing work to identify bottlenecks; and inspection, ensuring compliance with quality and safety protocols throughout the process.^[1] These functions are often supported by tools such as material requirements planning (MRP) systems, enterprise resource planning (ERP) software, and real-time monitoring technologies to handle inventory management and feedback loops for adjustments.^[3] In modern manufacturing, production control plays a pivotal role in enhancing competitiveness by minimizing waste, reducing costs, and improving responsiveness to customer demands, particularly in industries requiring high precision and just-in-time delivery.^[4] It integrates with broader supply chain strategies, including raw material procurement and inventory control, to sustain continuous operations and adapt to variables like equipment failures or fluctuating demand.^[2] Effective production control not only ensures operational smoothness but also contributes to overall organizational goals, such as achieving sustainable practices and regulatory compliance in government or industrial settings.^[1]

Fundamentals

Definition and Scope

Production control refers to the operational process of directing, monitoring, and regulating the flow of materials, labor, and equipment within manufacturing systems to facilitate the efficient conversion of raw materials into finished products, while adhering to standards of quality, cost, and delivery timelines. According to the American Production and Inventory Control Society (APICS), it encompasses predicting, planning, and scheduling work tasks with consideration for manpower, material availability, capacity constraints, and costs to deliver the appropriate quality and quantity at the required time, followed by the implementation and oversight of that schedule through robust execution mechanisms. This function acts as the logistical backbone of production, ensuring that manufacturing activities align with operational goals by coordinating resources in real-time.^[5] The primary objectives of production control include optimizing resource utilization to maximize efficiency, minimizing waste through precise workflow management, guaranteeing on-time delivery to meet customer demands, and sustaining overall production performance amid variability. These goals support the delivery of products in the right quantity, at the right location, and within specified timeframes, while balancing flexibility and controlling logistical expenses. By focusing on these aims, production control contributes to enhanced value delivery in manufacturing environments, as evidenced by its role in aligning production with market forecasts, available capacities, and supplier inputs.^[5]^[6] In terms of scope, production control is confined to tactical and operational execution within manufacturing settings, involving short- to medium-term decisions on job sequencing, resource allocation, and schedule adjustments, distinct from long-term strategic planning such as facility design or capacity expansion, as well as post-production activities like distribution. It operates at the tactical level to bridge higher-level strategies with day-to-day operations, emphasizing real-time responses to disruptions like equipment failures or supply delays. Key concepts include feedback loops, where production progress is continuously measured against planned benchmarks, deviations are analyzed, and corrective interventions—such as rescheduling or resource reallocation—are applied to maintain system stability. Additionally, production control integrates closely with inventory management by ensuring material availability through work-in-progress buffers and stock coordination, thereby supporting responsive production without excess stockpiling.^[7]^[5]

Historical Development

The emergence of production control can be traced to the late 18th and 19th centuries during the Industrial Revolution, when mechanization and the rise of factory systems necessitated systematic oversight of manufacturing processes to manage increasing scale and complexity. As handcraft production shifted to machine-based operations in textile mills and ironworks, particularly in Britain and later the United States, early forms of coordination emerged to regulate workflows, inventory, and labor in centralized facilities.^[8] A pivotal milestone came in 1798 with Eli Whitney's introduction of interchangeable parts in musket manufacturing, which enabled mass production by standardizing components and simplifying assembly, thereby requiring rudimentary planning and quality oversight to ensure uniformity across batches. In the early 20th century, Frederick Winslow Taylor's scientific management principles, outlined in his 1911 book The Principles of Scientific Management, revolutionized production control by advocating time studies, task optimization, and worker efficiency to eliminate waste and standardize operations in factories. Concurrently, Henry L. Gantt developed his eponymous charts in the 1910s as visual tools for scheduling tasks and tracking progress in job shops, enhancing the ability to coordinate production sequences and resources. Building on these, Henry Ford implemented the moving assembly line in 1913 at his Highland Park plant, which dramatically improved production flow, reduced assembly time for vehicles from 12 hours to about 90 minutes, and emphasized continuous sequencing and just-in-time coordination of parts.^[9]^[10]^[11]^[12] During and after World War II, operations research (OR) techniques, initially applied to wartime logistics and resource allocation, were adapted for postwar industrial production control, using mathematical modeling to optimize supply chains and manufacturing flows amid booming demand. In the 1920s, Walter A. Shewhart at Bell Telephone Laboratories pioneered statistical quality control with the first control charts in 1924, providing a data-driven method to monitor process variations and prevent defects, which became integral to ongoing production oversight. The mid-20th century saw the advent of computer-aided systems in the 1950s and 1960s, with numerical control (NC) machines automating tool paths and early material requirements planning (MRP) software, developed by Joseph Orlicky in 1964, enabling automated inventory and scheduling calculations to support complex assembly lines.^[13]^[14]^[15]^[16] In the 1970s, the Toyota Production System (TPS), refined by Taiichi Ohno and Eiji Toyoda from the late 1940s through the 1970s, introduced just-in-time (JIT) production to minimize inventory and respond flexibly to demand, influencing global shifts toward lean methodologies. Post-1980s, integration of digital tools such as enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems further evolved production control by linking real-time data across planning, execution, and monitoring, building on earlier computational foundations.^[17]^[18]^[19] These historical advancements laid the basis for modern push and pull systems by emphasizing efficiency, adaptability, and data integration in manufacturing.

Core Functions

Production Planning

Production planning serves as the foundational preparatory phase within production control, encompassing long-term and medium-term activities to determine overall production quantities, timelines, and resource requirements based on anticipated demand. This process ensures that manufacturing operations align with business objectives by establishing feasible output levels while considering constraints such as available facilities and supply chain capabilities. Unlike short-term operational adjustments, production planning focuses on aggregate decision-making to optimize efficiency and minimize disruptions over extended horizons, typically ranging from months to years.^[20]^[21] The key steps in production planning begin with demand forecasting, which employs quantitative techniques such as moving averages—to smooth historical data by averaging recent periods—and exponential smoothing, which weights recent observations more heavily. These methods help estimate future customer needs, providing a reliable basis for production targets; for instance, simple exponential smoothing is particularly effective for stable demand patterns without strong trends or seasonality, while advanced variants like Holt-Winters can incorporate trends and seasonal effects for more complex patterns.^[22]^[23]^[24]^[25]^[26] Following forecasting, capacity planning evaluates the availability of machinery, labor, and facilities to match the forecasted demand, identifying potential bottlenecks and determining whether expansions or reallocations are necessary to achieve targeted output rates. Finally, the master production schedule (MPS) integrates these inputs to outline the total quantities of finished goods to produce across specific time periods, balancing inventory levels with delivery commitments.^[22]^[25]^[26] Essential tools in production planning include the bill of materials (BOM), which provides a hierarchical breakdown of all components, subassemblies, and raw materials required for each product, enabling accurate cost estimation and procurement planning. Complementing the BOM are routing sheets, which detail the sequence of operations, workstations, and processing times needed to transform inputs into outputs, ensuring that production flows logically through the facility. These tools facilitate the decomposition of complex products into manageable elements, supporting the translation of high-level plans into actionable resource allocations.^[27]^[28] By establishing these baselines, production planning directly feeds into subsequent scheduling processes, offering a structured framework for detailed sequencing and resource assignment during execution. This integration allows for proactive adjustments in monitoring phases to address variances from planned outputs.^[29]

Production Scheduling

Production scheduling involves the detailed allocation of production tasks to specific time slots, machines, and workers, transforming the broader production plan into executable timetables that optimize resource utilization and workflow efficiency. This core process breaks down the master production schedule into feasible daily or weekly sequences, considering task dependencies and capacities to ensure timely completion while minimizing disruptions. Key methods include forward scheduling, which begins from the earliest possible start date and progresses forward based on resource availability, and backward scheduling, which starts from customer due dates and works backward to determine required start times, allowing adjustments for delays or priorities. These approaches help in creating realistic timetables that align with operational constraints, as outlined in standard production planning frameworks.^[30]^[31] Priority sequencing rules further refine the allocation by determining task order within these timetables; for instance, the shortest processing time (SPT) rule prioritizes jobs with the least estimated duration to minimize average flow time and reduce inventory buildup, proving effective in both deterministic and dynamic environments. Other rules, such as earliest due date (EDD), complement this by focusing on completion deadlines to limit tardiness. Visualization techniques like Gantt charts provide graphical representations of these schedules, displaying task timelines, machine assignments, and progress against planned durations to facilitate monitoring and adjustments. In project-based production, the critical path method (CPM) identifies the longest sequence of dependent tasks—known as the critical path—that determines the overall project duration, enabling targeted efforts to resolve bottlenecks without extending total time.^[32]^[33]^[34] Scheduling techniques vary by production environment: job shops, which handle diverse, low-volume orders with flexible routing across machines, require adaptive rules to manage variability and setup changes, often leading to longer lead times due to non-linear flows. In contrast, flow shops process standardized, high-volume items in a fixed sequence of operations, allowing for more predictable timetables but demanding tight coordination to avoid line stoppages. Critical factors influencing these schedules include setup times, which can be sequence-dependent and necessitate grouping similar tasks to reduce downtime; due dates, which drive backward planning to meet delivery commitments; and resource constraints, such as limited machine or labor availability, which must be balanced to prevent overloads and idle periods. By accounting for these, schedulers aim to minimize delays and enhance overall system responsiveness.^[33]^[35]^[30] Performance in production scheduling is evaluated through metrics that quantify efficiency and reliability, including schedule adherence rates, which measure the percentage of tasks completed on or before their planned times to assess plan fidelity, and throughput time, defined as the total duration from job release to completion, often targeted for reduction via rules like SPT to improve cycle efficiency. These indicators provide insights into operational effectiveness; for example, high adherence rates above 90% indicate robust planning, while lower throughput times correlate with faster customer response in competitive markets. Such metrics guide iterative improvements in scheduling practices without delving into real-time execution adjustments.^[30]^[33]

Dispatching and Execution

Dispatching and execution represent the operational phase of production control, where scheduled plans are translated into actionable instructions on the shop floor. Dispatching specifically involves the release of work orders to manufacturing personnel, authorizing the movement of materials, and initiating production operations to ensure timely commencement of tasks. This process serves as the bridge between planning and actual production, focusing on short-term decision-making with horizons spanning minutes to days, enabling immediate responses to shop floor conditions.^[36]^[37] Key activities in dispatching include issuing detailed dispatch lists that provide operators with specific instructions, such as sequence of operations, resource assignments, and expected start times, often updated frequently—every 5 to 10 minutes in medium-sized job shops with around 60 resources. Managing work-in-progress (WIP) is central, involving proactive measures to avoid bottlenecks through monitoring resource availability, handling preemptions, and addressing breakdowns that could disrupt flow. Expediting urgent orders is another critical activity, where dispatchers implement workarounds like using substitute materials or subcontracting to meet deadlines without compromising overall efficiency.^[36]^[36]^[36] Tools for dispatching and execution range from traditional dispatch boards, which offer visual overviews of job statuses and progress for quick shop floor reference, to modern digital work order systems integrated within Manufacturing Execution Systems (MES). These digital tools enable real-time tracking of start times, operator assignments, and material flows, providing data-driven visibility to prevent delays. In MES environments, dispatching functions direct work order execution through automated workflows, ensuring seamless integration with broader production systems.^[37]^[38]^[39] Control aspects emphasize structured authority delegation to supervisors and dispatchers, who are empowered to make on-the-spot adjustments, such as extending shifts or reallocating resources, while adhering to predefined guidelines. Initial quality checks during execution are integrated to assess potential risks, including process deviations or material defects, right at the start of operations to mitigate issues early. This delegation fosters accountability and responsiveness, with post-execution feedback loops briefly informing adjustments without altering the immediate dispatch focus.^[36]^[36]^[37]

Monitoring and Follow-up

Monitoring and follow-up in production control involves the systematic surveillance of ongoing operations to detect deviations from planned standards and implement timely adjustments. This phase ensures that production activities remain aligned with objectives by tracking key performance indicators (KPIs) such as cycle time, which measures the duration required to complete one production unit, and yield rates, defined as the percentage of acceptable units produced relative to total output. Real-time monitoring of output rates and machine utilization—typically calculated as the ratio of actual production time to available time—allows supervisors to identify inefficiencies, such as bottlenecks or idle periods, enabling proactive interventions to maintain throughput.^[40]^[41] Techniques for progress reporting include regular status updates through dashboards or reports that compare actual performance against scheduled targets, facilitating quick identification of variances in production metrics. When deviations occur, root cause analysis tools like the fishbone diagram (also known as the Ishikawa diagram) are employed to categorize potential causes—such as methods, materials, machinery, measurement, manpower, and environment—and systematically trace underlying issues, rather than addressing symptoms alone. Corrective actions may then involve rework to repair defective items or rescheduling production sequences to accommodate disruptions, ensuring minimal impact on overall timelines.^[42]^[43] Feedback mechanisms in this process operate through closed-loop control systems, where real-time data from execution phases is fed back to refine ongoing and future operations, creating a dynamic adjustment cycle that compares actual outputs to desired standards. This approach supports continuous improvement by iteratively reducing variances and enhancing process reliability. In the context of disruptions like equipment failures, monitoring and follow-up promote adaptability, allowing for rapid reconfiguration of resources to restore alignment with production goals. Emerging technologies, such as IoT sensors, can automate these feedback loops for more precise real-time surveillance.^[44]^[45]

Types of Production Control Systems

Push-Based Systems

Push-based systems in production control involve initiating manufacturing processes based on demand forecasts and schedules, rather than actual customer orders, thereby "pushing" materials and products through the production pipeline to build inventory in advance.^[46] These systems prioritize proactive planning to meet anticipated needs, often producing goods to stock for immediate availability upon demand realization.^[47] Key characteristics include centralized decision-making, where production schedules are derived from long-term forecasts, and the use of tools like Material Requirements Planning (MRP) to coordinate material flows and timing.^[48] To manage inventory effectively, these systems employ models such as the Economic Order Quantity (EOQ), which determines optimal batch sizes to balance ordering and holding costs, thereby buffering against supply and demand uncertainties through elevated stock levels.^[49] The EOQ approach, first formalized by Ford W. Harris in 1913, supports the push logic by minimizing total inventory expenses in stable environments.^[50] Advantages of push-based systems are particularly evident in settings with predictable demand, where they enable economies of scale, reducing per-unit production costs and facilitating efficient procurement and resource utilization.^[46] Pre-built inventory also shortens customer delivery lead times, enhancing responsiveness in high-volume scenarios.^[51] However, limitations arise from reliance on forecast accuracy; inaccuracies can lead to overproduction, excess inventory, increased holding costs, and risks of product obsolescence, especially in dynamic markets.^[47] Examples of push-based systems include mass production in the automotive industry during the Fordist era, such as Henry Ford's assembly lines in the 1910s–1920s, which forecasted demand for standardized vehicles and pushed components through sequential stages to stockpile finished cars.^[52] Similarly, pre-1980s consumer goods manufacturing, like candy and chocolate production, utilized push strategies to anticipate seasonal or steady demand, building stockpiles for distribution.^[47] In contrast to pull systems, push approaches emphasize forecast-driven initiation over demand-triggered execution.^[51]

Pull-Based Systems

Pull-based systems in production control initiate manufacturing activities solely in response to actual customer demand, using signals from downstream processes to trigger upstream production, thereby emphasizing smooth flow and just-in-time delivery to minimize excess inventory and overproduction.^[53] This approach contrasts with forecast-driven methods by ensuring that production quantities and timing align precisely with consumption, fostering a self-regulating system that reduces waste across the supply chain.^[54] Central to pull-based systems are principles derived from the Toyota Production System (TPS), developed by Taiichi Ohno, which integrate just-in-time (JIT) production with tools like takt time and single-minute exchange of die (SMED). Takt time, defined as the available production time divided by customer demand, sets the "heartbeat" of the system to synchronize output with sales pace, such as calculating 2 minutes per widget for a daily demand of 240 units in an 8-hour shift.^[55] SMED, pioneered by Shigeo Shingo, focuses on reducing equipment setup times to under 10 minutes by classifying and converting internal changeover steps (performed while machines are stopped) to external ones (done during operation), achieving average reductions of 94% in setup durations at Toyota.^[56] These principles enable continuous flow, eliminating delays and ensuring that production responds dynamically to real-time needs without building unnecessary stockpiles.^[53] Implementation typically involves visual signals, such as Kanban cards or electronic equivalents, which authorize production or material replenishment only when a downstream workstation signals depletion, creating closed-loop control circuits.^[54] Complementary layouts like cellular manufacturing arrange equipment in U-shaped cells to facilitate one-piece flow, where operators handle sequential tasks in a compact area, enhancing visibility and reducing transportation waste within the facility.^[55] Originating from Ohno's innovations at Toyota in the 1940s, these methods were refined to support JIT by limiting work-in-process inventory through supermarkets of pre-stocked parts that are replenished via Kanban signals.^[54] The primary benefits of pull-based systems include substantial reductions in inventory levels—often to minimal stocks—and shortened lead times, as production avoids batching and aligns directly with demand, lowering costs associated with holding and obsolescence.^[53] However, successful deployment demands reliable suppliers for timely part delivery and stable processes to prevent disruptions that could halt the flow-oriented chain.^[56]

Hybrid and Advanced Systems

Hybrid and advanced production control systems integrate elements of push and pull strategies to address the limitations of standalone approaches, particularly in environments with variable demand and resource constraints. The Theory of Constraints (TOC), introduced by Eliyahu M. Goldratt in 1984, identifies and manages bottlenecks to synchronize production flow, effectively balancing forward scheduling (push) with demand responsiveness (pull) by elevating, subordinating, and exploiting constraints.^[57] Similarly, Constant Work In Process (CONWIP), proposed by Mark Spearman, David Woodruff, and Wallace Hopp in 1990, limits total work-in-progress across a production line using a fixed number of authorization cards, releasing new jobs only when capacity frees up, thus hybridizing aggregate push planning with localized pull control. Advanced variants of these systems incorporate simulation modeling to test and optimize control parameters under dynamic conditions, enabling predictive adjustments to throughput and inventory levels. For instance, discrete-event simulation tools model CONWIP or TOC implementations to evaluate performance metrics like cycle time and utilization before deployment, reducing risks in complex setups.^[58] Key features of hybrid systems include mechanisms for buffering uncertainties and enabling agile responses to production variability. Demand-Driven Material Requirements Planning (DDMRP), developed by Carol Ptak and Chad Smith, enhances traditional MRP by strategically positioning buffers based on actual demand signals rather than forecasts, decoupling supply chain stages to mitigate volatility while maintaining push-based planning horizons. Agile adaptations, such as modular reconfiguration in response to order changes, further support variable production by allowing rapid shifts between product variants without full line resets.^[59] These systems find prominent applications in high-mix, low-volume manufacturing environments, where customization and frequent changeovers are common. In the electronics industry, hybrid controls like CONWIP optimize assembly lines for diverse components, minimizing inventory buildup while ensuring on-time delivery for products like circuit boards. In pharmaceuticals, DDMRP and TOC hybrids manage batch variability and regulatory compliance, buffering raw materials to handle uncertain clinical trial demands without excess stockpiling.^[60] A notable trend since the 1990s has been the evolution toward Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS), which embed hybrid control logics within computer-integrated setups to support multi-product runs and rapid reprogramming.^[61] This shift, driven by advances in CNC machinery and software, has enabled manufacturers to achieve economies of scope alongside scale, with FMS adoption growing in sectors requiring adaptability. Tech enablers like AI further refine these systems by forecasting constraint elevations in real time.^[59]

Technologies and Tools

Material Requirements Planning (MRP)

Material Requirements Planning (MRP), often referred to as MRP I, emerged as an inventory control system in the 1960s, pioneered by IBM engineer Joseph Orlicky who formalized its principles around 1964 based on studies of production systems like Toyota's.^[16] Orlicky's seminal 1975 book, Material Requirements Planning, established MRP as a method to manage dependent demand for components in manufacturing, contrasting with independent demand forecasting for finished goods.^[62] At its core, MRP integrates the bill of materials (BOM)—a hierarchical list of parts needed for assembly—the master production schedule (MPS) outlining planned output, and current inventory records to compute precise material needs, enabling efficient ordering and production timing.^[63] The system's calculations rely on dependent demand logic, where component requirements derive directly from end-item demands specified in the MPS, avoiding overstocking by linking subassembly needs to parent items.^[64] Lead time offsetting shifts gross requirements backward by each item's procurement or production lead time to determine order release dates, ensuring materials arrive just in time for use.^[64] For lot-sizing, MRP employs techniques to balance ordering costs and holding costs, such as the economic order quantity (EOQ) model, given by the formula:

\text{EOQ} = \sqrt{\frac{2DS}{H}}

where D is annual demand, S is setup or ordering cost per lot, and H is annual holding cost per unit; this minimizes total inventory costs for periodic requirements.^[65] The MRP process follows a structured flow: first, explosion breaks down the MPS and BOM to generate gross requirements for all levels of components across time periods.^[64] Next, netting subtracts on-hand inventory and scheduled receipts from gross requirements to yield net requirements, preventing unnecessary orders.^[64] Finally, lot-sizing determines order quantities (e.g., via EOQ or lot-for-lot), and offsetting schedules planned orders, producing purchase requisitions for bought items and work orders for manufactured ones.^[66] This iterative computation, typically run weekly in batch mode, supports production control by aligning material availability with schedules. Despite its effectiveness, MRP assumes stable demand forecasts, fixed lead times, and infinite capacity, limiting its performance in volatile environments where changes can propagate errors through the BOM explosion.^[67] To mitigate this, closed-loop MRP, developed in the late 1970s, incorporates feedback from capacity planning and shop floor execution, allowing plan revisions based on resource constraints and actual performance data.^[67] By the early 1980s, this enhancement had been adopted by thousands of firms, evolving MRP into more robust systems while retaining its material-focused foundation.^[67]

Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)

Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems represent an evolution of Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRP II), which emerged in the 1980s and 1990s as integrated software platforms designed to unify production control with other core business functions such as finance, human resources, and supply chain management. These systems expanded on earlier MRP frameworks by incorporating modular architectures that include shop floor control, enabling seamless data flow across departments to support decision-making in manufacturing environments. By the 1990s, ERP had become a standard for enterprises seeking to automate and synchronize operations beyond mere inventory tracking. Key features of ERP systems enhance production control through real-time data sharing, which allows for instantaneous updates on inventory, orders, and production status across the organization, reducing delays and errors in coordination. Finite capacity scheduling optimizes resource allocation by accounting for actual machine and labor availability, preventing overburdening and improving throughput in production lines. Additionally, built-in simulation tools enable what-if scenario analysis, where managers can model potential changes in demand or processes to forecast outcomes without disrupting live operations. Implementation of ERP systems typically involves customization to fit specific industries, such as discrete manufacturing or process industries, ensuring alignment with unique production workflows. Since the 2000s, cloud-based ERP solutions from providers like SAP and Oracle have gained prominence, offering scalability, remote access, and reduced upfront costs compared to on-premise deployments. These implementations often require phased rollouts, data migration, and user training to integrate legacy systems effectively. The impact of ERP on production control is profound, providing end-to-end visibility that streamlines supply chain synchronization and enhances responsiveness to market changes. However, successful adoption demands significant investment in software, hardware, and consulting, alongside robust change management to address employee resistance and process disruptions. Studies indicate that while ERP can yield up to 20% improvements in operational efficiency, failure rates hover around 50-75% as of 2025 due to inadequate planning.^[68]

Emerging Technologies

The Internet of Things (IoT) has become a cornerstone of emerging technologies in production control, enabling real-time data collection from sensors embedded in machinery, materials, and workflows to facilitate immediate decision-making and process adjustments.^[69] In manufacturing environments, IoT devices strategically placed throughout facilities capture performance metrics, environmental conditions, and equipment status, allowing for dynamic monitoring that enhances operational efficiency and reduces downtime through proactive interventions.^[70] For instance, IoT-enabled systems integrate sensor data streams to support exception diagnosis models, which analyze production performance anomalies in real time and trigger automated responses.^[69] Artificial intelligence (AI), particularly through machine learning algorithms, is transforming production control by enabling predictive maintenance and optimization of scheduling and resource allocation. AI models predict equipment failures by analyzing historical and real-time data patterns, thereby minimizing unplanned interruptions and extending asset life in industrial settings.^[71] In demand forecasting, machine learning techniques such as neural networks and hybrid models like ARIMAX process complex variables—including market trends and supply disruptions—to generate accurate predictions that inform production planning and inventory management.^[72] These AI-driven approaches have been shown to improve forecasting accuracy in supply chains, supporting sustainable manufacturing practices by optimizing resource use and reducing waste.^[73] Within the framework of Industry 4.0, cyber-physical systems (CPS) integrate computational algorithms with physical processes to create smart factories capable of autonomous operation and adaptive production control. CPS facilitate seamless communication between machines, sensors, and control software, enabling real-time synchronization of manufacturing operations and responsive adjustments to production demands.^[74] Complementing CPS, digital twins provide virtual replicas of production lines, allowing simulations of scenarios to test optimizations without disrupting physical operations. These virtual models leverage real-time data feeds to mirror actual performance, aiding in the refinement of control strategies for enhanced throughput and quality.^[75] For example, digital twins in smart manufacturing enable predictive simulations that identify bottlenecks in assembly processes, fostering efficiency gains of up to 15-25% in simulated throughput.^[76] Blockchain technology is emerging as a key application for enhancing supply chain traceability in production control, offering immutable records of material flows from sourcing to delivery. By decentralizing data across networked ledgers, blockchain ensures transparent tracking of components, reducing fraud risks and enabling rapid verification of compliance in global supply chains.^[77] In manufacturing, this traceability supports just-in-time inventory control by providing verifiable provenance data that informs dispatching decisions.^[78] Since the 2010s, robotics has advanced production dispatching through collaborative robots (cobots) and autonomous mobile robots (AMRs), which execute task assignments with minimal human oversight in flexible manufacturing systems. Cobots, introduced prominently in this period, integrate with scheduling algorithms to handle dynamic routing and sequencing, improving adaptability in high-mix environments.^[79] Recent developments in robot dispatching rules, powered by deep reinforcement learning, optimize AMR paths in warehouses and assembly lines, enhancing overall production flow.^[80] As of 2025, future trends in production control emphasize AI-driven adaptive control systems that automate decision-making in smart factories, significantly reducing the need for human intervention in routine monitoring and adjustments. These systems, often built on CPS and IoT foundations, enable self-optimizing production lines that respond to disruptions autonomously, with implementations showing operational cost reductions of up to 25% through minimized manual oversight.^[81] Such advancements enhance hybrid production systems by integrating predictive analytics for greater resilience.

Applications and Challenges

Benefits and Importance

Effective production control is strategically vital for manufacturing organizations, enabling lean operations that streamline processes and reduce costs through optimized inventory management. For instance, implementations in the aerospace and defense sector have achieved inventory reductions of 20-50%, freeing up significant working capital and enhancing competitiveness in volatile global markets.^[82] By coordinating departmental activities and creating contingency plans, production control fosters resilience against demand fluctuations and supply disruptions, ultimately supporting long-term strategic goals like market expansion and customer retention.^[83] Operationally, production control boosts on-time delivery rates, quality consistency, and resource utilization, directly impacting performance metrics. In manufacturing execution systems, it has led to improvements such as on-time delivery rising from 73% to 94% in some cases, alongside a 45% reduction in cycle times and 17% decrease in work-in-process inventory levels.^[84]^[85] A notable example from the aerospace industry involves lean production control applications that shortened lead times from 8 weeks to 5 weeks, doubled monthly production capacity to 800 units, and cut scrap and rework costs from £3,500 to £750 per week, demonstrating enhanced efficiency in high-precision environments.^[86] Economically, robust production control drives profitability by minimizing waste and enabling scalable operations without proportional increases in resources. It lowers overall production costs through better labor and equipment utilization, with surveyed benefits including a 32% reduction in production lead times and 15% fewer finished goods defects, contributing to higher margins and return on investment.^[84] These gains allow firms to allocate savings toward innovation and growth, reinforcing financial stability in competitive industries. In a broader context, production control supports sustainability objectives by integrating energy-efficient practices into manufacturing workflows. Event-based control strategies, for example, dynamically adjust machine operations to energy-saving modes, reducing consumption while preserving throughput and aiding goals like carbon emission cuts.^[87] Overall, such efficiencies can decrease industrial carbon emissions by up to 34% through optimized resource use, aligning production with environmental regulations and corporate responsibility mandates.^[88]

Common Challenges

Production control systems face numerous internal challenges that can undermine operational efficiency. Demand variability often leads to forecasting errors, making it difficult to align production schedules with actual needs and resulting in overstocking or shortages. For instance, fluctuations in customer orders can cause inaccuracies in predictive models, exacerbating inventory imbalances in manufacturing environments.^[89] Capacity constraints further complicate matters, as limited machinery or production lines struggle to handle peak loads, leading to bottlenecks that delay output.^[90] External factors introduce additional volatility to production control. Supply chain disruptions, particularly those intensified by global events like the COVID-19 pandemic since 2020, have caused widespread delays in raw material deliveries and logistics, forcing unplanned halts in manufacturing processes.^[91] These interruptions, often stemming from geopolitical tensions or natural disasters, can ripple through global networks, increasing lead times and unpredictability in production timelines. Technological integration hurdles arise when attempting to incorporate new digital tools into existing workflows, such as syncing IoT sensors with outdated machinery, which demands significant upfront investment and compatibility testing.^[92] Systemic problems within organizations also pose persistent obstacles. Data silos in legacy systems fragment information across departments, preventing a unified view of production status and leading to misinformed decision-making.^[93] Resistance to change is particularly evident when shifting to pull-based methods, where employees accustomed to traditional push systems view the demand-driven approach as disruptive to established routines, slowing adoption and implementation.^[94] Without addressing these challenges, production control can experience significant downtime increases of 15-25%, directly impacting overall equipment effectiveness and revenue.^[95]

Best Practices

Effective implementation of production control begins with ongoing staff training programs tailored to evolving manufacturing needs. Regular training ensures employees are proficient in system operations, safety protocols, and adaptive problem-solving, reducing errors and enhancing overall efficiency. For instance, structured programs that include hands-on simulations and competency assessments can improve workforce capability in complex production environments.^[96] Iterative process improvements are facilitated through the PDCA (Plan-Do-Check-Act) cycle, a foundational method for continuous enhancement in manufacturing. This cycle involves planning changes, implementing them on a small scale, checking results against objectives, and acting on findings to standardize successful adjustments. Adopted widely since its formalization by W. Edwards Deming, PDCA promotes systematic refinement of production workflows, leading to sustained gains in quality and throughput.^[97] Toyota continues to rely on PDCA as a core element of its problem-solving framework, integrating it into daily operations to foster a culture of Kaizen (continuous improvement).^[98] Integration of production control with quality management systems, such as Six Sigma, aligns operational efficiency with defect reduction targets. Six Sigma methodologies, employing DMAIC (Define-Measure-Analyze-Improve-Control) cycles, minimize process variation and waste, often resulting in 3.4 defects per million opportunities when fully implemented. Siemens has effectively incorporated Six Sigma into its manufacturing processes to enhance on-time delivery and resource utilization across global facilities.^[99] For pull-based systems, close supplier collaboration is essential, enabling just-in-time delivery and synchronized inventory levels. This approach involves long-term partnerships with shared forecasting and real-time communication to respond to demand fluctuations without excess stock. Toyota's production system exemplifies this through its supplier network, where trust-based relationships ensure resilient supply chains capable of withstanding disruptions.^[100] Performance measurement in production control benefits from balanced scorecards that incorporate key performance indicators (KPIs) across financial, customer, process, and learning perspectives. Developed by Robert Kaplan and David Norton, this framework translates strategic objectives into actionable metrics, providing a holistic view of operational health. A critical KPI within this structure is Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE), which quantifies availability, performance, and quality to identify productivity losses, with world-class benchmarks exceeding 85%.^[101]^[102] Case studies illustrate the value of customizing these practices to organizational contexts. Toyota's adoption of integrated PDCA, pull systems, and supplier collaboration has sustained its leadership in lean manufacturing, achieving near-perfect inventory turnover and minimal waste through tailored implementation across its global plants. Similarly, Siemens Energy has applied agile production control, enabling rapid adaptation to market demands in its factories via customized digital integration.^[103]

References

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This series includes positions involved in the supervision or performance of planning, estimating, scheduling, and expediting the use of labor, machines, ...
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Production control. Once the production process is under way, managers must continually schedule and monitor the activities that make up that process. They must ...
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[PDF] Fundamentals Of Production Planning And Control
Production planning and control involves the management of production processes to ensure that goods are produced efficiently, on time, and at the lowest cost.
[4]
What is a Manufacturing Production Controller? - Goodwin University
Production controllers plan and monitor work flow, as well as material movement in production cycles to ensure continuous operations.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
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[PDF] 1 Production Control – A Logistic Control Function - Wiley-VCH
According to an earlier definition of American Production and Inventory Control. Society (APICS), production control is defined as: [....] the task of ...
[6]
[PDF] Effective Production Planning and Control
Effective Production Planning and Control. (first plan your work, then work ... The objectives of Production Planning & Control are to plan & execute based on ...
[7]
Future-Proof Production Scheduling and Control - ScienceDirect.com
The tactical level focuses on medium-term planning, including aggregate production planning, material requirements planning (MRP), and workforce management, ...
[8]
Overview | U.S. History Primary Source Timeline | Library of Congress
Old industries expanded and many new ones, including petroleum refining, steel manufacturing, and electrical power, emerged. Railroads expanded significantly, ...
[9]
The Factory | The Eli Whitney Museum and Workshop
Whitney's goal was to create a system using unskilled labor and machines making the parts to increase production and do it at a reduced cost. Interchangeability ...
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The principles of scientific management : Taylor, Frederick Winslow ...
Oct 25, 2006 · The principles of scientific management ; Publication date: 1911 ; Topics: Industrial efficiency ; Publisher: New York, London, Harper & Brothers.
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[PDF] Henry L Gantt, 1861 - 1919 - Mosaic Projects
Dec 10, 2012 · 100 years before Gantt, his charts were sophisticated production control tools, not simple representations of activities over time ...
[12]
[PDF] Operations Research - RAND
Operations research is a very young discipline. It obtained its status and a name during World War II, when a remarkable assemblage of individuals ranging in ...
[13]
6.1.1. How did Statistical Quality Control Begin?
The first to apply the newly discovered statistical methods to the problem of quality control was Walter A. Shewhart of the Bell Telephone Laboratories. He ...
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The History of CAM—Past, Present and Future | Scan2CAD
Jan 28, 2024 · CAM's history spans from the 1940s, with early NC machines in the 1950s using punched paper, to modern CNC machines and G-code.
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Toyota Production System | Vision & Philosophy | Company
TPS has evolved through many years of trial and error to improve efficiency based on the Just-in-Time concept developed by Kiichiro Toyoda, the founder of ...Missing: 1970s | Show results with:1970s
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Toyota Production System - Lean Enterprise Institute
The concepts of just-in-time (JIT) and jidoka both have their roots in the prewar period. Sakichi Toyoda, founder of the Toyota group of companies, invented the ...
[17]
Joseph Orlicky: Hero of Material Requirements Planning | QAD Blog
May 17, 2018 · Orlicky was an engineer at IBM when he first constructed the principles of MRP in 1964. Interestingly, he studied the Toyota Production System (TPS) as part of ...
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(PDF) A Review on Production Planning and Control - ResearchGate
Jan 5, 2022 · Production planning and control (or PPC) is a maintenance strategy that aims at enhance the efficiency by allocating human resources, manufactured goods, and ...
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Designing and developing smart production planning and control ...
Jul 4, 2021 · Production planning and control (PPC) refers to the activities of loading, scheduling, sequencing, monitoring, and controlling the use of ...
[20]
Forecasting of customer demands for production planning by local - k
While simple forecasting methods, such as moving averages, simple exponential smoothing or linear regression methods are still often used in industrial ...
[21]
(PDF) Forecasting Using Simple Exponential Smoothing Method
Aug 6, 2025 · The simple exponential smoothing (SES) is a short-range forecasting method that assumes a reasonably stable mean in the data with no trend (consistent growth ...
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Capacity Planning: 10 Essential Steps for Manufacturers - MRPeasy
Rating 4.6 (215) Aug 12, 2025 · Capacity planning is the process of aligning your actual production capabilities with forecasted customer demand. It ensures you can meet ...
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Master Production Schedule (MPS) 2024 Guide & Examples
A master production schedule (MPS) is the overall plan to assess the production of your finished goods, detailing what you need to produce, how much you need ...
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Bill of Materials (BOM) – A Complete Guide with Examples - MRPeasy
Rating 4.6 (215) Aug 28, 2023 · A bill of materials (BOM) is a comprehensive list of all the materials, components, and subassemblies required to manufacture a product.What is a bill of materials (BOM)? · Types of bills of materials
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Production Module - BOM and Routing - Management Study Guide
Bill of Material (BOM) is a base functionality of setting up production module of an ERP system and Routing is another important base of production module, ...
[26]
Capacity Planning and Production Scheduling - Epicor
Oct 4, 2024 · It optimizes efficiency and job priority, reduces delays, and creates detailed schedules based on available resources, demand, and constraints— ...
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None
Below is a merged summary of the production scheduling concepts from the *Handbook of Production Scheduling*, consolidating all information from the provided segments into a comprehensive response. To retain maximum detail and ensure clarity, I will use a combination of narrative text and a table in CSV format for key concepts, factors, and metrics. This approach allows for a dense representation while maintaining readability and completeness.
[28]
A note on an iterative forward/backward scheduling technique with ...
Ulusoy, L. Özdamar. A constraint based perspective in resource constrained project scheduling. International Journal of Production Research, 32 (1994), pp ...
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None
Below is a merged summary of the sequencing rules, shortest processing time, scheduling methods, factors, and metrics in a production context, consolidating all information from the provided segments. To retain the maximum detail in a dense and structured format, I will use tables in CSV-like format where applicable, followed by narrative sections for additional context. The response avoids excessive thinking tokens by focusing on direct synthesis and organization of the provided data.
[30]
Production Scheduling Approaches for Operations Management
A Handbook of Metaheuristics, Springer, 2003; 33. Kirkpatrick S Gelatt C ... scheduling, International Journal of Production Research, 1994 32 8 1759 1773 ...Missing: core | Show results with:core
[31]
The ABCs of the Critical Path Method - Harvard Business Review
See A. Charnes and W.W. Cooper, “A Network Interpretation and a Directed Sub-Dual Algorithm for Critical Path Scheduling,” Journal of Industrial Engineering, ...
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review on job-shop and flow-shop scheduling using - ResearchGate
Aug 5, 2025 · REVIEW ON JOB-SHOP AND FLOW-SHOP SCHEDULING USING. April 2011; Journal ... Job shop scheduling and flow shop scheduling are two different ...
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(PDF) Planning, scheduling and dispatching tasks in production ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Dispatching a warrant that permits production-related actions. The design, scale, and raw materials used, as well as the goods created and how ...
[34]
Production Activity Control | SpringerLink
... work orders to the shop floor. In addition, it requires a local planning function and a dispatching ... Bertrand, J.W.M. and J.C. Wortmann, Production Control and ...
[35]
What is a Manufacturing Execution System | MES blog - Infor
Jul 24, 2023 · Dispatching production units: Directing the execution of work orders from your ERP through workflow, routing, and material handling. Resources ...
[36]
What is an manufacturing execution system (MES)? - SAP
A manufacturing execution system (MES) is a software application that helps businesses more efficiently manage their manufacturing operations.
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78 Essential Manufacturing Metrics and KPIs to Guide Your ...
Jul 17, 2025 · Monitoring key performance indicators lets manufacturers take data-driven actions that strengthen their operations.
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Manufacturing KPIs: 40 Key Production Metrics You Should Know
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What is a Fishbone Diagram? Ishikawa Cause & Effect Diagram | ASQ
### Summary of Fishbone Diagram for Root Cause Analysis in Manufacturing
[40]
Production rescheduling for machine breakdown at a job shop
Aug 6, 2025 · Rescheduling is a procedure to repair a production plan affected by unexpected disruptions. It is important because a production schedule ...
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Closed-Loop vs. Open-Loop Production Control: Examples and ...
Nov 14, 2021 · Closed Loop Production Control System is a manufacturing process control system and data collection methodology in which shop floor workers can send real-time ...
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Closed Loop Control - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Closed loop control, also known as feedback control, is defined as a system where the actual output is continuously compared with the desired output, ...
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Push and pull system applied to manufacturing logistics - Mecalux
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What Is a Push Production System? A push production system starts with the very beginning of the supply chain. In this system, a company pushes products ...
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[PDF] Push Systems (Traditional Manufacturing) - IS MUNI
Material Requirements Planning (MRP) is a time-based priority planning technique that calculates material requirements and schedules supply to meet changing ...
[46]
Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) | www.dau.edu
Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) is the quantity derived to determine the optimum total variable costs to order and hold inventory, used to calculate inventory ...
[47]
Origin of the Economic Order Quantity formula; transcription or ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Purpose The purpose of this paper is to speculate on how the Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) formula was developed.
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A hybrid push/pull system in assemble-to-order manufacturing ...
Aug 6, 2025 · There are three types of production system: push, pull, and hybrid push/pull [1] . A push production system is one that is based on a forecast.
[49]
[PDF] 3. The history of production systems in the automotive industry
Whereas in traditional Fordist push systems, one process supplies parts to the next, the kanban system at Toyota is based on a pull system in which ''the.
[50]
Toyota Production System | Vision & Philosophy | Company | Toyota Motor Corporation Official Global Website
### Summary of Toyota Production System Concepts
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Kanban System and pull control - definition and principle
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[52]
Takt Time - Lean Enterprise Institute
Takt time is the available production time divided by customer demand. The purpose is to precisely match production with demand.
[53]
SMED (Single-Minute Exchange of Die) | Lean Production
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History of the Theory of Constraints
The Theory of Constraints (TOC) is was introduced in 1984 by Dr. Eliyahu M. Goldratt in his bestselling business novel "The Goal," and spread rapidly ...
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Simulation-based benchmarking of production control schemes for ...
In this paper, benchmarking efforts for production control approaches applied to complex manufacturing systems are described. Complex manufacturing systems ...
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(PDF) Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS), A Review
Aug 9, 2025 · FMSs are recognized by the replacement of computer control set up of the hard mechanization generally found in exchange lines. The high venture ...
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A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is a manufacturing system that contains enough flexibility to allow the system to rapidly react to production changes.
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Orlicky's Material Requirements Planning - Google Books
An update of Orlicky's seminal work on the principles and precepts of MRP, originally published by McGraw-Hill in 1975. Building on Orlicky's work, ...
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Feb 2, 2024 · MRP is a system for calculating the materials and components needed to manufacture a product. It consists of three primary steps.
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Materials Requirements Planning (MRP)
There are three distinct steps in preparing an MRP schedule: exploding; netting; offsetting. Exploding. Explosion uses the Bill of Materials (BOM). This lists ...Missing: lot EOQ
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Materials requirements planning (MRP)
Choosing a lot size rule therefore comes down to balancing the number of orders against the cost of holding inventory, just as we considered in deriving the EOQ ...
[63]
Material Requirements Planning (MRP): Optimize Inventory
Netting Out Inventory: Comparing the gross requirements with available inventory to calculate the net requirements. Lot Sizing: Determining the appropriate ...
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In this research, hybrid demand forecasting methods grounded on machine learning ie ARIMAX and Neural Network is developed.<|separator|>
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[PDF] Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning for Sustainable ...
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An integrated outlook of Cyber–Physical Systems for Industry 4.0
Industry 4.0, called smart manufacturing, integrates physical production and operations with intelligent digital technologies, such as big data and ML, to build ...
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Transform manufacturing operations with Simio's digital twin technology. Validate improvements before implementation & achieve 15-25% increased throughput.
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Using blockchain can improve both supply chain transparency and traceability as well as reduce administrative costs.
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Deep Reinforcement Learning for Selection of Dispatch Rules for ...
An integrated scheduling method was developed, incorporating dispatching strategies and the conflict-free routing of autonomous mobile robots (AMRs) in flexible ...
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Mar 29, 2022 · A recent BCG study found that closing this “automation gap” can yield labor and quality improvements that reduce conversion costs by up to 25%.Technological Advances Offer... · Overcoming The Barriers · A Four-Step Approach To...<|separator|>
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Oct 30, 2017 · Where A&D companies have achieved inventory reductions of 20, 30, or even 50 percent, what were the indicators of significant opportunity?
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(PDF) The Role of Production Planning in Enhancing an Efficient ...
Production planning also helps in making available high quality of goods and services in the right quantities to the customer at the demanded delivery timing to ...
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[PDF] The evolution of manufacturing planning and control systems
A survey conducted by MESA and reported by Modern Materials Handling identifies the major benefits of MES: (1) 45% average reduction in manufacturing cycle ...
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Top On Time Delivery Performance Metrics Every Manufacturer ...
By adopting PFM's single priority system and focusing on maximizing throughput, Gasbarre significantly improved their OTD from 73% to 94%. PFM's ability to ...
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[PDF] Applying lean in Aerospace Manufacturing for Waste Reduction
Crute et al. (2003) performed a case study to implement lean in the aerospace manufacturing industry. They implemented lean in two sides (Side A and B) ...<|separator|>
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Energy Efficiency Reduces Industrial Carbon Emissions
Increased energy efficiency can reduce industrial carbon emissions by up to 34% in many sectors. Realizing these savings requires deeper efficiency and energy ...Missing: control | Show results with:control
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demand variability and forecast error as well as constraints on production, inventory levels, and shipping capacity. The primary objective of this work is ...<|separator|>
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Data Silos: Why They're Bad for Your Manufacturing Business
Data silos create barriers for collaboration and communication, forcing people and data to stay within their team, unit, or division. You and your people only ...
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Learn how to design effective manufacturing training programs in 6 steps to boost skills, engagement, and productivity.
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Case study: The secrets of Siemens Energy's agile manufacturing ...
A Kimberly-Clark Professional-produced case study lifts the lid on the approach and methods that are driving agile manufacturing standards at Siemens Energy.