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Quasi-solid

A quasi-solid is a material or state of matter that lies between a fully solid and a liquid, exhibiting a combination of solid-like rigidity and liquid-like flow properties, often manifesting as viscous or paste-like behavior under specific conditions.^[1] In contexts such as concrete hydration, the quasi-solid state represents the transitional consistency of the mixture after initial setting but before full hardening, where it retains viscous characteristics while developing structural integrity.^[2] Quasi-solids are characterized by viscoelastic properties, where they can deform elastically like solids under low stress but flow viscously like liquids under higher shear, making them distinct from purely amorphous solids due to their partial fluidity.^[1] This dual nature arises from microstructural arrangements, such as entangled polymer networks or partially hydrated particles, which allow for behaviors like protrusion exfoliation in airflow or wave dispersion during curing.^[2] Notable applications of quasi-solids span multiple fields, including energy storage where quasi-solid ionic conductors—such as hydrogels and ionic elastomers—provide biocompatibility, mechanical flexibility, and high ionic conductivity for devices like skin-like sensors and flexible batteries.^[3] In construction materials, they enable monitoring of early-age hydration processes through nondestructive techniques like ultrasonic wave analysis to assess microstructural evolution.^[2] Additionally, in fluid dynamics and processing, quasi-solid pastes are utilized in industrial extrusion and breakup mechanisms, leveraging their hybrid properties for controlled fragmentation in high-velocity flows.^[1]

Definition and Terminology

Core Definition

A quasi-solid is a substance that exhibits intermediate characteristics between solids and liquids, demonstrating some rigidity and shape retention akin to solids while also possessing flowability under applied stress similar to liquids.^[4] Quasi-solids maintain structural integrity under normal conditions but deform or flow when subjected to external forces, often owing to a three-dimensional network of particles or polymers dispersed within a liquid medium.^[4]^[5] The related term "semi-solid" originated in materials science and physics during the 1970s, emerging from research on semi-solid metal processing by Merton C. Flemings at MIT, and serves as a descriptor for materials displaying non-Newtonian behaviors where viscosity depends on shear rate or time. "Quasi-solid" is used interchangeably in some contexts but has gained prominence in modern applications, such as quasi-solid-state electrolytes.^[6]^[4] Within the continuum of matter states, quasi-solids occupy a position between crystalline solids and true liquids, often manifesting viscoelastic behavior that blends elastic recovery with viscous flow.^[4]

Historical and Terminological Variations

The concept of quasi-solids, as materials exhibiting intermediate properties between true solids and liquids, traces its conceptual origins to early 20th-century advancements in rheology and colloid science. Eugene C. Bingham's seminal 1916 investigation into plastic flow introduced models for non-Newtonian fluids that behave rigidly below a yield stress but flow above it, laying groundwork for later descriptors of quasi-solid states in materials science. This work, formalized in Bingham's 1922 book Fluidity and Plasticity, emphasized transitional behaviors in complex fluids, influencing terminology for substances like gels and pastes. Synonyms for quasi-solid, such as "semi-solid," emerged earlier in pharmaceutical and chemical contexts during the 19th century, where they described viscous preparations like ointments and creams that maintained form yet yielded under stress.^[7] Terms like "false-solid" and "partial-solid" are less standardized synonyms used to highlight the deceptive solidity of these materials, often in discussions of trapped liquids within structured networks. Notable early references to such intermediate states also arose in colloid discussions around the 1920s, as researchers like Herbert Freundlich explored gelation and phase behaviors in dispersed systems at institutions like the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute. The evolution of terminology shifted from descriptive chemical terms in the early 20th century to more precise physical classifications post-1950s, driven by rheological advances including viscoelastic models and instrumentation like rotational viscometers.^[8] This period saw "quasi-solid" gain traction in physics-oriented texts to denote states with solid-like elasticity and liquid-like flow, contrasting with earlier ad hoc labels, and it continues to be used in contemporary fields like energy storage for quasi-solid electrolytes in batteries.^[9]^[10] Field-specific variations persist: in engineering, "viscoplastic materials" predominates, echoing Bingham's yield-stress framework for applications like slurries and pastes, while biology favors "gel-like states" for describing cytoskeletal networks and extracellular matrices that exhibit time-dependent deformation.^[11]

Physical and Chemical Properties

Mechanical and Structural Properties

Quasi-solids are characterized by microstructural features consisting of interconnected networks of solid particles, polymers, or fibers dispersed within a continuous liquid phase, which provide partial rigidity and enable solid-like behavior under low stress conditions. These networks form through attractive interactions such as van der Waals forces, electrostatic repulsion, or capillary bridges, creating a percolating structure that spans the material and resists small deformations.^[12] The microstructure's integrity is crucial for maintaining structural stability, with the liquid phase filling voids and allowing limited mobility without compromising the overall framework.^[13] In terms of mechanical responses, quasi-solids display a distinct yield stress, representing the minimum shear stress required to initiate flow and disrupt the network. Below this threshold, the material exhibits an elasticity modulus that quantifies its solid-like stiffness, often arising from reversible deformations within the interconnected structure. Under higher loads exceeding the yield stress, quasi-solids undergo plastic deformation, where irreversible rearrangements of the network elements lead to permanent changes in shape or flow.^[12] These properties highlight the transition from elastic to viscoplastic behavior, governed by the strength and density of interparticle contacts.^[14] The Bingham plastic model provides a foundational description of quasi-solids' rheological response, expressed as

\tau = \tau_0 + \eta \dot{\gamma}

where \tau denotes the shear stress, \tau_0 is the yield stress (the critical value below which no flow occurs), \eta is the plastic viscosity (characterizing flow resistance post-yield), and \dot{\gamma} is the shear rate. This equation illustrates the material's rigid, solid-like state for \tau < \tau_0, transitioning to viscous flow above it, and is widely applied to suspensions and gels exhibiting these traits.^[15] Quasi-solids demonstrate compressibility influenced by their network architecture, generally showing resistance to volume changes at rest due to the solid phase's dominance, though higher compressibility can occur in loosely packed structures. They retain shape effectively below the yield stress, supported by the self-sustaining microstructure, but exhibit thixotropy—a time-dependent viscosity reduction under sustained shear due to temporary network breakdown, followed by recovery upon stress removal.^[16] Regarding density and phase composition, higher solid fractions enhance solidity through denser network formation, while the liquid phase ensures cohesion without full solidification.^[17]

Thermal and Rheological Properties

Quasi-solids are classified rheologically as non-Newtonian fluids, exhibiting behaviors such as pseudoplastic flow, where viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate (shear-thinning), or occasionally dilatant flow, where viscosity increases under high shear. This non-Newtonian character arises from their intermediate structure between liquids and solids, allowing flow under stress while maintaining shape at rest. For instance, in printable quasi-solid-state electrolytes, shear-thinning enables extrusion during processing while high static viscosity preserves printed structures post-deformation.^[18] The power-law model commonly describes the shear-thinning viscosity of quasi-solids, given by

\eta = K \dot{\gamma}^{n-1}

where \eta is the apparent viscosity, \dot{\gamma} is the shear rate, K is the consistency index (reflecting fluid thickness), and n is the flow behavior index (with n < 1 indicating shear-thinning). This model is derived by plotting experimental data of shear stress \tau versus shear rate \dot{\gamma} on a log-log scale, fitting a straight line to obtain \tau = K \dot{\gamma}^n, and then computing viscosity as \eta = \tau / \dot{\gamma}. The parameters K and n are determined via least-squares regression on rheological measurements from instruments like rotational viscometers, capturing the fluid's response across shear rates.^[19] Thixotropy, a time-dependent shear-thinning phenomenon prevalent in quasi-solids, involves the breakdown of internal particle or molecular networks under sustained shear, reducing viscosity, followed by reformation upon shear cessation, restoring higher viscosity. This mechanism stems from the disruption of weak bonds or agglomerates in colloidal or polymer networks, such as in attractive suspensions where interparticle attractions yield to flow-induced forces, leading to microstructural evolution. Rheopexy, the inverse process of shear-thickening over time, is less common but can occur in formulations with reinforcing networks under prolonged low shear.^[20]^[21] Polymer-based quasi-solids display thermal properties akin to liquids and amorphous materials, including low thermal conductivity, which limits heat transfer similar to viscous fluids. Glass transition temperatures (Tg) for these materials range from approximately -50°C to 100°C, depending on polymer composition and additives; for example, polyurethane-PEG semi-interpenetrating networks exhibit Tg values around -55°C to -72°C, shifting higher with increased salt content due to reduced chain mobility. Thermal expansion coefficients are relatively high, on the order of 100–200 × 10^{-6} K^{-1}, reflecting the flexible polymeric chains that expand more than crystalline solids under heating.^[22]^[23] Quasi-solids demonstrate stability under environmental changes, resisting phase separation at elevated temperatures up to 150°C in many formulations, owing to their networked structures that maintain homogeneity. Thermal degradation onsets often exceed 190°C, with multi-stage decompositions ensuring integrity during moderate heating cycles.^[22]

Chemical Properties

Quasi-solids often exhibit good chemical stability owing to their networked or cross-linked structures, which resist degradation and phase separation in various chemical environments. In applications such as polymer electrolytes, they demonstrate compatibility with electrode materials, low reactivity, and resistance to side reactions, enhancing device longevity.^[24]

Examples

Everyday and Consumer Examples

Toothpaste exemplifies a quasi-solid in daily oral care routines, featuring a composition of abrasives like hydrated silica or calcium carbonate suspended in a gel base formed by humectants such as glycerin and sorbitol, along with thickening agents like carboxymethyl cellulose. This formulation enables the paste to maintain structural integrity inside the tube under low stress but to dispense and spread smoothly under the mechanical force of brushing, characteristic of its non-Newtonian, shear-thinning properties.^[25] Peanut butter and jams represent quasi-solids in food spreads, with peanut butter comprising approximately 90% ground peanuts—providing 50-80% solid content from protein and carbohydrate particles suspended in peanut oil—stabilized by emulsifiers to achieve a creamy or chunky texture. This high solids suspension yields a material that resists flow at rest for easy storage on shelves but spreads readily on bread when sheared, behaving as a Bingham plastic. Jams similarly feature fruit pieces and pectin at 50-80% solid content in a sugar syrup matrix, forming a gel-like consistency that holds shape in jars yet flows under knife pressure for application.^[26]^[27] In cosmetics, lip balms and hand creams serve as quasi-solids for skin protection, with lip balms structured as wax-emulsion blends—typically 20-30% waxes like beeswax or carnauba combined with emollient oils such as lanolin or petrolatum—creating a semi-rigid stick that applies smoothly upon rubbing without dripping. Hand creams, meanwhile, employ oil-in-water emulsions thickened with polymers or stearates to form a semi-solid lotion that retains form in containers but glides over skin under pressure, delivering moisture without run-off.^[28]^[29] Food items like yogurt and pudding illustrate quasi-solids through colloidal networks, where yogurt derives its gel-like texture from a protein matrix of casein micelles aggregated during fermentation, trapping water and fat globules to form a semi-solid that spoons easily yet flows slightly when stirred. Pudding achieves a similar structure via starch gelatinization and protein interactions, creating a viscoelastic network of swollen starch granules and milk proteins that supports the product's shape in cups while yielding under eating utensils.^[30]^[31] Household products such as shampoos and lotions function as quasi-solids in personal hygiene, with gel-form shampoos relying on surfactant systems like sodium lauryl sulfate combined with thickeners to produce a viscous, surfactant-based gel that stands upright in bottles but flows and foams under hand pressure during use. Lotions mirror this as surfactant-stabilized emulsions with rheology modifiers, maintaining a semi-solid consistency for pump dispensing while spreading fluidly on skin. These materials' ability to flow under applied stress aligns with broader rheological behaviors of quasi-solids.^[32]^[33]

Scientific and Industrial Examples

In pharmaceutical research, hydrogels serve as quasi-solid matrices for controlled drug delivery systems, featuring cross-linked polymer networks that enable sustained release of therapeutic agents. Alginate-based hydrogels, derived from natural polysaccharides, exemplify this through ionic cross-linking with divalent cations like calcium, forming biocompatible gels that encapsulate drugs such as proteins or antibiotics for targeted delivery in wound healing or tissue engineering applications.^[34]^[35] Lubricating greases represent a key industrial quasi-solid, consisting of soap-thickened base oils that provide semi-solid consistency for machinery components like bearings and gears. These greases are classified by the National Lubricating Grease Institute (NLGI) into grades 1 through 6, where lower numbers indicate softer consistencies suitable for high-speed applications and higher grades offer firmer structures for heavy-load environments, ensuring reduced friction and wear in automotive and manufacturing settings.^[36]^[37] Quasi-solid electrolytes, such as polymer-salt composites, are employed in advanced battery technologies to enhance safety and performance over liquid counterparts. Poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO)-based electrolytes incorporating lithium salts like LiTFSI form gel-like networks that achieve ionic conductivities around 10^{-3} S/cm at ambient temperatures, facilitating ion transport in lithium-metal batteries while mitigating leakage risks.^[38]^[39] In the coatings industry, paints and inks utilize thixotropic pigment suspensions as quasi-solids that maintain stability during storage but flow easily under shear for application. These formulations, often thickened with associative polymers, exhibit non-drip behavior on vertical surfaces post-application, allowing precise deposition in automotive paints or screen-printing inks without excessive runoff.^[40]^[41] Dynamite illustrates a historical quasi-solid explosive, where liquid nitroglycerin is absorbed into diatomaceous earth to create a stable, handleable paste that detonates reliably under controlled initiation. This absorption into the porous silica structure desensitizes the nitroglycerin to shocks, enabling safer transport and use in mining and construction blasting operations since its invention in 1867.^[42]^[43]

Applications and Uses

In Personal Care and Cosmetics

Quasi-solids, commonly known as semi-solids in formulation science, are integral to personal care and cosmetic product design, where they enable controlled release of active ingredients while ensuring easy and uniform application to the skin. Their intermediate viscosity between liquids and solids facilitates targeted delivery in topical products, such as ointments that promote gradual skin absorption for moisturizing or therapeutic effects, enhancing user compliance through smooth spreadability.^[44]^[45]^[46] A prominent example is petroleum jelly, a 100% quasi-solid occlusive formulation derived from refined hydrocarbons, widely used in moisturizers to create a protective barrier that prevents transepidermal water loss and hydrates dry skin. This emulsion-based semi-solid maintains its consistency without phase separation, providing long-lasting emollience in lip balms, hand creams, and body lotions.^[47]^[48]^[49] These formulations offer key benefits, including superior stability that resists emulsion separation during storage and use, which is achieved through viscosity modifiers like polymers that preserve structural integrity. In hair styling gels, the non-drip, thixotropic properties allow for precise application and hold without runoff, improving usability in daily grooming routines. Additionally, in wound dressings, the biocompatibility of quasi-solid hydrogels minimizes irritation and supports natural healing by maintaining a moist environment conducive to tissue repair.^[44]^[50]^[51] From a regulatory standpoint, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) classifies quasi-solids as nonsterile semisolid dosage forms for topical drugs and cosmetics, encompassing creams, gels, and ointments that require comprehensive stability testing to ensure consistent performance, including assessments of viscosity, pH, and microbial limits over shelf life. This framework, outlined in FDA guidances, mandates scale-up and post-approval change protocols to maintain product quality and safety in consumer applications.^[52]^[53] Recent innovations emphasize natural quasi-solids, such as beeswax and shea butter, in eco-friendly cosmetics to replace synthetic alternatives, offering biodegradable occlusive barriers that hydrate skin while aligning with sustainable formulation trends. Beeswax, for example, thickens emulsions and provides antimicrobial protection in balms, while shea butter delivers fatty acid-rich nourishment in solid butters for sensitive skin, both enhancing product appeal in clean beauty markets without compromising efficacy.^[54]^[55]^[56]

In Energy Storage and Advanced Materials

Quasi-solid-state electrolytes (QSSEs) have emerged as a promising alternative to traditional liquid electrolytes in lithium-ion batteries, primarily due to their enhanced safety profile achieved by minimizing leakage risks associated with volatile solvents. Unlike fully liquid systems, QSSEs incorporate a gel-like matrix that retains ions while preventing fluid escape, thereby reducing the potential for fires or explosions during operation or damage.^[57] These electrolytes can achieve ionic conductivities as high as 10^{-2} S/cm at room temperature, approaching the performance of liquid counterparts while maintaining structural integrity.^[58] This combination of high conductivity and reduced flammability has been demonstrated in various battery prototypes, enabling safer energy storage for electric vehicles and portable electronics.^[59] Beyond safety, QSSEs offer key advantages in battery performance, including improved interfacial stability between the electrolyte and electrodes, which minimizes degradation over cycles. In alkali metal batteries, such as lithium-metal configurations, these electrolytes effectively suppress dendrite formation through their mechanical robustness, preventing short circuits that plague liquid systems.^[59] Additionally, the inherent flexibility of QSSEs supports their integration into wearable devices, where bending and stretching are common, without compromising ion transport or structural cohesion. Their rheological stability further aids in maintaining consistent performance under mechanical stress, as explored in related property analyses.^[60]^[61] Significant developments in QSSEs since the 2010s have centered on polymer-based formulations, such as those using poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene) (PVDF-HFP) blended with liquid plasticizers like ethylene carbonate or ionic liquids. These materials combine the mechanical strength of solids—providing shape retention and dendrite resistance—with the efficient ion mobility of liquids, facilitating rapid lithium-ion diffusion.^[62] Early innovations in the mid-2010s focused on phase-inversion techniques to create porous PVDF-HFP membranes that absorb plasticizers, yielding quasi-solid gels with enhanced electrochemical windows and cycling stability.^[63] By the 2020s, refinements in nanofiller incorporation, such as silane-modified lithium aluminum titanium phosphate, have further boosted conductivity and compatibility with high-voltage cathodes.^[64] In supercapacitors, quasi-solid composites enhance energy density by enabling stable, high-capacitance electrode-electrolyte interfaces without solvent evaporation issues. For instance, gel polymer electrolytes paired with transition metal dichalcogenide electrodes, like MoS_2@FeS_2 heterostructures, have achieved energy densities exceeding 30 Wh/kg while retaining power output over thousands of cycles.^[65] Despite these advances, scalability remains a primary challenge for QSSEs, particularly in achieving uniform large-area fabrication without defects that could compromise conductivity or safety. Manufacturing inconsistencies, such as uneven plasticizer distribution in polymer gels, hinder commercial viability for mass production.^[66] As of 2025, ongoing research emphasizes hybrid organic-inorganic QSSEs, integrating ceramic fillers like LLZO into polymer hosts to boost mechanical strength and ionic pathways while addressing interfacial incompatibilities. These hybrids show promise in pilot-scale prototypes, with efforts focused on cost-effective synthesis and electrode integration to enable widespread adoption in next-generation energy systems.^[67]

In Construction and Fluid Dynamics

In construction materials, quasi-solids play a role in monitoring early-age hydration processes in concrete mixtures. During the transitional quasi-solid state after initial setting but before full hardening, the material exhibits viscous characteristics while developing structural integrity. Nondestructive techniques, such as ultrasonic wave analysis, are used to assess microstructural evolution and ensure quality control in curing processes.^[2] In fluid dynamics and industrial processing, quasi-solid pastes leverage their hybrid properties for applications like extrusion and breakup mechanisms. For example, in high-velocity airflow, these materials undergo controlled fragmentation through processes like protrusion exfoliation, enabling precise handling in manufacturing operations such as 3D printing or coating applications.^[1]

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Feb 17, 2020 · In this study, we developed quasi-solid-state electrolytes with the order of 10−2 S cm−1 in ionic conductivity in order to improve rate ...
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Quasi-solid-state electrolytes - strategy towards stabilising Li
The term interfacial is defined as a combination of several physical and chemical processes that occur at the Li/electrolyte interface during cycling, which ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[62]
Quasi-solid electrolytes with tailored lithium solvation for fast ...
Quasi-solid electrolytes (QSEs) can be used to reduce interfacial resistance. In a QSE, the presence of solvents improves bulk ionic conductivity and ...
[63]
Quasi-Solid Gel Electrolytes for Alkali Metal Battery Applications - NIH
Mar 19, 2025 · QSGEs offer a unique combination of benefits, including enhanced safety, improved thermal and chemical stability, and a reduced environmental ...
[64]
Optimization of porous polymer electrolyte for quasi-solid-state ...
In the present study, we report the porous polymer electrolytes based on PVdF-HFP porous films, prepared by phase-inversion technique using two different ...Missing: 2010s | Show results with:2010s
[65]
PVDF‐HFP Based, Quasi‐Solid Nanocomposite Electrolytes for ...
Feb 26, 2024 · Composite polymer electrolytes are systems of choice for future solid-state lithium metal batteries (LMBs).
[66]
Amine-Functionalized Silane-Modified LATP Nanofillers in PVDF-HFP
Aug 14, 2025 · Quasi-solid-state electrolytes (QSSE) are a combination of solid-state electrolytes along with a small amount of ionic/liquid electrolyte ...
[67]
High-Energy-Density Quasi-Solid-State Supercapacitor with a MoS2 ...
In this work, we developed a core–shell heterostructure of MoS 2 @FeS 2 via a two-step hydrothermal and solvothermal method and explored its electrochemical ...
[68]
[PDF] LaRC Shape Memory Polymer Composite for Aerospace Applications
LaRC Shape Memory Polymer Composite (SMPC) is a smart material that returns to its original shape, used in aerospace for adaptive airfoils, and is lightweight ...
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Advance in Shape Memory Polymers for Aerospace Applications
Dec 24, 2024 · As an emerging class of intelligent materials, SMPs, due to their unique shape memory effect, lightweight and high strength, good designability, ...<|separator|>
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Advancements and Challenges in Organic–Inorganic Composite ...
Sep 20, 2024 · Expanding the electrochemical window can enhance the compatibility of the solid-state electrolyte with both positive and negative electrodes, ...
[71]
Organic‐Inorganic Hybrid Solid Composite Electrolytes for High ...
Nov 14, 2024 · This works explores hybrid solid composite electrolytes that offer functional properties, electrode compatibility, and manufacturability.