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Shot

The Society for the History of Technology (SHOT) is an international scholarly organization founded in 1958 to advance the interdisciplinary study of technology's historical development and its interactions with politics, economy, culture, and science.^[1] SHOT supports research through its flagship quarterly journal Technology and Culture, which publishes peer-reviewed articles on topics ranging from ancient innovations to modern engineering feats; annual meetings that convene hundreds of scholars; and programs including prizes, fellowships, and grants for emerging researchers.^[2] With approximately 1,500 members worldwide, the society emphasizes empirical analysis of technological change over ideological narratives, maintaining a focus on primary sources and causal mechanisms in historical contexts.^[1]

Medicine and pharmacology

Hypodermic injection

A hypodermic injection, commonly referred to as a "shot," is a medical procedure for delivering liquids such as vaccines, medications, or nutrients directly into subcutaneous tissue, muscle, or sometimes veins using a hollow needle attached to a syringe. This method ensures rapid absorption and bypasses gastrointestinal degradation, enabling precise dosing for systemic effects. The hypodermic syringe was independently developed in 1853 by Scottish physician Alexander Wood and French surgeon Charles Pravaz, building on earlier hollow needle designs like Francis Rynd's 1844 stylet for pain relief injections. While early vaccinations, such as Edward Jenner's 1796 smallpox inoculation, relied on scarification or bifurcated needles rather than hypodermic methods, the syringe's invention facilitated the shift to injectable vaccines in the late 19th and 20th centuries, improving scalability and hygiene in mass immunization campaigns.^[3]^[4]^[5] In contemporary use, shots include annual influenza vaccines, which randomized controlled trials (RCTs) show reduce severe outcomes by 40-60% in high-risk groups during mismatched seasons, and the Pfizer-BioNTech mRNA COVID-19 vaccine, authorized for emergency use on December 11, 2020, following an RCT demonstrating 95% efficacy against symptomatic infection and near-complete protection against severe cases after two doses in participants aged 16 and older. The inactivated polio vaccine (IPV), administered via intramuscular shot since Jonas Salk's 1955 trials, achieves 99-100% effectiveness against paralytic disease with three doses, contributing to global case reductions from over 350,000 annually in 1988 to fewer than 100 wild poliovirus cases by 2023 through WHO-led injection campaigns.^[6]^[7]^[8] Empirical successes of hypodermic shots include near-eradication of polio in most regions via sustained injection programs, averting an estimated 20 million paralysis cases since 1988. However, causal analyses reveal rare but significant risks, such as myocarditis following mRNA COVID-19 shots, with CDC data indicating rates up to 1 in 3,000-5,000 among males aged 12-24 after the second dose, often resolving but requiring monitoring. The Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS) has logged millions of post-vaccination reports for COVID-19 shots, including anaphylaxis and thrombosis, though passive surveillance limits causality attribution without follow-up studies. Vaccination mandates have overlooked evidence from cohort studies showing prior infection confers natural immunity equivalent to or stronger than two-dose vaccination against reinfection and hospitalization, with hybrid immunity (infection plus vaccination) providing the broadest protection but at higher risk of autoantibody development than infection alone in some analyses. Long-term outcomes remain understudied for novel platforms like mRNA, prioritizing short-term RCT endpoints over multiyear causal tracking of rare events.^[9]^[10]^[11]

Photography and film

Camera shot

A camera shot constitutes the continuous sequence of frames recorded from a single, uninterrupted camera setup in photography, film, or video production, defining the basic unit of visual capture before editing. This approach relies on fixed framing, focal length, and movement parameters to document a specific viewpoint, enabling reproducible documentation of subjects and environments through optical principles of light projection onto sensors or film.^[12]^[13] The practice traces to early cinema's inception, with the Lumière brothers' 1895 public screenings in Paris using their Cinématographe device to project simple, static shots of real-world scenes, such as Workers Leaving the Lumière Factory, marking the shift from static photography to motion recording via sequential exposures at 16 frames per second. These foundational shots emphasized empirical observation over narrative complexity, capturing causal sequences like crowd movements without artificial staging. By the 1920s, Soviet filmmakers advanced shot composition as modular elements in montage theory, with Sergei Eisenstein's Battleship Potemkin (1925) demonstrating how discrete shots—juxtaposed via rhythmic and metric editing—generate intellectual associations from visual data, as outlined in his dialectic framework where collision of images produces synthesis beyond individual frames.^[14]^[15] Standard shot types classify by scale and motion: wide shots (or long shots) encompass subjects within expansive surroundings for contextual establishment, typically framing full human figures against landscapes using wide-angle lenses with focal lengths under 35mm; close-ups isolate facial features or objects for detail emphasis, employing telephoto lenses above 85mm to compress perspective and heighten emotional causality; tracking shots involve lateral or forward camera movement on dolly tracks or Steadicam rigs, maintaining focus on dynamic subjects like walking figures to convey spatial relations and velocity empirically. These categories derive from cinematographic standards prioritizing measurable distances from lens to subject, such as medium shots at waist-level framing for conversational realism.^[16]^[17] Post-2000 digital transitions, accelerated by cameras like the RED One in 2007 offering 4K resolution without chemical processing, enabled instantaneous playback and unlimited test shots, reducing material costs from $1 per foot of 35mm film to near-zero for digital acquisition and permitting data-driven refinements in framing and exposure before principal photography. This causal efficiency—evidenced by production timelines shortening from weeks of dailies development to hours of on-set review—has scaled output in independent filmmaking, where empirical metrics like shot rejection rates dropped due to non-destructive iteration, though analog advocates' claims of superior dynamic range in film remain testable but unproven superior in controlled comparisons beyond niche aesthetic preferences.^[18]^[19]

Beverages

Liquor serving

A shot in the context of liquor serving refers to a small serving of distilled spirits, typically 1.5 fluid ounces (44 milliliters) of 80-proof alcohol, poured into a shot glass and consumed in one rapid gulp.^[20] This measurement aligns with the U.S. standard for a single drink equivalent, facilitating quick intake without dilution. The practice traces to 17th-century British naval traditions, where sailors received daily rum rations—known as a "tot"—to maintain morale and provide calories during long voyages, a custom formalized in 1687 and continuing until 1970.^[21] In American saloon culture of the 19th-century Old West, the term "shot" emerged from informal bartering, where patrons traded bullets or "shots" of ammunition for small pours of whiskey when cash was scarce, evolving into the standardized rapid-consumption ritual.^[22] Common practices include variations like the tequila shot, where salt is licked from the hand, followed by the spirit and a lime wedge bite, originally employed to mask the harsh flavors of lower-quality agave distillates rather than enhance premium varieties.^[23] This ritual, popularized in the 20th century, exemplifies shots as vehicles for intense, immediate sensory experiences in social settings, often in bars or parties, prioritizing velocity over savoring. Physiologically, consuming one shot elevates blood alcohol concentration (BAC) by approximately 0.02% in an average adult (around 160 pounds for men, 130 pounds for women) within 45-60 minutes, assuming an empty stomach, with effects including impaired judgment and coordination; multiple shots in quick succession can reach binge levels of 0.08% BAC, defined by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) as a pattern heightening risks of acute intoxication, accidents, and blackouts.^[24] Causal analysis reveals shots facilitate rapid absorption via the stomach and small intestine, bypassing slower metabolic processing in the liver (which eliminates about one standard drink per hour), thus amplifying short-term harms like dehydration and cognitive deficits without corresponding physiological upsides. Empirical data underscores shots' contribution to binge drinking epidemics, with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) attributing excessive alcohol use—including patterns involving shots—to an average of 178,000 annual U.S. deaths from 2020-2021, encompassing acute causes like poisoning and chronic conditions such as liver disease and cancer.^[25] Recent meta-analyses have debunked prior claims of moderated benefits, such as cardiovascular protection from occasional shots, concluding no safe consumption level exists due to dose-dependent risks of carcinogenesis and neurodegeneration, with even low intake elevating overall mortality.^[26] While shots serve social bonding rituals, their design promotes overconsumption, yielding negligible long-term advantages against documented causal harms.

Sports and athletics

Scoring attempts in games

In various team sports, a shot constitutes a deliberate attempt to score by directing a ball or puck toward the opponent's goal, relying on precise propulsion mechanics governed by projectile motion and angular momentum conservation. In basketball, this typically involves releasing the ball from the hand toward the hoop, with jump shots predominating due to their elevation advantage against defenders. In ice hockey, shots include wrist shots for accuracy or slapshots for velocity, where the stick's flex stores and releases elastic energy to accelerate the puck.^[27]^[28] Success rates for shots vary by sport and technique, reflecting biomechanical efficiency and defensive interference. In the National Basketball Association (NBA) during the 2024-25 season, the league-wide field goal percentage stood at 46.7%, encompassing all shot types from close-range layups to long-range attempts, with lower success for contested jump shots due to altered release angles and reduced arc. In the National Hockey League (NHL), professional slapshots achieve average speeds of approximately 100 miles per hour, though conversion rates hover below 10% owing to goalkeeper deflection and puck trajectory variability under air resistance and spin.^[29]^[30] The concept of the shot in basketball traces to the sport's invention in 1891 by James Naismith, who initially used rudimentary underhand throws into elevated peach baskets, evolving through the 20th century to overhead set shots and modern jump shots emphasizing leg-driven force summation for consistent release height. A pivotal shift occurred with the 3-point line's NBA introduction in 1979, but attempts surged post-2010, rising from roughly 20 per team game in 2012-13 to over 35 by the mid-2020s, comprising up to 40% of field goal attempts league-wide, driven by analytical evidence that three points per make outweighs two-point efficiency despite lower percentages (around 36%). This trend, pioneered by teams like the Golden State Warriors, stems from causal factors including improved shooting drills and spacing via player movement, rather than mere stylistic preference.^[31]^[32] Biomechanically, effective shots demand sequential kinetic chain activation: lower-body extension generates upward force via ground reaction, transferred through core rotation to the upper extremities for optimal ball velocity and spin, with backspin (induced by wrist flexion) stabilizing flight via the Magnus effect to widen the entry window into the goal. Studies confirm that release angles of 45-55 degrees maximize entry probability under gravity's parabolic constraints, while deviations from balanced stance—such as forward lean—reduce accuracy by 10-15% through torque imbalances. In hockey slapshots, stick-puck contact timing exploits composite materials' rebound for peak velocities, adhering to conservation of linear momentum.^[27]^[33] Repetitive shot volume, while honing proprioception and muscle memory for skill progression, elevates overuse injury risks, particularly to the shoulder. In NBA players, shoulder and elbow injuries occur at rates of 1.11 per 1000 game exposures, with rotator cuff tears among common pathologies from eccentric loading during follow-through, exacerbated by high-volume practice without adequate recovery, as evidenced in cohort analyses of professional athletes. Causal links to tears involve supraspinatus tendon microtrauma from repetitive abduction and external rotation, underscoring the need for periodized training over unchecked repetition.^[34]^[35]

Shot put

The shot put is a track and field throwing event in which competitors propel a heavy spherical metal ball, known as the shot, as far as possible from a circular throwing area. In men's competition, the shot weighs 7.26 kilograms and measures 110 to 130 millimeters in diameter, while the women's implement weighs 4 kilograms and measures 95 to 110 millimeters.^[36] ^[37] The event adheres to World Athletics rules, requiring the athlete to remain within a 2.135-meter-diameter circle until the shot has landed, with the implement held close to the neck or chin at the start of the delivery; fouls occur if the athlete leaves the circle before the shot lands or if the shot touches the body below the shoulder during the throw.^[38] Men's shot put debuted at the 1896 Athens Olympics, where American Robert Garrett won with a distance of 11.22 meters, and has been a core Olympic event since, with women's introduced in 1948.^[39] ^[40] Two primary techniques dominate: the glide, a linear backward slide across the circle followed by explosive hip extension and arm delivery, and the rotational (or spin) method, involving a full 360-degree turn to generate centrifugal force before release.^[41] ^[42] The rotational technique, popularized in the late 20th century, permits higher release velocities—often exceeding 14 meters per second—through increased torque from body rotation, converting angular momentum into linear projectile motion, though it demands precise footwork and balance to avoid fouls.^[43] ^[44] Optimal release angles range from 37 to 42 degrees, with distance primarily determined by initial velocity rather than height, as gravitational effects limit flight time; empirical biomechanical analyses confirm that energy transfer from lower body kinetics (e.g., knee-hip linkage) to the upper body accounts for up to 70% of throw efficiency.^[44] The men's world record stands at 23.56 meters, set by American Ryan Crouser on May 27, 2023, at the Prefontaine Classic, surpassing his prior mark by leveraging enhanced rotational torque via refined hip mechanics.^[45] ^[46] Performance outcomes reflect causal factors like genetic predispositions for fast-twitch muscle fiber density and lever arm length (e.g., Crouser's familial throwing lineage), compounded by rigorous plyometric and weight training, rather than intangible attributes like mental fortitude.^[47] Systematic doping programs, such as East Germany's state-orchestrated administration of anabolic steroids to athletes including shot putter Udo Beyer in the 1970s and 1980s, artificially elevated records—Beyer admitted use in 2013—while causing long-term health damage, underscoring pharmacology's outsized role over natural training limits in historical peaks.^[48] ^[49] These interventions, documented in declassified Stasi files, highlight environmental manipulations' impact, with post-doping era records stabilizing around biomechanically feasible maxima absent enhancements.^[50]

Weaponry and ballistics

Gunshot discharge

A gunshot discharge occurs when the primer of a firearm cartridge is struck, igniting the propellant powder and causing rapid gas expansion that propels the bullet down the barrel at high velocity. This process transfers kinetic energy to the projectile, with typical muzzle velocities for common handgun rounds like 9mm Parabellum reaching approximately 1,180 feet per second (fps) from a standard barrel length.^[51] The foundational technology traces to gunpowder's invention in 9th-century China by alchemists seeking elixirs, with proto-firearms such as hand cannons emerging in the 13th century during conflicts involving the Song Dynasty and Mongol invasions.^[52]^[53] The physics of a gunshot discharge follows Newtonian principles: the bullet accelerates under the force of expanding gases per the second law (F=ma), exiting the muzzle before gravity and air resistance dominate the parabolic trajectory.^[54] Aerodynamic drag, proportional to velocity squared and quantified by the projectile's ballistic coefficient (a measure of form efficiency against air resistance), causes deceleration and drop; for instance, a 9mm bullet's coefficient around 0.15 results in significant velocity loss beyond 100 yards.^[55]^[56] In the United States, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention data indicate 46,728 firearm-related deaths in 2023, encompassing suicides (about 58%), homicides (38%), and accidents or undetermined cases.^[57] However, surveys estimate defensive gun uses far exceed criminal incidents, with criminologist Gary Kleck's 1995 National Self-Defense Survey finding 2.1 to 2.5 million annual instances where civilians brandished or fired weapons to thwart crimes, often without police reports due to victim reluctance or lack of injury.^[58] These figures, derived from randomized telephone polling of thousands, contrast with undercounts in official records like FBI Uniform Crime Reports, which prioritize reported offenses and reveal most gun homicides (over 70% in recent years) cluster in urban gang disputes rather than broad societal violence.^[59] Empirical analyses of policy impacts, such as John Lott's econometric studies in "More Guns, Less Crime," demonstrate that states adopting shall-issue concealed-carry laws—allowing qualified adults to obtain permits without discretionary denial—experienced 5-7% drops in violent crime rates, including murders and assaults, attributable to deterrent effects from increased armed civilians rather than misuse.^[60] This causal link holds after controlling for confounders like demographics and economics, using county-level panel data spanning decades, and counters claims from biased advocacy sources by relying on pre-post adoption trends unmarred by selective media emphasis on rare mass events.^[61] Such discharges have historically enabled self-defense, hunting precision, and military efficacy, with ballistic advancements enhancing accuracy without inherent moral valence.

Ammunition pellets

In shotgun ammunition, "shot" denotes multiple small spherical projectiles, termed pellets, encased in a shotshell and propelled from smoothbore barrels to produce a diverging conical pattern upon impact. These pellets vary in material, primarily lead historically or steel and other non-toxics currently, with diameters calibrated by size designations: birdshot ranges from #9 (0.08 inches) for fine patterning on small targets to #4 (0.13 inches) for denser hits, while buckshot escalates to #4 buck (0.24 inches) and 00 buck (0.33 inches) for greater mass and penetration.^[62]^[63]^[64] Birdshot configurations emerged prominently in the 19th century for upland and waterfowl hunting, enabling shooters to engage fast-moving fowl with a swarm of pellets that increased hit probability over single projectiles, as smoothbore fowling pieces evolved from earlier flintlock designs. Buckshot, conversely, targeted larger quarry like deer or hogs, leveraging fewer but heavier pellets for deeper wound channels suited to terminal ballistics in brushy terrain.^[65]^[66] Regulatory shifts addressed lead's environmental persistence; the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service began phasing out lead shot for waterfowl in 1986 via non-toxic zones, culminating in a nationwide mandate for steel or alternatives by 1991 to curb ingestion-related mortality in migratory birds. Steel shot, though harder and requiring adjusted chokes to mitigate barrel damage, maintains comparable velocities but yields slightly wider patterns due to lower density.^[67]^[68]^[69] Pattern efficacy hinges on empirical testing, standardized as pellet density within a 30-inch circle at 40 yards, where full chokes retain approximately 70% of the load centrally, modified chokes 60%, and cylinder bores under 40% for open spreads. At defensive distances below 15 yards, however—common in indoor scenarios—dispersion remains tight (often 4-6 inches), demanding precise aiming rather than relying on spread for coverage, as velocity decay fragments patterns beyond 25 yards.^[70]^[71]^[72] Terminal performance in calibrated 10% ballistic gelatin, approximating human tissue, underscores load-specific trade-offs: 00 buckshot (8-9 pellets per 2¾-inch shell) achieves 12-18 inches penetration with multiple hydrostatic shock channels, yielding high incapacitation potential at close range per FBI penetration criteria, whereas birdshot (#6-#8) stalls at 4-6 inches, fragmenting superficially without reliable vital disruption. Overpenetration risks with buckshot mirror handgun hollowpoints in drywall tests (traversing 2-3 interior walls), but exceed birdshot; practical analyses reveal shotguns excel in raw stopping power yet lag handguns in one-handed retention and navigation through tight spaces, tempering narratives of shotgun preeminence in confined self-defense without corroborative incident data favoring either universally.^[73]^[74]^[75]

Organizations and events

SHOT Show

The SHOT Show, or Shooting, Hunting, and Outdoor Trade Show, is the premier annual trade event for the firearms, ammunition, hunting, shooting sports, and related outdoor industries, serving as a platform for manufacturers, retailers, distributors, and suppliers to conduct business-to-business transactions. Organized by the National Shooting Sports Foundation (NSSF), it originated in St. Louis, Missouri, in 1979 with 5,600 attendees and has since grown into the largest such gathering worldwide, relocating to Las Vegas, Nevada, in 1983 for most editions.^[76] The trade-only format prohibits personal firearms on the floor, requiring exhibitors to deactivate display models by removing firing pins, emphasizing commercial demonstrations over live firing except at optional off-site ranges.^[77] The event spans four days, typically in mid-January at venues like the Venetian Expo and Caesars Forum, drawing over 50,000 attendees and 2,800 exhibitors across more than 800,000 square feet of space; the 2025 edition from January 21-24 set records with 54,000 attendees and 2,850 exhibitors from 126 countries, including 34% first-time buyers.^[78]^[79] It features product launches, such as new ammunition types including lead-free hunting loads, advanced optics, suppressors, and modular rifle platforms like AR-15 variants with enhanced ergonomics or materials, alongside seminars on retail strategies, compliance, and market trends.^[80]^[81] These innovations reflect ongoing refinements in manufacturing for reliability, weight reduction, and user safety in sporting and defensive contexts. The SHOT Show underpins the U.S. firearms industry's $91.7 billion annual economic output in 2024, supporting 384,000 jobs through manufacturing, retail, and ancillary sectors, with excise taxes alone contributing $1.3 billion to conservation efforts.^[82] Locally, it generates over $88 million in non-gaming revenue for Las Vegas via attendee expenditures on lodging, dining, and transport.^[83] Industry surveys reveal that 72% of gun owners cite self-defense as their primary reason for ownership, aligning the event's commercial focus with lawful personal protection rather than criminal misuse, countering portrayals in some media outlets that frame it primarily as a political advocacy forum despite its empirical role in sustaining rural economies and supply chains.^[84]^[81]

Society for the History of Technology

The Society for the History of Technology (SHOT) was established in 1958 as an international scholarly organization dedicated to fostering rigorous historical inquiry into the development of technology and its multifaceted interactions with society, politics, economy, and culture.^[1] With approximately 1,500 members drawn from diverse disciplines and over 35 countries, SHOT emphasizes empirical analysis of technological evolution, prioritizing archival evidence and contextual contingencies over deterministic narratives that attribute unidirectional causality to either technology or social forces.^[85] This approach counters earlier technological determinism by underscoring how innovations emerge from specific historical conditions, as exemplified in studies of military technologies like the refinement of interchangeable parts for muskets under Eli Whitney's 1798 U.S. government contract, which relied on empirical trials amid manufacturing challenges rather than inevitable progress.^[86] SHOT's flagship publication, the quarterly journal Technology and Culture, launched in 1959, serves as the preeminent interdisciplinary outlet for such research, featuring peer-reviewed articles on topics ranging from industrial machinery to weaponry evolution.^[87] The journal, published by Johns Hopkins University Press, has documented causal sequences in technological adoption, such as the incremental advancements in firearm production techniques during the early industrial era, drawing on primary sources to reveal how economic incentives and material constraints shaped outcomes.^[2] Annual meetings, typically convened in October or November and rotating across North America, Europe, and beyond, facilitate presentations of original research, panels on historiographical methods, and networking among global scholars.^[88] These gatherings prioritize evidence-based discussions, often integrating quantitative data from patents, prototypes, and trade records to trace innovation pathways without presuming teleological advancement. To broaden its reach, SHOT administers the Global Community Scholars program, appointing scholars for two-year terms starting from cohorts announced in 2023, who act as regional ambassadors to disseminate archival-driven studies and organize local events.^[89] This initiative supports empirical contributions to fields like the history of ordnance, where contingency—such as wartime demands influencing shotgun pellet fabrication processes—overrides ideologically laden interpretations.^[90] While academic historiography, including SHOT's domain, grapples with institutional tendencies toward social-constructivist emphases that may underplay technological affordances amid broader left-leaning biases in universities, the society's adherence to Melvin Kranzberg's foundational principles—articulated in his 1986 laws rejecting neutral or autonomous technology—promotes balanced causal realism through verifiable data, preserving records of innovations like precision ballistics without narrative distortion.^[91]

Computing and engineering

Zero-shot learning

Zero-shot learning in the context of large language models (LLMs) enables task performance without exposure to task-specific training examples, relying solely on natural language instructions within prompts to leverage pre-trained knowledge. This approach contrasts with few-shot learning, which incorporates a limited number of examples in the prompt to condition the model. The paradigm gained prominence through demonstrations in the GPT-3 model, released by OpenAI in 2020, where zero-shot prompting yielded measurable results such as 64.3% accuracy on the TriviaQA dataset by framing tasks descriptively without demonstrations.^[92] Post-2020 developments, including xAI's Grok models launched in November 2023, have scaled this capability via expanded parameter counts and training corpora, enhancing zero-shot generalization on benchmarks like BIG-bench, a collaborative suite assessing over 200 diverse tasks. While LLMs exhibit accuracies exceeding human baselines on select novel subtasks—evident in progressive improvements from zero- to few-shot settings—empirical evaluations reveal uneven performance, with models faltering on reasoning-heavy items due to over-reliance on distributional patterns from pre-training rather than robust abstraction.^[93]^[94] Critics argue that zero-shot successes overstate model intelligence, as performance derives from latent correlations in vast training data rather than causal mechanisms or first-principles inference. Studies on causal relation classification demonstrate zero-shot LLMs' limitations in distinguishing interventions from associations without explicit training, often defaulting to superficial heuristics. This data-dependency tempers claims of AGI proximity, emphasizing that true generalization requires addressing epistemic gaps beyond prompt engineering.^[95]

Other uses

Manufacturing processes

Shot peening involves bombarding a metal surface with small spherical shot, typically steel, propelled at high velocity to create plastic deformation and induce a layer of compressive residual stress.^[96] This cold working process modifies the material's mechanical properties by forming overlapping dimples that expand the surface layer against the substrate, counteracting tensile stresses that promote crack initiation.^[96] The shot, ranging from 0.1 to 2 mm in diameter, is accelerated via air blast, centrifugal wheel, or pneumatic systems, with process parameters like intensity, coverage (typically 100-200% overlap), and media quality controlled to achieve desired outcomes.^[97] Developed in the early 20th century, shot peening gained prominence in aerospace applications from the 1920s onward for enhancing fatigue resistance in components like turbine blades and landing gear.^[98] Intensity is quantified using Almen strips—thin steel gauges affixed to the workpiece that arc under peening impact, with deflection measured per SAE J444 standards to ensure reproducibility (e.g., A-type strips for 0.02-0.06 inch arc heights in high-stress parts).^[99] SAE AMS2430 specifies peening procedures, mandating shot hardness (45-55 HRC for steel) and velocity to minimize contamination and maintain uniformity.^[100] In practice, shot peening extends fatigue life by 3 to 10 times in critical components, as compressive stresses inhibit crack propagation under cyclic loading; for instance, NASA tests on carburized gears showed 1.6-fold life improvement due to residual stress gradients up to -800 MPa at the surface.^[101]^[102] This effect stems from Hertzian contact mechanics, where dimple formation redistributes localized stresses, reducing subsurface crack risks in high-contact areas like gear teeth.^[103] Applications span aerospace (e.g., engine disks) and automotive (e.g., springs, crankshafts), with standards from SAE emphasizing verification via X-ray diffraction for stress depth (typically 0.1-0.5 mm).^[104] Despite efficacy, shot peening exhibits energy inefficiency, requiring continuous media recycling and high-velocity propulsion that consumes substantial compressed air or power, limiting scalability for large parts.^[105] Alternatives like laser peening generate deeper compressive layers (1-2 mm vs. 0.2 mm) via plasma-induced shocks, potentially doubling fatigue benefits in tests on welds, though adoption remains constrained by equipment costs and lack of proven industrial throughput.^[106]^[107]

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2024-25 NBA Season Summary - Basketball-Reference.com
Checkout the latest 2024-25 NBA Season Summary including Shooting Stats, Advanced Stats ... League Average, 82, 241.3, 41.7, 89.2 .467, 13.5, 37.6 .360, 28.2 ...
[30]
A Guide to Hockey's Famous Slapshot
Mar 28, 2022 · The average speed of Slap Shots in the NHL today is right around 100 miles per hour, compared to 10 seasons ago where the average was around the ...
[31]
NBA's 3-point revolution: How 1 shot is changing the game | NBA.com
Oct 14, 2021 · League-wide, the percentage of 3-point attempts that have been off the dribble has risen from 23% in 2013-14 to as high as 30% in 2019-20, ...
[32]
Visualizing the NBA's Three-Point Revolution | Boundless & Ballin'
Jun 24, 2022 · In 2012–13, teams attempted 20 threes per game, and that stat has gone up to an average of 35 triples taken this season. This Pen is owned by ...
[33]
Biomechanical Adjustments of the Basketball Jump Shot Performed ...
The aim of this research was to examine the selected biomechanical determinants of the jump shot when shooting over opponents of different height.
[34]
Shoulder and Elbow Injuries in National Basketball Association ...
A total of 192 shoulder and elbow injuries were sustained among 126 NBA athletes, with incidence rates of 1.11 per 1000 game exposures (GEs) and 0.30 per 1000 ...
[35]
Shoulder and Elbow Injuries in National Basketball Association ...
Oct 6, 2023 · Shoulder and elbow injuries are common in basketball players, with an estimated incidence of 0.82 per 1000 athlete game exposures (GEs). Most ...
[36]
Athletics - Shot Put, Throwing, Technique - Britannica
Sep 24, 2025 · The putter must launch the shot from within a ring 2.135 meters (7 feet) in diameter and so must gather momentum for the put by a rapid twisting ...The Hammer Throw · The Javelin Throw · Olympic Games<|separator|>
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[PDF] TECHNICAL RULES - World Athletics
The addition of the Note to Rule 32.14.2 of the Technical Rules applies to rotational techniques used by athletes in Shot Put, Discus Throw or Hammer Throw.
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5 Shot Put Rules You Should Know - Coaching Young Athletes
Oct 10, 2022 · The Shot Must Be Put From Close To The Neck Or Chin ... World Athletics rules state that: “At the time an athlete takes a stance in the circle to ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[39]
Athens 1896 Athletics shot put men Results - Olympics.com
Find out who took home gold, silver and bronze in 1896. Official results of the Athletics shot put men event at the Athens Summer Olympics.Missing: history | Show results with:history
[40]
Shot Put - World Athletics
Men's shot put has been contested at every modern Olympics since 1896. Women's shot put was first introduced to the Olympics in 1948. The United States is the ...
[41]
Shot put technique: The glide versus the spin debate - Sportskeeda
Mar 13, 2024 · Most of the American shot-putters favour the spin technique, and it can also be rightfully said that the spin is more popular than the class ...
[42]
https://www.neuff.co.uk/blogs/athletics-training-guides/a-beginners-guide-to-glide-vs-rotational-shot-technique
[43]
[PDF] 3-D kinematic analysis of the rotational shot put technique
Key factors in rotational shot put include release velocity, optimal release angle, and the relation between rotational movement and final acceleration. The ...
[44]
Transfer of mechanical energy during the shot put - PMC - NIH
Significant energy transfer occurs between Right Knee-Right Hip, Left Hip-Torso, Torso-Right Shoulder, and Right Elbow-Right Wrist during the shot put.
[45]
3-Time Olympic Champ, World Record Holder Ryan Crouser to be ...
Mar 13, 2025 · He holds the world record in the shot put, both indoors and outdoors. He set the outdoor world record at 77'-3 3/4" in May 2023, improving upon ...
[46]
shot put world record - World Athletics
World Indoor Championships Records, 22.77, Ryan CROUSER ; World Championships Combined Best Performances, 17.54, Michael SMITH ...
[47]
Ryan Crouser - Team USA
Crouser has set multiple world records, with his outdoor shot put personal best of 23.56 meters in 2023. He also excels in indoor competitions, where his ...
[48]
East German Olympic shot put champion admits doping | Reuters
Feb 15, 2013 · Former East German Olympic shot put champion and three-times world record breaker Udo Beyer has admitted doping in a new documentary film ...
[49]
Doping in sport: The human cost - CNN
Nov 13, 2015 · Andreas Krieger competed for East Germany in the shot put as Heidi Krieger and was systematically doped with steroids from the age of 16 onwards ...
[50]
Doping in sport—a warning from history - PMC - NIH
East German athletes who were doped to win gold medals in 1976 Olympics now struggle with chronic health problems. Domhnall Macauley reviews a new documentary.
[51]
9mm Ballistics - Velocity, Energy & Drop Data - Ammo To Go
Jun 1, 2021 · 9mm Velocity versus Barrel Length ; Muzzle Velocity, 1180 fps, 1110 fps ; Muzzle Energy, 356, 339 ; Velocity at 100 Yards, 961, 949 ; Energy at 100 ...
[52]
Gunpowder in Medieval China – Science Technology and Society a ...
Gunpowder, made from sulfur, charcoal, and saltpeter, was accidentally discovered by Taoist alchemists in the mid-9th century while mixing with organic binders.
[53]
Gunpowder: Origins in the East - Brown University
“Gunpowder,” as it came to be known, is a mixture of saltpeter (potassium nitrate), sulfur, and charcoal. Together, these materials will burn rapidly and ...
[54]
Ballistic Flight Equations | Glenn Research Center - NASA
Jul 15, 2024 · Drag depends on the square of the velocity and the velocity changes during the flight.
[55]
[PDF] Aerodynamic Drag Modeling for Ballistics
Newtons second law of motion tells us clearly that an objects acceleration is equal to the force applied to it, divided by its mass. Since the mass of a bullet ...
[56]
https://www.physicsclassroom.com/PhysicsClassroom/media/SRC/Ballistics/Passage.pdf
[57]
What the data says about gun deaths in the US | Pew Research Center
Mar 5, 2025 · In 2023, the most recent year for which complete data is available, 46,728 people died from gun-related injuries, according to the CDC. That ...
[58]
[PDF] RESULTS FROM THE NATIONAL SELF-DEFENSE SURVEY
At least fourteen surveys have shown that there are, at a minimum, hundreds of thousands of defensive gun uses each year (re- search reviewed in Kleck and Gertz ...
[59]
FBI — Expanded Homicide Data Table 8
Weapons, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019. Total, 13,847, 15,355, 15,206, 14,446, 13,927. Total firearms: 9,143, 10,398, 11,014, 10,445, 10,258.
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[PDF] More Guns, Less Crime - HOPLOFOBIA.INFO
Some claim no effect from these laws, but not a single refereed study finds the opposite result, that right- to- carry laws have a bad effect on crime.
[61]
Effects of Concealed-Carry Laws on Violent Crime - RAND
There is supportive evidence that shall-issue concealed-carry laws may increase total homicides, firearm homicides, and violent crime.
[62]
Shotgun Shells and Shot Size: Everything You Need to Know
The next larger shot is called B shot, which is .17”, or .01” bigger than #1 shot. BB shot is .18” inches. BBB shot is .19 inches. Then it ...
[63]
Choosing the Correct Type and Size of Shot - Hunter Ed
The smaller the shot "number," the larger the pellet diameter. Shotshell marked as magnum means the shell has more shot or more gunpowder than a regular shell.
[64]
https://sageandbraker.com/blogs/news/shotgun-shot-size
[65]
History of the Shotgun for Upland Hunting - Filson
Sep 5, 2025 · Early shotguns were in 16th century England. Lefever invented the first hammerless in 1878. The 1880-1930s was a golden age. The Remington 870 ...
[66]
History of the shotgun and shooting - The Field Magazine
Feb 25, 2015 · The history of the shotgun and shooting, from the reign of Henry VIII to 1800. How bird shooting went from its infancy to the eve of the sport we know today.
[67]
[PDF] NONTOXIC SHOT ZONES FOR 1986-87 WATERFO
Jun 25, 1986 · The U.S. Fish and Wildlife. Service proposes to phase out use of lead shot for waterfowl hunting in the United States by 1991, William P. Horn, ...
[68]
Review of the legal and regulatory history of lead in hunting - Byrne
Jun 13, 2023 · Lead shot was banned for hunting waterfowl nationwide by federal regulation in 1991. Prior to 1991, most of the effort and discussions were focused on reducing ...
[69]
Lead exposure in American black ducks after implementation of non ...
Nation-wide regulations banning the use of lead shot for waterfowl hunting were established in 1991.
[70]
What Distance Should Be Used to Pattern a Shotgun? - Field & Stream
We evaluate patterns in a 30-inch circle because 30 inches is roughly the maximum size of an effective shot pattern. What you will usually see is a pattern ...
[71]
Why We Pattern at 40 Yards in 10" & 30" Targets - Apex Ammunition
Sep 27, 2020 · For waterfowl/upland, the industry standard is a 30” circle at 40 yards. While many people will pattern at 25, 30 or 35 yards, keeping at 40 ...
[72]
30 Inches, 40 Yards - Gray's Sporting Journal
Jun 12, 2023 · Full choke, by definition, delivers a 70 per cent pattern—that is, 70 per cent of a cartridge's shot charge, inside a 30-inch circle, at 40 ...
[73]
Smythbusters: Is Birdshot Better Than Buckshot for Home Defense?
Birdshot loads, including #6 hunting and #7.5 target shells, demonstrate minimal penetration and ineffective wound channels. In stark contrast, 2¾-inch nine- ...
[74]
Buckshot vs. Slugs: Best Shotgun Ammo for Home and Self-Defense
Oct 15, 2024 · Discover the best shotgun ammo for home defense, including buckshot and slug comparisons, shot sizes, and the most effective self-defense ...
[75]
https://www.libertysafe.com/blogs/the-vault/birdshot-vs-buckshot-vs-slugs
[76]
SHOT Show | Military Wiki - Fandom
Note: All attendance information courtesy of the SHOT Show Blog. Year, Dates, City, Attendees. 1979, St. Louis, Missouri, 5,600. 1980, San Francisco, California ...
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Attendee, Exhibitor and Press Policies | NSSF SHOT Show 2026
NO personal firearms or ammunition allowed. Only firearms on display by exhibitors and whose firing pins have been removed (and have been inspected by SHOT Show ...Missing: defensive | Show results with:defensive
[78]
[PDF] 2025 SHOT SHOW® FACTS AND FIGURES
The 2025 SHOT Show runs Jan 21-24 in Las Vegas, with over 2,800 exhibitors, 55,000+ attendees in 2024, and is trade only.
[79]
2025 SHOT Show In Review - Shooting Industry Magazine
The 2025 SHOT Show had a record 2,850 exhibitors, 54,000 attendees, a strong mood, and 126 countries represented, with 34% of buyers being first-time attendees.Missing: history | Show results with:history
[80]
New Ammo Coming in 2025 | NSSF SHOT Show 2026
Jan 22, 2025 · A number of noteworthy new ammunition products will debut during SHOT Show 2025, and these include everything from lead-free hunting and target shotshells to ...
[81]
SHOT Show Celebrates Industry Strength and Momentum - NSSF
Jan 24, 2025 · Off-Site SHOT Week Highlights This year featured over 135 exhibitors and over 2,350 media and buyers, a record-high attendance.
[82]
Firearm and Ammunition Industry Economic Impact - NSSF
This NSSF report details the significant economic impact the firearm and ammunition industry has on our economy, both nationally and at the state level.Missing: attendance | Show results with:attendance
[83]
47th SHOT Show Opens its Doors at Venetian Expo and Caesars ...
Jan 21, 2025 · The SHOT Show brings a charge to the economies of Las Vegas and Nevada, generating more than $88 million in non-gaming revenue. More broadly, ...
[84]
[PDF] SHOT SHOW 2024 REVIEW - Shooting Industry Magazine
Mar 3, 2024 · “Better retailers know that the majority (72%) of gun owners own a firearm for self-defense. They need to carry self-defense ammo, and retailer.
[85]
About Us - Society for the History of Technology
Founded in 1958, the society now numbers around 1500 members. An international society, SHOT meets annually, in and outside North America, Europe, or ...Missing: activities | Show results with:activities
[86]
Society for the History of Technology Records | NMAH.AC.0400
The Society for the History of Technology Records (SHOT) consists of documents relating to SHOT from its inception in 1958- [0ngoing].
[87]
Technology and Culture
Technology and Culture is the official publication of the Society for the History of Technology, and the flagship journal in the field.
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Society for the History of Technology American Historical Association
B. Programs. The Society for the History of Technology (SHOT) holds an annual meeting, usually in October or November, featuring papers, panels, and other ...
[89]
SHOT Global Community Scholars
Sep 8, 2023 · Applications and nominations for SHOT Global Community Scholars are now open! Each year, SHOT designates selected Global Community Scholars for a two-year term.
[90]
Global Community Committee - Society for the History of Technology
Nov 23, 2023 · SHOT designates selected Global Community Scholars for a two-year term. These scholars act as ambassadors for the society in their countries and regions.
[91]
Kranzberg's Six Laws of Technology, a Metaphor, and a Story
Aug 25, 2011 · It captures the view I've taken to calling “technological voluntarism,” technological determinism's opposite. Technology merely presents an ...
[92]
[2005.14165] Language Models are Few-Shot Learners - arXiv
May 28, 2020 · GPT-3 achieves strong performance on many NLP datasets, including translation, question-answering, and cloze tasks, as well as several tasks ...
[93]
Announcing Grok - xAI
Nov 3, 2023 · Grok is an AI modeled after the Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, so intended to answer almost anything and, far harder, even suggest what questions to ask!Missing: 2023-2025 | Show results with:2023-2025
[94]
[PDF] How Predictable Are Large Language Model Capabilities? A Case ...
Dec 6, 2023 · LLMs' performance on BIG-bench follows pre- dictable patterns. In ... from zero-shot to one-shot, and the performance improves more ...
[95]
[PDF] On the Limitations of Zero-Shot Classification of Causal Relations by ...
Mar 24, 2024 · Our tests show some limitations of LLM approaches in the causal domain, this being the case either for zero-shot and few-shot setups. Notably, ...
[96]
What is Shot Peening and How Does it Work? - TWI Global
Shot peening is a cold work process that uses shots to create compressive stresses on a surface, modifying mechanical properties. It works by striking a ...
[97]
[PDF] Shot Peening Aerospace Solutions
Shot peening is a cold working process using small shot to create dimples on metal surfaces, creating compressive stress. It's used on parts like gear parts ...
[98]
[PDF] History of Shot Peening Specificationsby Jack Champaigne
Jack Champaigne, with extensive experience, presented the history of shot peening specifications. He is a member of SAE and president of Electronics Inc. (EI).
[99]
[PDF] ALMEN STRIP PROCESS CONTROL - shotpeener.com
The Almen test strip is one of the greatest contributions to shot peening process control. It provides a means of determining process consistency.
[100]
Enhancing Metal Parts Through Shot Peening - The ANSI Blog
May 9, 2018 · Shot Peening, as covered in SAE AMS 2430U-2018, involves the impingement of small spherical metallic, glass, or ceramic shot, against metal ...
[101]
[PDF] Effect of Shot Peening on Surfiwe Fatigue Life of Carburized and ...
Shot-peened gears showed 1.6 times the fatigue life of standard gears, due to higher compressive stress, and 1.5 times calculated by measured stress difference.
[102]
Shot Peening of HPT and Compressor Blade Roots - FerroECOBlast
Jun 11, 2025 · In fact, shot peening can increase fatigue life by several times improves on the order of 3× to 10× (up to 1000% increase) have been documented ...
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[PDF] effect of shot peening on the pitting fatigue - shotpeener.com
Shot-peened gears show improved fatigue limit and life. Residual compressive stress from shot peening suppresses cracking, improving pitting fatigue strength.
[104]
Shot Peening of Fabricated Structures - SAE International
Apr 1, 1989 · The purpose of this paper is to focus on controlled shot peening and provide design engineers with an understanding of an important tool for ...
[105]
Shot Peening vs. Laser Peening - LSP Technologies
Laser peening consistently outperforms shot peening when it comes to the material enhancement properties associated with compressive residual stresses.
[106]
Shot Peening or Laser Peening: A Comparative Guide to Their ...
Laser peening is a deep compressive stress process that achieves 5x-10x the depth of shot peening.
[107]
[PDF] Effects of Laser and Shot Peening on fatigue life in Friction Stir Welds
The results indicate a significant increase in fatigue life using laser peening compared to shot peened versus their native welded specimens. Keywords: friction ...