Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Sodium salt

Sodium salts are a class of ionic compounds consisting of sodium cations (Na⁺) and various anions derived from acids, encompassing both inorganic examples like sodium chloride (NaCl) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH), and organic ones such as sodium acetate.^[1] These compounds are essential in numerous applications, including nutrition, industry, agriculture, pharmaceuticals, and scientific research. The most prominent sodium salt is sodium chloride, commonly known as table salt, an inorganic compound with the formula NaCl that has been vital to human civilization since prehistoric times for food preservation, flavoring, and trade due to its antimicrobial properties.^[2] In modern contexts, sodium salts provide dietary sodium crucial for fluid balance, nerve function, and muscle contraction, though excess intake is associated with health issues like hypertension.^[3] Industrially, they serve as feedstocks in processes like the chlor-alkali production of chlorine and sodium hydroxide for manufacturing plastics, paper, and textiles, with global sodium chloride production exceeding 300 million metric tons annually as of 2023, mainly via solar evaporation of seawater or rock salt mining.^[4]^[5]

Fundamentals

Definition and Nomenclature

Sodium salts are ionic compounds composed of the sodium cation (Na⁺) paired with a variety of anions, resulting in a neutral overall charge.^[6] These compounds typically form through the neutralization reaction of sodium hydroxide (a base) with acids or by direct reaction of sodium metal with acids.^[7] In nomenclature, sodium salts adhere to International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) conventions, where the name begins with "sodium" followed by the name of the anion, often modified to end in "-ide" for simple inorganic anions or retaining the acid's name with "-ic acid" replaced by "-ate" for oxyanions.^[8] For example, the inorganic salt sodium chloride is denoted as NaCl, while the organic salt sodium acetate is CH₃COONa.^[9] Sodium salts are distinguished from the rare covalent sodium compounds by their predominantly ionic bonding character, which arises from sodium's low first ionization energy of 495.8 kJ/mol, allowing it to readily lose its 3s valence electron and form the stable Na⁺ cation.^[10] The term "salt" originates from ancient observations of crystalline deposits formed by the evaporation of seawater or brine, a process recognized since prehistoric times for producing sodium chloride, the archetypal salt.^[11] In modern chemistry, this historical usage evolved by the late 18th century to encompass any ionic compound analogous to these natural crystals.^[11]

General Properties

Sodium salts are predominantly ionic compounds, characterized by strong electrostatic interactions between Na⁺ cations and their associated anions, which impart distinct physical properties. This ionic lattice structure results in high melting points, as significant energy is required to overcome the interionic forces; for instance, sodium chloride (NaCl) melts at 801°C.^[6] In the solid state, these compounds are typically electrical insulators, but upon dissolution in water, they dissociate into free ions, enabling high electrical conductivity in aqueous solutions.^[12] A key chemical property of sodium salts is their general solubility in water, governed by the small ionic radius (102 pm) and high charge density of Na⁺, which facilitates strong hydration shells around the ions, overcoming lattice energies.^[13] Solubility rules confirm that all sodium salts are soluble.^[14] Many exhibit hygroscopic behavior, readily absorbing atmospheric moisture; sodium sulfate (Na₂SO₄), for example, is notably hygroscopic and prone to efflorescence in humid environments, where it spontaneously loses water of crystallization to form lower hydrates. Reactivity patterns in sodium salts often involve hydrolysis, particularly for those with basic anions, leading to pH-dependent solutions. Salts like sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃) produce alkaline aqueous solutions through the hydrolysis of the carbonate ion:

\text{CO}_3^{2-} + \text{H}_2\text{O} \rightleftharpoons \text{HCO}_3^- + \text{OH}^-

This equilibrium shifts to generate excess hydroxide ions, rendering the solution basic.^[15] Thermal stability varies among sodium salts, with many maintaining integrity at elevated temperatures due to their ionic bonding, though oxoanion-containing variants, such as nitrates or carbonates, may decompose above 500–600°C for nitrates and higher for carbonates, releasing gases like oxygen or carbon dioxide.^[16] This decomposition behavior is crucial for applications involving high-heat processes.

Organic Sodium Salts

Synthesis Methods

The primary laboratory method for synthesizing organic sodium salts, particularly sodium carboxylates, involves the neutralization of the corresponding carboxylic acid with sodium hydroxide or sodium bicarbonate. This acid-base reaction proceeds quantitatively in aqueous or alcoholic media, yielding the sodium salt and water as a byproduct; for instance, acetic acid reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium acetate according to the equation:

\mathrm{CH_3COOH + NaOH \rightarrow CH_3COONa + H_2O}

The reaction is typically carried out at ambient or mildly elevated temperatures to ensure complete deprotonation without decomposition, and the resulting salt can be isolated by evaporation or precipitation.^[17]^[18] This approach is versatile for aliphatic and simple aromatic carboxylic acids, leveraging the acidity of the carboxyl group (pKa ≈ 4-5) to drive the equilibrium toward salt formation. For cases where aqueous conditions are incompatible, such as with moisture-sensitive compounds, metathesis reactions provide an alternative by exchanging anions between preformed organic salts. A classic example is the reaction of a silver carboxylate with sodium chloride in an anhydrous solvent, displacing the less soluble silver chloride precipitate and yielding the sodium carboxylate:

\mathrm{RCOOAg + NaCl \rightarrow RCOONa + AgCl \downarrow}

This double decomposition is favored by the insolubility of silver halides, enabling high yields under mild conditions and avoiding protonation steps that might lead to side products.^[18] Such metathesis routes are particularly useful in organometallic synthesis where direct neutralization could introduce impurities or catalyze unwanted reactions. Direct reaction of sodium metal with organic acids under anhydrous conditions offers another route for sensitive substrates, producing the sodium salt and hydrogen gas. Carboxylic acids react vigorously with sodium, similar to their behavior with other reactive metals, forming the carboxylate salt; this method is less common due to the hazards of alkali metals but is employed for compounds prone to hydrolysis. The reaction requires careful control of temperature and inert atmosphere to prevent ignition or reduction side products. On an industrial scale, organic sodium salts like sodium benzoate are produced via neutralization of benzoic acid (derived from toluene oxidation) with sodium hydroxide in large reactors, followed by purification through filtration, decolorization, and recrystallization from water or ethanol to achieve high purity (>99%). Continuous flow systems, such as plug flow reactors (PFR) or continuous stirred-tank reactors (CSTR), enhance efficiency by maintaining steady-state conditions, reducing batch-to-batch variability, and minimizing energy use compared to traditional batch processes; for sodium benzoate, PFRs offer near-complete conversion at residence times of 30-60 minutes.^[19]^[20] Synthesis of aromatic sodium salts presents challenges, including the risk of side reactions such as decarboxylation at elevated temperatures or oxidative degradation during neutralization, necessitating precise pH control (7.5-8.0) and inert atmospheres to preserve yield and purity.^[18]

Pharmaceutical Applications

Organic sodium salts play a crucial role in pharmaceutical formulations, serving as active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) or excipients to enhance drug solubility, dissolution rates, and bioavailability, particularly for weakly acidic compounds that exhibit poor aqueous solubility in their neutral forms.^[21] By forming salts through neutralization with sodium hydroxide or similar bases, these compounds achieve higher ionization at physiological pH, facilitating better absorption in the gastrointestinal tract and improving therapeutic efficacy.^[21] One prominent example is sodium valproate, the sodium salt of valproic acid, widely used as an anticonvulsant for treating various epilepsy syndromes, including generalized and partial seizures, due to its broad-spectrum action that blocks voltage-gated sodium channels, enhances GABAergic transmission, and inhibits excitatory neurotransmission.^[22] This salt form offers superior solubility compared to the free acid, enabling effective oral and intravenous administration with rapid absorption and high bioavailability exceeding 90%.^[22] Similarly, sodium diclofenac, the sodium salt of diclofenac, is employed for its anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antipyretic effects in conditions like arthritis and acute pain, where the salt enhances membrane transport and gastrointestinal absorption rates over the free acid form, achieving up to 60% systemic bioavailability despite first-pass metabolism.^[23]^[24]^[25] Sodium cromoglycate (also known as cromolyn sodium) exemplifies the use of organic sodium salts as mast cell stabilizers in asthma management, preventing the release of inflammatory mediators such as histamine and leukotrienes from sensitized mast cells by inhibiting calcium influx, thereby reducing bronchoconstriction and allergic responses without bronchodilatory effects.^[26] Available in inhaled dosage forms, the typical regimen for adults and children over 5 years is 20 mg four times daily via nebulizer or metered-dose inhaler, providing prophylactic control of mild persistent asthma with minimal systemic absorption and an excellent safety profile.^[26]^[27] Regulatory bodies like the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approve sodium salts in injectable formulations to maintain pH stability and prevent hydrolysis or degradation, as outlined in stability testing guidelines that emphasize evaluating drug substances across pH ranges to ensure shelf-life integrity and patient safety.^[28] This is particularly relevant for parenteral products, where sodium salts help achieve physiological pH (around 7.0-7.4) while enhancing solubility for rapid onset of action.^[29] Historically, the development of organic sodium salts advanced antibiotic therapy with the introduction of sodium penicillin G in the early 1940s, which improved the stability and solubility of penicillin for large-scale production and intravenous use during World War II, enabling effective treatment of bacterial infections that were previously untreatable.^[30] This innovation marked a pivotal shift in pharmaceutical salt usage, setting precedents for formulating poorly soluble APIs into stable, bioavailable dosage forms.^[31]

Agricultural and Industrial Applications

Organic sodium salts play a significant role in agricultural applications, particularly in plant protection. Historically, sodium arsenite served as a non-selective herbicide for weed control in crops and livestock dips, applied due to its efficacy in killing vegetation and parasites.^[32] However, its use was phased out in many regions in the late 20th and early 21st centuries owing to high toxicity, including risks of arsenic accumulation in soil and groundwater, leading to chronic health effects in humans and animals; for example, it was banned in the European Union in 2003.^[33]^[34] In contrast, sodium chlorate remains in limited agricultural use as a defoliant and herbicide for perennial weeds such as Canada thistle and Johnson grass, typically applied at rates of 3-7 kg/ha (2.5-6 lb/acre) to desiccate plant material without fully killing the crop.^[35] Its oxidative properties disrupt photosynthesis and cell membranes, aiding harvest preparation in crops like cotton and sorghum.^[36] In the cosmetics industry, sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) is a widely employed anionic surfactant derived from lauryl alcohol, valued for its foaming and emulsification capabilities in shampoos and cleansers.^[37] SLS lowers surface tension to enable effective dirt and oil removal from hair and skin, while generating stable lather that enhances user perception of cleansing efficacy.^[38] Concentrations typically range from 10-20% in formulations, where it acts as an emulsifier to stabilize oil-water mixtures in products like body washes.^[39] Sodium salts of sulfonic acids, such as sodium naphthionate, are essential intermediates in the synthesis of azo dyes for textile coloring. Sodium naphthionate, prepared by sulfonation of 1-naphthylamine, undergoes diazotization and coupling reactions to form vibrant azo compounds used in direct and reactive dyes for cotton and wool fabrics.^[40] Its water-solubilizing sulfonate group facilitates uniform dye application, producing shades from red to blue in textile processing.^[41] These salts enable the production of acid-fast colors resistant to washing and light exposure, critical for industrial-scale dyeing operations. In industrial applications, sodium gluconate functions as a chelating agent in detergents, binding to metal ions like calcium and magnesium to prevent scale formation in washing machines and pipes.^[42] This sequestration enhances cleaning efficiency by maintaining alkalinity and reducing precipitation, often incorporated at 1-5% in formulations for household and industrial cleaners.^[43] Environmental impacts of these organic sodium salts in wastewater include varying biodegradation rates, influencing their persistence in aquatic systems. Sodium lauryl sulfate exhibits high biodegradability, achieving 94-97% degradation within 28 days under aerobic conditions per OECD 301 guidelines, primarily through hydrolytic cleavage into sulfate and fatty alcohols by microbial action.^[44] Similarly, sodium gluconate is readily biodegradable, with 98% removal observed after 2 days in activated sludge tests, posing minimal long-term risk to wastewater treatment processes.^[45] Sodium naphthionate, as part of azo dye intermediates, shows slower degradation due to the aromatic structure, but overall effluent from dye production can be mitigated through advanced oxidation or biological treatment to reduce recalcitrant organics.^[40]

Inorganic Sodium Salts

Common Compounds and Properties

Sodium chloride (NaCl), commonly known as table salt, exhibits a face-centered cubic crystal structure, characteristic of its rock salt lattice, which contributes to its high stability and ionic bonding.^[46] Its solubility in water is approximately 36 g per 100 mL at 25°C, making it moderately soluble and essential for various aqueous processes.^[46] NaCl serves as a key electrolyte in the chlor-alkali process, where its aqueous solution undergoes electrolysis to produce chlorine gas at the anode.^[47] Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), also called caustic soda, is a deliquescent white solid that readily absorbs moisture from the air to form a solution. Its dissolution in water is highly exothermic, with a standard enthalpy change of ΔH = -44.5 kJ/mol, generating significant heat and requiring careful handling. A 1 M solution of NaOH has a pH of 14, reflecting its strong basicity due to complete dissociation into Na⁺ and OH⁻ ions. Sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃) exists in anhydrous form (soda ash) and as the decahydrate (washing soda, Na₂CO₃·10H₂O), with the hydrated form featuring a monoclinic crystal structure that releases water upon heating.^[48] Upon thermal decomposition, anhydrous Na₂CO₃ breaks down above 851°C to yield sodium oxide (Na₂O) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) according to the reaction Na₂CO₃ → Na₂O + CO₂. Sodium sulfate (Na₂SO₄) displays notable phase transitions, transitioning between its anhydrous orthorhombic form and the decahydrate known as Glauber's salt (Na₂SO₄·10H₂O), which melts congruently at 32.4°C and is used in thermal energy storage due to its latent heat properties.^[49] The anhydrous form exhibits low hygroscopicity compared to other sodium salts like NaOH or Na₂CO₃, allowing it to remain dry in humid conditions.^[50] It finds application in glass manufacturing as a flux to lower the melting point of silica.^[51]

Industrial and Biological Uses

Inorganic sodium salts are produced on a massive industrial scale to meet demands in various sectors. The Solvay process, developed in the 19th century, remains a primary method for manufacturing sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃), involving the reaction of ammonia (NH₃), carbon dioxide (CO₂), and sodium chloride (NaCl) to form sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃) and ammonium chloride (NH₄Cl), followed by calcination of the bicarbonate to yield Na₂CO₃.^[52] This process is energy-efficient and uses abundant raw materials like brine and limestone, producing approximately 60 million metric tons of soda ash as of 2024 worldwide.^[53] Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), another key inorganic salt, is predominantly produced through the chlor-alkali process, where electrolysis of aqueous NaCl brine generates NaOH, chlorine gas (Cl₂), and hydrogen gas (H₂) in membrane cells that separate the anode and cathode compartments to prevent recombination.^[54] This electrolytic method accounts for nearly all global NaOH production, approximately 84 million metric tons as of 2024.^[55] Among bulk applications, sodium chloride (NaCl) serves as a preservative in food processing by inhibiting microbial growth through osmotic pressure and lowering water activity, essential for products like cured meats and pickled vegetables.^[56] It is also widely used for de-icing roads and sidewalks, where it depresses the freezing point of water to below 0°C, enabling safer winter transportation; in the United States, this accounts for about 41% of NaCl consumption.^[57] Sodium hydroxide plays a central role in soap production via saponification, the hydrolysis of triglycerides in fats or oils with NaOH to form glycerol and sodium carboxylates (soap molecules), a reaction that has been industrially scaled since the early 20th century.^[58] Biologically, the sodium ion (Na⁺) functions as a critical electrolyte, maintaining fluid balance across cell membranes and extracellular fluids through the sodium-potassium pump (Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase), which regulates osmotic pressure and cell volume.^[59] It is indispensable for nerve impulse transmission, where Na⁺ influx through voltage-gated channels depolarizes neurons, enabling action potentials that propagate signals at speeds up to 100 m/s.^[60] In human blood plasma, Na⁺ concentration is tightly controlled at 135-145 mM to support these functions and prevent imbalances like hyponatremia.^[61] Sodium phosphate salts, such as those in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), act as buffers in biological systems and laboratory applications, stabilizing pH around 7.4 to mimic physiological conditions and protect enzymes and cells from pH fluctuations.^[62] Excess dietary sodium, primarily from NaCl, is linked to hypertension, as it increases blood volume and vascular resistance, raising systolic blood pressure by approximately 2-5 mmHg per 2 g daily increment in intake, with greater effects in individuals with hypertension.^[63] The World Health Organization recommends limiting sodium intake to less than 2g per day for adults to mitigate these cardiovascular risks, a guideline supported by global epidemiological data showing reduced stroke and heart disease incidence with adherence.^[64] Recent advancements in sustainable production focus on membrane electrolysis in the chlor-alkali process, where improved ion-exchange membranes and electrode coatings have reduced energy consumption by up to 20% compared to older diaphragm cells, with efficiencies reaching 2.2-2.5 kWh/kg Cl₂ since the early 2020s.^[65] These innovations, including zero-gap cell designs, minimize electrical losses and enable integration with renewable energy sources, lowering the carbon footprint of NaOH and Cl₂ production.^[66] As of 2025, advancements include the acquisition of major natural soda ash producers, enhancing supply chain sustainability.^[67]

References

[1]
Sodium Chloride | ClNa | CID 5234 - PubChem
Sodium chloride is an inorganic chloride salt having sodium(1+) as the counterion. It has a role as an emetic, a flame retardant and a NMR chemical shift ...
[2]
SODIUM CHLORIDE - UMD
Nov 17, 1999 · 9. Physical and Chemical Properties ; Appearance: White crystals. ; Odor: Odorless. ; Solubility: 36g/100cc water @ 20C (68F) ; Specific Gravity:
[3]
Sodium Chloride Formula - Housing Innovations
Jan 8, 2025 · The chemical properties of sodium chloride are characterized by its high melting point of 800.7°C and boiling point of 1413°C. The compound is ...
[4]
Compare-Contrast-Connect: The Role of Salt in Human History
Humans have used salt as a food preservative since prehistoric times, especially for meat and seafood. Salt absorbs the water needed by the harmful microbes.Missing: sodium chloride
[5]
[PDF] Sodium Chloride Profile - ResearchGate
It is phytotoxic, which means it can be used as an herbicide, desiccant, and defoliant. Its pesticidal uses are many: antimicrobial, bactericide, fungicide; ...
[6]
Salt and Sodium - The Nutrition Source
Salt, also known as sodium chloride, is about 40% sodium and 60% chloride. It flavors food and is used as a binder and stabilizer. It is also a food.Missing: chemical | Show results with:chemical
[7]
Salt Statistics and Information | U.S. Geological Survey - USGS.gov
Salt is used as feedstock for chlorine and caustic soda manufacture; these two inorganic chemicals are used to make many consumer-related end-use products, ...
[8]
Naming Salts (Ionic Compounds) - St. Olaf College
Salts are ionic compounds which, when dissolved in water, break up completely into ions. They arise by the reaction of acids with bases, and they always contain ...
[9]
[PDF] Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry | IUPAC
... salts; the two-word names in some ways resembled the binary system ... sodium chloride, NaCl. 3. phosphorus trichloride, PCl3. 4. trisodium ...
[10]
[PDF] Principles of Chemical Nomenclature - iupac
The names of salts of carboxylic acids are binary, as in sodium acetate. Names of esters and acyl halides are constructed in a similar way: methyl acetate ...
[11]
Ionic and Molecular Compounds and Bonding
Many metallic elements have relatively low ionization potentials (the energy necessary to remove an electron from an atom) and lose electrons easily. These ...
[12]
Ionic Bonding – Chemistry - UH Pressbooks
Many metallic elements have relatively low ionization potentials and lose electrons easily.
[13]
Salt - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
### Summary of "Salt" Etymology and Chemistry/Ancient Observations
[14]
A Guide to the Solubility of Ionic Compounds in Water - Alfa Chemistry
For example, alkali metal salts, such as sodium chloride (NaCl), generally exhibit high solubility in water due to the weak lattice energy and strong hydration ...
[15]
Hydrolysis of Salt and pH of Their Solutions | CK-12 Foundation
This hydrolysis reaction results in an increase in the concentration of hydroxide ions (OH-), making the solution alkaline (pH > 7). Hydrolysis Constant (Kh).
[16]
[PDF] High Temperature Properties and Decomposition of Inorganic Salts ...
Oct 29, 2009 · Auxiliary data on phase transitions and densities have also been included. Qualitative information about the thermal decomposition of the salts.
[17]
Sodium Carboxylate - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Sodium carboxylate is defined as a salt formed from the reaction of sodium ions with carboxylic acids, which can lead to the formation of deposits in diesel ...
[18]
Synthesis of Alkali Metal Carboxylates and Carboxylic Acids Using ...
The reaction proved to be superior to that which uses instead aqueous sodium hydroxide in the presence of t-butanol or methanol. (44) The latter conditions have ...Missing: metathesis | Show results with:metathesis
[19]
Salt Metathesis: An Ultimate Click Reaction | Precision Chemistry
Nov 20, 2024 · Salt metathesis, also known as double decomposition or double displacement, is a time-honored method predominantly employed in the realm of ...
[20]
Sodium Benzoate Production Cost Analysis Reports 2025
Production from Toluene: The process involves the oxidation of nitric acid, which produces benzoic acid, followed by its neutralization with sodium hydroxide or ...
[21]
Reactors functional parameters for sodium benzoate production
The various process performances of the Batch Reactor, Continuous Stirred-Tank Reactor (CSTR) and Plug Flow Reactor (PFR) for the production of sodium ...Missing: industrial | Show results with:industrial
[22]
Salts of Therapeutic Agents: Chemical, Physicochemical, and ... - NIH
Readily hydrolyzable drugs are more easily degraded due to the presence of water and pH alterations in the microenvironment of the salt.Missing: general | Show results with:general
[23]
Valproic Acid - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Mar 19, 2024 · The therapeutic uses of VPA include epilepsy treatment across different seizure types, bipolar disorder management, and migraine prophylaxis.Continuing Education Activity · Indications · Mechanism of Action · Administration
[24]
Advances in NSAID Development: Evolution of Diclofenac Products ...
Diclofenac absorption following administration of enteric-coated diclofenac sodium tablets is usually delayed by approximately 0.5–2 h, although some ...
[25]
Diclofenac | C14H11Cl2NO2 | CID 3033 - PubChem - NIH
Diclofenac is completely absorbed from the GI tract but likely undergoes significant first pass metabolism with only 60% of the drug reaching systemic ...Diclofenac sodium · Diclofenac Potassium · 4'-Hydroxydiclofenac
[26]
Comparison of Skin Permeation and Putative Anti-Inflammatory ...
Nov 4, 2020 · ... diclofenac sodium has a higher rate of membrane transport than diclofenac DEA owing to the higher saturation solubility of the sodium salt.
[27]
Cromolyn Sodium - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Oct 28, 2024 · Children older than 12 years and adults: Cromolyn sodium solution 200 mg by mouth 4 times daily; may double dose if inadequate symptom control ...
[28]
Cromolyn sodium: a review of mechanisms and clinical use in asthma
Cromolyn sodium inhibits the release of mediators of inflammation, induced by specific antigens as well as nonspecific mechanisms, such as exercise, from mast ...
[29]
[PDF] Guidance for Industry Q1A(R2) Stability Testing of New Drug ... - FDA
susceptibility of the drug substance to hydrolysis across a wide range of pH values when in solution or suspension. Photostability testing should be an integral ...Missing: sodium | Show results with:sodium
[30]
[PDF] NDA 214103: OXLUMO (Lumasiran) Injection - accessdata.fda.gov
Oct 30, 2020 · The drug substance is the sodium salt of a chemically synthesized ... sodium hydroxide and/or phosphoric acid to adjust the pH to ~7.0.
[31]
Exhibition - Making “Yellow Magic” - National Library of Medicine - NIH
Penicillin manufacture at Oxford University, early 1940s Six “Penicillin Girls” nurtured the growing mold and harvested the penicillin from the hundreds of ...
[32]
Drugs That Changed Society: History and Current Status of the Early ...
Oct 7, 2021 · ... penicillin was invented in the 1940s. The naturally occurring β-lactams afforded access to efficient antibiotic drugs [15,16,17]. The term ...
[33]
[PDF] arsenic.pdf - USGS Publications Warehouse
Lead arsenate and Paris green (copper acetoar- senite) were used for arsenical sprays, and sodium arsenite was used as a weed killer and in sheep and cattle ...Missing: phased | Show results with:phased<|separator|>
[34]
[PDF] Arsenical Pesticides
Numerous chronic effects are associated with arsenic. Most uses of arsenic as a pesticide, as previously noted, have been discontinued, and most arsenic ...
[35]
[PDF] Sodium Chlorate - Agricultural Marketing Service
Nov 6, 2000 · It is used as spot treatment for serious perennial weeds, such as morning glory, Canada thistle, and Johnson grass and for vegetation control ...
[36]
Sodium Chlorate - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Sodium chlorate has been in use as a weed killer since 1910. The commercial product is about 99% pure and is applied at rates of about 100 to 200 kg/ha. In some ...
[37]
Sodium lauryl sulfate: Uses, Interactions, Mechanism of Action
Sodium lauryl sulfate is an anionic surfactant used in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals as a fat emulsifier, wetting agent, and detergent.
[38]
Sodium Lauryl Sulfate (SLS) - Chemical Safety Facts
An effective foaming agent, SLS can help create a rich lather in products like body and hand wash, facial cleansers and bubble.
[39]
Sodium Lauryl Sulfate (SLS) – High-Foaming Surfactant for ...
Jul 23, 2025 · Sodium Lauryl Sulfate (SLS) is an anionic surfactant known for its foaming, detergency, and emulsification, used in personal care, household, ...
[40]
The Chemistry of Color: Sodium Naphthionate in Dye Synthesis
Nov 3, 2025 · Explore the chemical synthesis of Sodium Naphthionate (CAS 130-13-2) and its vital role in creating vibrant azo dyes for textiles, leather, ...
[41]
Sodium naphthionate - Multichem Exports
It is primarily used as a key intermediate in the manufacture of azo dyes, pigments, and optical brightening agents. Its sulfonate group imparts water ...
[42]
[PDF] Supporting Information for Low-Priority Substance D-Gluconic Acid ...
Aug 15, 2019 · sodium gluconate as a chelating agent and sequestrant in paints, and SPIN reports use in paints in Nordic countries. Expected users are ...
[43]
"Benefits of Sodium Gluconate in Detergents and Cleaners"
Feb 1, 2025 · Sodium gluconate enhances cleaning, prevents scaling, improves detergent performance, and is biodegradable and eco-friendly.
[44]
[PDF] Lauryl (dodecyl) sulfates - Evaluation statement - 22 December 2022
Dec 22, 2022 · In 2 tests conducted according to OECD test guidelines 301B and 301D, 94–97% degradation was measured, and the 10-day window met (REACHa).
[45]
https://www.jungbunzlauer.com/ingredient/sodium-gluconate/
[46]
https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Sodium-Chloride#section=Chemical-and-Physical-Properties
[47]
Chlorine and Hydrogen Chloride - epa nepis
The majority of chlorine is produced by the electrolysis of sodium chloride or potassium chloride brine solution; small quantities are produced by the ...
[48]
https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Sodium-Carbonate#section=Chemical-and-Physical-Properties
[49]
https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Sodium-Sulfate#section=Chemical-and-Physical-Properties
[50]
[PDF] Sodium Sulfate Anhydrous from Canada
May 3, 2019 · Glauber's salt (Na2SO4∙10H2O), also known as sodium sulfate decahydrate, an ... unlike sodium sulfate decahydrate (Na2SO4∙10H2O, Glauber's Salt), ...
[51]
Assessment of Industrial Hazardous Waste Practices - epa nepis
This report assesses industrial hazardous waste practices in the inorganic chemicals industry, including waste characterization and treatment/disposal ...
[52]
Sodium Carbonate | Na2CO3 | CID 10340 - PubChem
Sodium Carbonate is the disodium salt of carbonic acid with alkalinizing property. When dissolved in water, sodium carbonate forms carbonic acid and sodium ...Missing: thermal | Show results with:thermal
[53]
[PDF] Sodium Carbonate - Agricultural Marketing Service - USDA
Mar 5, 1995 · The Solvay process uses salt (sodium chloride) and limestone (calcium carbonate) to produce soda ash (sodium carbonate) and calcium chloride.<|control11|><|separator|>
[54]
[PDF] Water Treatment Chemical Supply Chain Profile - Sodium Hydroxide
The majority of sodium hydroxide is produced using the chlor-alkali process, which involves passing a direct electric current through a sodium chloride brine ( ...
[55]
[PDF] The Chlor-Alkali Industry - eere.energy.gov
In 1864, a Belgium chemist named Ernest. Solvay invented the ammonia-soda or Solvay process for manufacture of sodium carbonate. (soda ash). While this process ...
[56]
Sodium Chloride in Food - PMC - PubMed Central
Aug 6, 2025 · Salt was used by humans to preserve food and as an additive to dishes. The expansion of salt utilization occurred only in the past two hundred ...
[57]
[PDF] Water Treatment Chemical Supply Chain Profile - Sodium Chloride
It is also widely used in chemical production via the chlor-alkali process, as a bulking agent in powdered soaps and detergents, flavor and preservation of ...
[58]
Saponification of fat: synthesis of soap - NJIT
Usually, sodium hydroxide is used in formation of hard soap while potassium hydroxide is used in case of soft soap. Scheme 2. Saponification Reaction. Mechanism ...
[59]
Sodium - PMC - NIH
Sodium is an essential nutrient involved in the maintenance of normal cellular homeostasis and in the regulation of fluid and electrolyte balance and blood ...
[60]
Electrolytes - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Jul 24, 2023 · It is involved in skeletal mineralization, contraction of muscles, the transmission of nerve impulses, blood clotting, and secretion of hormones ...
[61]
Fluid and Electrolyte Balance - MedlinePlus
May 16, 2024 · Sodium, which helps control the amount of fluid in the body. It also helps your nerves and muscles work properly. You get these electrolytes ...Missing: impulses | Show results with:impulses
[62]
Universal buffers for use in biochemistry and biophysical experiments
One of the most common buffering agents is phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) which was formulated to match the ionic strength and pH of mammalian cells.
[63]
Sodium reduction - World Health Organization (WHO)
Feb 7, 2025 · An estimated 1.89 million deaths each year are associated with consuming too much sodium, a well-established cause of raised blood pressure and ...
[64]
Reducing sodium intake to reduce blood pressure and risk of ...
Aug 9, 2023 · WHO recommends a reduction in sodium intake to reduce blood pressure and risk of cardiovascular disease, stroke and coronary heart disease in adults.
[65]
Caustic Soda Production, Energy Efficiency, and Electrolyzers
Sep 15, 2021 · This indicates that if all methods had similar efficiencies, EDBM and DE would use less energy to produce NaOH than the chlor-alkali processes.
[66]
[PDF] Energy Efficiency and Cost-Saving Opportunities for the Chlor-Alkali ...
Jan 14, 2025 · As with membranes, using improved-performance electrodes and coatings can improve cell operation and decrease energy use. Electrodes and ...