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Teide

Mount Teide is a prominent stratovolcano situated on the island of Tenerife in the Canary Islands, Spain, forming the highest peak in the country at 3,718 meters above sea level.^[1] Rising an additional 3,782 meters from the ocean floor, it ranks as the third-tallest volcanic structure on Earth and exemplifies a mature oceanic island volcano system.^[2] Composed primarily of basanites and mafic phonolites, Teide features a summit crater with ongoing fumarolic activity and is part of the larger Teide-Pico Viejo complex within the Las Cañadas Caldera, an elliptical depression measuring 16 by 10 kilometers.^[1] The volcano's last eruption occurred in 1798, marking it as historically active, though small-scale events have primarily occurred along Tenerife's rift zones.^[2] Encompassed by Teide National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2007, the area showcases a dramatic volcanic landscape with diverse landforms, including the steep Las Cañadas escarpment and a "sea of clouds" often visible below, while supporting unique high-altitude biodiversity such as rare endemic plants and birds adapted to the isolated island environment.^[2] The broader central volcanism on Tenerife traces back around 4 million years, with Teide's central edifice emerging around 170,000 years ago within the Las Cañadas Caldera following major explosive events that shaped the island's rift zones.^[1]^[3] The volcano has played a pivotal role in the history of volcanology, inspiring early studies by scientists like Alexander von Humboldt, Leopold von Buch, and Charles Lyell in the 19th century, who used its features to advance theories on volcanic formation and island genesis.^[2] Today, it remains monitored for subtle activity, including occasional low-level seismicity and elevated gas emissions—such as carbon dioxide reaching 354 tons per day in 2005—indicating a persistent magmatic system at depths of 3-4 kilometers.^[4] Pico Viejo, Teide's adjacent stratovolcano rising to 3,134 meters, complements the complex with the archipelago's largest crater and evidence of the 1798 Chahorra fissure eruption.^[1] The national park surrounding Teide protects not only its geological wonders but also a fragile ecosystem influenced by altitudinal zonation, from arid basal zones to alpine summits where frost and isolation foster endemism.^[2] Human interaction with the volcano dates to pre-Hispanic Guanche inhabitants, who revered it in mythology, and continues through tourism via the Teide Cableway, which ascends to 3,555 meters, offering access to hiking trails and viewpoints.^[2] As an active yet stable feature, Teide underscores the ongoing dynamics of hotspot volcanism in the Atlantic, providing critical insights into planetary processes while serving as a global icon of natural heritage.^[4]

Etymology and cultural significance

Name origin

The name "Teide" derives from the Guanche language spoken by the indigenous inhabitants of Tenerife, where the volcano was known as Echeyde, a term often interpreted as "hell" due to its volcanic nature, or possibly "mountain of evil," reflecting its active volcanic nature and the awe it inspired.^[5] This etymology underscores the Guanches' perception of the peak as a formidable and infernal force, tied to their cultural reverence for the landscape.^[6] Following the Spanish conquest of Tenerife, completed in 1496, the name was incorporated into the Spanish nomenclature as "Pico del Teide," meaning "Peak of Teide," preserving the indigenous root while adapting it to colonial usage. The adoption marked the integration of pre-Hispanic terminology into European cartography and records. In contemporary usage, the name remains largely consistent across languages, such as "Teide" in English and German, and "Pic de Teide" in French, reflecting its global recognition.^[7] The surrounding area is officially designated as Teide National Park by UNESCO, a World Heritage Site since 2007, further cementing the name's international prominence.^[2]

Legends and symbolism

In Guanche mythology, Mount Teide served as the infernal abode of Guayota, a malevolent demon considered the king of evil spirits and adversary to Achamán, the supreme creator god. According to legend, Guayota once abducted Magec, the god of the sun, imprisoning him within the volcano and casting the world into darkness; the desperate Guanches invoked Achamán, who defeated Guayota—represented as a black dog—sealed him inside Teide, and the persistent volcanic fumes emanating from the peak were interpreted as Guayota's labored breath in futile attempts to break free, symbolizing the ongoing struggle between good and evil in the natural world.^[8] Following the Spanish conquest in the late 15th century, Christian narratives overlaid Guanche beliefs, reinterpreting Teide's hellish reputation—derived from its Guanche name Echeyde, meaning "hell"—as a manifestation of divine retribution for sin, with its fiery eruptions evoking biblical scenes of judgment. The Virgin of Candelaria, discovered by Guanche shepherds in 1392 and adopted as the islands' patroness, became central to this symbolism; she was invoked for protection against Teide's volcanic perils, as documented in early colonial accounts of miracles averting eruptions and plagues, portraying the mountain as a site tempered by Marian intercession rather than unchecked demonic fury. Pilgrimages to Candelaria Basilica, near Teide's slopes, reinforced this, blending indigenous reverence with Catholic devotion during festivals like the August 15 Assumption, where devotees sought safeguarding from the volcano's wrath. In contemporary Spain, Teide symbolizes national pride as the country's highest peak at 3,718 meters, frequently depicted on postage stamps such as the 1966 tourism series honoring Canary Islands landmarks.^[9] Its iconic status extends to commemorative euro coins planned for issuance in 2049, underscoring its role as a cultural emblem of Spanish territory.^[10] Teide National Park's designation as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2007 highlights its value as an outstanding cultural landscape, integrating geological wonders with the enduring legacy of Guanche heritage.^[2]

Geography

Location and extent

Mount Teide is situated at coordinates 28°16′20″N 16°38′51″W in the central region of Tenerife, the largest island in the Canary Islands archipelago, which forms part of Spain's autonomous community in the Atlantic Ocean.^[11] The volcano lies within Teide National Park, a protected area spanning 18,990 hectares that encompasses the peak and its surrounding volcanic landscape.^[12] This central position places Teide approximately 40 km northeast of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, the island's capital, providing a notable proximity to the Atlantic Ocean while rising prominently from the island's interior.^[13] Teide occupies the Las Cañadas caldera, a vast depression formed between the ancient Anaga massif to the northeast and the Teno massif to the northwest, with the southern boundary marked by the Adeje or Roque del Conde massif.^[3] As part of the Macaronesian biogeographic region, which includes the Canary Islands, Madeira, and the Azores, the area features unique insular ecosystems influenced by its oceanic isolation.^[14] Administratively, the volcano falls under the municipality of La Orotava in the province of Santa Cruz de Tenerife.^[15] Elevations within the Teide National Park range from approximately 1,650 meters to the volcano's summit at 3,718 meters, making it the highest point in Spain and a dominant feature of Tenerife's skyline.^[2] This vertical extent highlights the volcano's role as a stratovolcano built upon the caldera's floor at around 2,200 meters above sea level.^[8]

Topography

Mount Teide is a prominent stratovolcano rising to a summit elevation of 3,718 meters above sea level, characterized by its classic conical shape built from layers of lava, ash, and pyroclastic deposits. The upper portion features the Montaña Blanca area, a distinctive pumice-covered plateau that transitions into the small summit crater, offering a stark white contrast against the darker volcanic rocks. Flanking the main cone to the southwest is Pico Viejo, a subsidiary stratovolcano reaching 3,135 meters, with its massive, breached crater measuring approximately 800 meters in diameter and exposing colorful inner walls of red and yellow hues. These twin structures dominate the central landscape, contributing to the volcano's rugged, symmetrical profile.^[2]^[16]^[17] Enclosing these peaks is the Las Cañadas Caldera, an expansive elliptical depression measuring about 16 kilometers east-west by 9 kilometers north-south, with walls rising up to 600 meters high and an average floor elevation of around 2,000 meters. This vast basin, with a perimeter of roughly 45 kilometers, creates a dramatic amphitheater-like enclosure that highlights the volcano's isolation and scale. The caldera's floor is punctuated by additional landforms, including the notable Roques de García, a cluster of eroded phonolitic rock formations such as the iconic Roque Cinchado, which resemble natural sculptures shaped by differential weathering. These features add vertical relief and textural variety to the otherwise broad interior.^[18]^[19]^[20] The terrain is further defined by extensive lava flows that radiate from the central cones, forming dark, pahoehoe and aa surfaces that blanket the slopes and caldera floor. Pumice fields, particularly prominent in the Montaña Blanca region, create loose, light-colored expanses ideal for erosion and trail formation, while scattered obsidian deposits—glassy black fragments from rapid cooling lava—dot the landscape, especially along flow bases. Overall, the slopes of Teide average 20-30 degrees, steepening near the summits and moderating in the caldera, resulting in a highly dissected and visually striking topography that occasionally supports seasonal snow cover influenced by regional climate patterns.^[21]^[22]^[23]

Climate

The climate of Teide National Park is classified as a high-altitude subtropical type, characterized by significant diurnal and seasonal temperature fluctuations due to its elevation above 2,000 meters. At the summit, annual temperatures typically range from -2°C to 12°C, with average values around 4–5°C, while base areas experience milder conditions between 8°C and 20°C. Low relative humidity, often 20–40%, prevails throughout the year, exacerbated by persistent winds, and ultraviolet radiation is exceptionally high, with UV indices frequently exceeding 10 in summer owing to the thin atmosphere at altitude.^[24]^[25]^[26] Precipitation in the park is moderate, averaging 400–600 mm annually, with the majority occurring as winter rain or snow; exceptional years can see over 800 mm due to variable weather patterns. The northeast trade winds play a key role, creating orographic lift that enhances moisture condensation on the upper slopes and leads to frequent fog and low clouds within the Las Cañadas caldera, particularly during the wetter months. This aridity and stability contribute to over 3,000 hours of sunshine per year, making the region one of Europe's sunniest high-altitude areas.^[24] Seasonal variations are pronounced, with snow accumulation from December to March occasionally forming temporary ice fields at the summit, mimicking brief glaciation under cold snaps below -5°C. Summers remain cool and dry, with minimal precipitation and clear skies dominating. Climate change impacts are evident in the reduced duration and extent of snow cover since the 1980s, attributed to rising temperatures; for instance, the 2023–2024 winter marked the first snowless season in over a century, reflecting a broader trend of approximately 50% decline in snow persistence during recent decades. These conditions shape the park's unique vegetation zones, from subalpine shrubs to high-mountain endemics adapted to aridity and frost.^[27]

Geology

Canary Islands and Tenerife formation

The Canary Islands constitute a volcanic archipelago situated in the Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of Africa, formed by hotspot volcanism associated with a mantle plume impinging on the underlying oceanic lithosphere of the African plate. Volcanic activity in the region initiated during the Miocene epoch around 23 million years ago, with submarine eruptions beginning as early as 70 million years ago in the Late Cretaceous, transitioning to subaerial volcanism approximately 20 million years ago. The archipelago comprises seven main islands—Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, Gran Canaria, Tenerife, La Gomera, La Palma, and El Hierro—along with several smaller islets, aligned in a roughly northwest-southeast chain spanning about 500 km. This alignment reflects the influence of the underlying hotspot and regional tectonic stresses near the passive continental margin.^[28]^[29]^[30] Geochemical and geochronological evidence supports a hotspot track model, characterized by progressive westward migration of volcanic activity, with the oldest subaerial stages on the eastern islands (Lanzarote and Fuerteventura, dated to ~20–15 million years ago) and progressively younger centers to the west, culminating in recent activity on La Palma and El Hierro (~1–0.1 million years ago). This temporal progression indicates sustained upwelling of mantle material along a fixed hotspot, interacting with the westward-moving African plate at rates of 1–4 cm per year. Tenerife emerges as one of the central and relatively young major volcanic edifices in this sequence, with its primary construction overlapping the late Miocene to Pliocene.^[28]^[31]^[32] Tenerife's geological development commenced with the edification of a basaltic shield volcano around 12 million years ago, during the Miocene, through prolonged effusive eruptions of alkaline basalts and trachybasalts that accumulated to form approximately 90% of the island's current volume. This shield phase rapidly built the edifice to an estimated maximum height of 4,500 meters above sea level, creating a broad, low-angle cone typical of hotspot-derived ocean island shields. Subsequent instability led to multiple giant flank collapses between approximately 7 and 4 million years ago, triggered by gravitational loading, magma intrusion, and flank instability, which excised large portions of the edifice and generated massive submarine debris avalanches. The surviving remnants of these early shields include the Anaga massif in the northeast (formed ~7–4.2 million years ago), the Teno massif in the northwest (~7–6.4 million years ago), and the southern Roque del Conde massif, preserving deeply eroded basaltic sequences and providing key insights into the island's formative stages.^[33]^[34]^[35]

Teide's volcanic evolution

The formation of Teide volcano commenced approximately 170,000 years ago in the aftermath of the Las Cañadas edifice collapse, which generated a debris avalanche deposit with an estimated volume of 5-8 km³. This event marked the onset of renewed volcanism within the resulting caldera, where the Teide-Pico Viejo complex began to develop as a nested central volcano. The collapse itself occurred between 175,000 and 180,000 years ago, primarily through vertical subsidence accompanied by limited flank failure, creating the structural foundation for subsequent growth.^[3]^[36] Teide's growth unfolded in five distinct evolutionary phases, reflecting progressive magmatic differentiation and structural buildup. Stage 1, dated to around 150,000 years ago, initiated with the extrusion of a phonolitic dome and associated lavas that filled parts of the collapse depression, establishing the foundational architecture of the central edifice. This phase transitioned into Stages 2 and 3 (approximately 100,000 to 30,000 years ago), during which the main stratocone was constructed through repeated eruptions of intermediate to felsic materials, accumulating roughly 200 km³ of volcanic products and elevating the structure significantly above the caldera floor. These stages involved central vent activity dominated by trachytic and phonolitic flows and domes, interspersed with minor explosive events that shaped the volcano's steep flanks.^[36]^[3] Stage 4, around 10,000 years ago, was characterized by the Lavas Negras explosive phase, which produced phonolitic pyroclastics and flows that contributed to the broadening of the upper edifice. The final Stage 5, over the last 7,000 years, focused on the growth of the summit cone through phonolitic eruptions, including dome-building and minor tephra falls, culminating in the current morphology. Throughout these phases, magma composition evolved from basaltic precursors in the early rift-influenced fillings to dominantly phonolitic and trachytic magmas in the later central phases, driven by fractional crystallization in shallow reservoirs. The present Teide edifice stands with a volume of approximately 5 km³ above the caldera floor, underscoring its relatively youthful and active construction.^[36]^[3]

Volcanic activity

Historical eruptions

The Lavas Negras eruption represents the most recent summit activity at Teide, occurring approximately 1,150 years ago (calibrated to A.D. 660–940). This phonolitic event produced extensive lava flows that covered much of the volcano's flanks, with an estimated volume of 0.5 km³, forming the dark, obsidian-rich Lavas Negras deposits visible today on the northern and southern slopes.^[3] The eruption was effusive, contributing to the growth of Teide's central cone, though no direct impacts on human populations are recorded due to the prehistoric timing and remote location.^[37] Historical records of Teide's activity begin with the 1492 Boca Cangrejo eruption on the northeast rift zone, observed by Christopher Columbus during his voyage past Tenerife's southern coast, where he noted flames and smoke from the island. This basaltic fissure event produced a scoria cone and lava flows, marking the first documented eruption after Spanish conquest, with no reported casualties but potential disruption to early colonial settlements.^[4] The 1704–1705 eruptions occurred along the southeast rift zone through multiple fissures at Siete Fuentes, Fasnia, and Las Arenas, lasting from December 1704 to March 1705 and characterized by effusive basaltic activity with VEI 2. Lava flows advanced toward the coast, covering agricultural lands and causing economic damage to crops in southern Tenerife, though the island's sparse population at the time resulted in no fatalities.^[4] In 1798, a lateral eruption at Pico Viejo (also known as Chahorra or Narices del Teide) on the western flank of the caldera lasted from June 9 to September 8, the longest recorded event at Teide, with VEI 2 and predominantly Strombolian style producing 'a'ā lava flows that reached altitudes down to 1,700 m. Ash and lapilli fallout affected northern areas including San Cristóbal de La Laguna, leading to temporary agricultural losses from tephra cover, but remoteness limited human impacts to property damage without deaths.^[4] The most recent eruption, Chinyero in 1909 on the northwest rift zone, began November 18 and lasted about 10 days (ending December 5), with VEI 2 Strombolian activity forming a scoria cone and basaltic lava flows totaling approximately 0.015 km³. The event caused minor agricultural damage in western Tenerife through lava coverage and light ashfall, but no fatalities occurred due to evacuation efforts and the area's low density.^[4]^[38] Overall, Teide's historical eruptions have been modest in scale (VEI 2–3), with impacts confined to localized lava inundation and tephra fallout affecting agriculture, but minimal loss of life owing to the volcano's central, sparsely populated position.^[4]

Recent monitoring and future risks

The Instituto Geográfico Nacional (IGN) and the Instituto Volcanológico de Canarias (INVOLCAN) maintain comprehensive monitoring networks for Teide volcano, including seismic stations, GPS instruments, and geochemical sensors to track volcanic unrest in real time.^[39]^[40] In August 2025, these networks detected two notable seismic swarms beneath Teide: one comprising over 700 microearthquakes with magnitudes below 1.5, occurring at depths of 8–14 km, and another on August 30 involving 90 low-magnitude tremors within 72 minutes.^[40]^[39] These events, while indicative of ongoing magmatic processes, were assessed as within normal volcanic activity and posed no immediate hazard.^[41] Geodetic monitoring has revealed subtle ground deformation since 2024, including 1–2 cm of uplift in the northeast rift zone of the Teide-Pico Viejo complex, detected via GPS and satellite interferometry.^[41] Concurrently, geochemical surveys noted increases in diffuse CO₂ emissions from the summit crater, signaling potential magma degassing at depth.^[39] To enhance preparedness, authorities conducted Spain's largest volcanic eruption simulation drill from September 22–26, 2025, modeling a VEI 3 event with scenarios involving ash dispersal, lava flows, and emergency evacuations across Tenerife.^[42] As of November 19, 2025, seismic activity has continued to increase, with 98 earthquakes recorded in November up to magnitudes of 2.7, including a long-period tremor beneath the southwest caldera on November 7 and an extended seismic event of M 2.2 detected in early November. Additional activity included 23 quakes up to M 2.5 on November 14 and 5 quakes up to M 1.5 on November 15 near Teide. These events remain within normal parameters, with the alert level maintained at green and no indication of imminent eruption.^[43]^[44]^[45] Risk assessments for Teide emphasize a low probability of a central eruption in the near term, estimated at 10% within the next 100 years and potentially not recurring for 100–1,000 years based on historical patterns of 16 events over 12,000 years, though rift zone activity remains higher due to frequent flank eruptions.^[46]^[47] Potential hazards include lahars from rapid snowmelt during eruptions and ashfall affecting air quality and infrastructure, threatening over 900,000 residents primarily in northern and northeastern Tenerife.^[46] These evaluations inform the green alert level maintained by IGN, prioritizing continued surveillance to mitigate impacts on the densely populated island.^[41]

Ecology

Flora

The flora of Teide National Park is characterized by a high level of endemism and remarkable adaptations to the volcano's extreme conditions, including intense solar radiation, strong winds, low temperatures, and periodic droughts. The park hosts more than 200 taxa of vascular plants, of which 31 are endemic to the Canary Islands and 33 to Tenerife, including 6 species exclusive to the park.^[48] This diversity reflects the isolated oceanic setting of the Canary archipelago, fostering unique evolutionary trajectories for many species. Vegetation in Teide is distributed across distinct altitudinal zones, influenced by climatic gradients. At the summit, above 3,000 meters, sparse communities dominate, featuring endemic species such as Viola cheiranthifolia (Violeta del Teide), a delicate violet adapted to cryogenic conditions, and Arenaria montana, a low-growing perennial that thrives in rocky, high-altitude substrates. In mid-altitude zones between 2,000 and 3,000 meters, more robust shrubs prevail, including the retama broom (Retama rhodorhizoides), a resilient leguminous shrub that stabilizes volcanic soils, and Echium wildpretii, known as the "red bugloss," which produces striking biennial blooms of tall, scarlet inflorescences during spring.^[49]^[50] Many Teide plants exhibit specialized adaptations to survive the harsh environment. Succulents like Aeonium haworthii store water in thick leaves to endure prolonged dry periods, while cushion-forming species such as Silene decadactyla create compact, low profiles to minimize exposure to freezing winds and frost. These morphological traits, including reduced leaf size and pubescence for insulation, enable persistence in the park's subalpine and alpine-like habitats.^[49]^[51] The native flora faces threats from invasive species, which compete for resources and alter habitats. For instance, Opuntia ficus-indica (prickly pear cactus), introduced historically, has established populations in lower park areas, potentially outcompeting endemic succulents through rapid spread and resource monopolization. Some endemic species are declining due to invasive species and climate change, with a 2025 study reporting a 70% reduction in animal-plant seed dispersal interactions, indicating potential ecological impacts. Additionally, as of 2024, warming has led to upward dispersal in 11 plant species beyond their current ranges.^[52]^[53]^[54]

Fauna

The fauna of Teide National Park is characterized by a high diversity of invertebrates adapted to the park's harsh volcanic and high-altitude environments, with vertebrates being relatively sparse due to the isolated island ecosystem. Invertebrates dominate, comprising the majority of animal life, while native amphibians and fish are absent, as the park lacks suitable aquatic habitats.^[55] Invertebrates represent the most abundant group, with over 1,400 species recorded, more than 40% of which are endemic to the Canary Islands and several exclusive to Teide. Notable among them are endemic beetles such as Pimelia laevigata, a darkling beetle adapted to the sandy, arid soils of the Cañadas del Teide, where it exhibits seasonal activity from April to October. Endemic spiders, including the orb-weaver Aculepeira annulipes, also thrive in the park's rocky terrains, contributing to the invertebrate richness that overlaps with floral habitats for foraging. Insect activity often increases following rainfall, leading to temporary blooms of beetles, butterflies, and other arthropods that exploit ephemeral moisture in the otherwise dry landscape.^[55]^[56]^[57]^[58] Vertebrate fauna is limited, with more than 25 bird species identified, including residents and occasional visitors, such as endemics like the blue chaffinch (Fringilla teydea), a passerine restricted to Tenerife's high-altitude pine forests within the park, and the Tenerife goldcrest (Regulus regulus teneriffae), a small insectivorous bird inhabiting laurel and pine zones. Reptiles include three endemic species: the Teide lizard (Gallotia galloti), a diurnal lacertid reaching up to 20 cm in total length and commonly seen basking on volcanic rocks; the Tenerife wall gecko (Tarentola delalandii); and the west Canary skink (Chalcides viridanus). Mammals consist primarily of introduced species such as feral goats (Capra hircus) and Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia), the latter introduced in 1971 for hunting and now widespread in the rugged slopes, alongside five native bat species that are the only indigenous mammals. Fossil evidence points to the extinct Tenerife giant rat (Canariomys bravoi), an endemic rodent whose remains have been found in volcanic deposits across the island, indicating a prehistoric presence in Teide's ecosystems.^[59]^[60]^[61]^[62]^[63]^[64] Recent monitoring highlights population challenges, with bird species experiencing declines attributed to predation by introduced cats and rats.^[65]^[48]

Human interaction

Access and tourism

Access to Teide National Park is primarily facilitated by the TF-21 highway, which connects La Orotava to the cable car base station at an elevation of 2,356 meters, providing a scenic drive through the park's volcanic landscapes.^[66] The Teleférico del Teide cable car, operational since August 1971, transports visitors from the base to the upper station at 3,555 meters in about eight minutes, with each cabin accommodating up to 44 passengers.^[67] Round-trip tickets for non-resident adults cost €42 (as of 2025), while one-way fares are €23.50, with reduced rates for children and residents; the facility now operates on 100% renewable solar energy.^[68] To reach the summit at 3,718 meters via Trail No. 10 (Telesforo Bravo) from the upper cable car station, visitors must obtain a free permit online through the official National Parks reservation system, limited to 300 slots daily to manage crowds.^[69] Permits are required for the final 163-meter ascent and can be booked in advance, as availability fills quickly.^[70] Tourism to Teide attracts over 5 million visitors annually, with 2024 figures exceeding this number, predominantly tourists (89%) who often participate in guided tours for enhanced safety and interpretation of the site's geology.^[71]^[72] In October 2025, the Tenerife Cabildo announced an eco-tax effective January 1, 2026, charging non-residents €10–€25 depending on the route and day for access to key trails like No. 10 (free for children under 14, €3–€6 for other Canary Islands residents, free for Tenerife residents, exemptions for licensed guides), to fund a sustainability initiative for park maintenance and biodiversity protection.^[73]^[74] Regulations include seasonal closures of trails and facilities during adverse weather, such as high winds or snow, which can occur year-round and impact access, particularly in winter months.^[75] Updated 2025 rules, building on November 2024 measures, enforce daily limits (e.g., 300 hikers on Trail 10) and prohibit off-trail hiking to prevent erosion and ensure safety, with mandatory equipment like sturdy footwear and water required for permitted routes.^[76]^[77]

Major climbs and exploration

The indigenous Guanches, who inhabited Tenerife before the Spanish conquest in 1496, regularly ascended the slopes of Teide during summer months to graze their flocks in the high pastures, enduring harsh conditions without modern equipment and using natural shelters for extended stays.^[6] These ascents reflect early human interaction with the volcano, driven by resource needs like obsidian for tools, though Teide held sacred status in their mythology as the dwelling of the demon Guayota.^[6] European exploration of Teide began in the 17th century with initial scientific expeditions focused on altitude effects, volcanic gases, and soil composition, marking the first documented non-indigenous summits.^[78] A pivotal early ascent occurred in 1724 by French astronomer Louis Feuillée, commissioned by the Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris to determine the island's meridian position; his observations laid groundwork for later volcanic studies.^[21] In 1799, German naturalist Alexander von Humboldt led a landmark scientific climb, measuring atmospheric changes and collecting botanical samples that influenced 19th-century European research on high-altitude environments.^[78] The 19th century saw increased interest from British and other European alpinists, drawn by Teide's prominence as Spain's highest peak, with expeditions emphasizing topographic mapping and endurance challenges amid the volcano's rugged terrain.^[78] These efforts transitioned into more systematic exploration, including over 50 documented historical expeditions by the early 20th century that cataloged routes and geological features.^[78] Modern ascents highlight athletic achievements, such as the fastest known time (FKT) for the Montaña Blanca route to the summit, recorded at 2 hours 41 minutes in 2020 by a trail runner navigating the 9 km path with 1,370 m elevation gain.^[79] In winter, technical ice climbs emerge on snow-covered sections, requiring crampons and ice axes due to sub-zero temperatures and icy slopes, particularly on steeper faces near the summit crater.^[80] The most popular route remains the Montaña Blanca trail (PR TF 21), starting at 2,348 m elevation and covering approximately 9 km to the 3,718 m summit via well-marked paths through volcanic landscapes; it typically takes 6-7 hours for fit hikers, with the initial 4 km segment being a gradual, non-technical ascent over 3-4 hours to the cable car station at La Rambleta.^[81] A permit is required for the final 163 m scramble to the peak, emphasizing Teide's role as a controlled yet accessible site for exploration.^[81]

Conservation efforts

Teide National Park was established on January 22, 1954, by decree as one of Spain's inaugural protected areas, encompassing 18,990 hectares to safeguard its unique volcanic landscape and biodiversity.^[82] In 2007, UNESCO inscribed the park as a World Heritage Site, recognizing its outstanding universal value as a prime example of oceanic island volcanism and its diverse ecosystems.^[2] Management responsibilities lie primarily with the Cabildo of Tenerife, which coordinates conservation through a mixed commission involving national and regional authorities, bolstered by European Union funding such as Next Generation EU grants for infrastructure and surveillance enhancements.^[48]^[83] Recent challenges have intensified focus on visitor impacts, with April 2025 reports documenting widespread tourist littering, unauthorized rock removal, and off-trail trampling that threaten fragile habitats and geological features.^[84] In response, the Cabildo of Tenerife approved an eco-tax effective January 2026, charging non-residents €10–€25 for access to key trails like Trail 7 (free for children under 14, €3–€6 for other Canary Islands residents, free for Tenerife residents, exemptions for licensed guides), with projected annual revenues of €650,000 dedicated exclusively to trail maintenance, erosion control, and habitat restoration projects.^[72] This initiative aims to mitigate overtourism while funding sustainable management, including improved signage and monitoring to enforce regulations against resource extraction. Conservation strategies emphasize invasive species eradication and ecosystem resilience, exemplified by the 2025 mouflon control campaign targeting this introduced ungulate, which damages native vegetation through overgrazing; the effort involves temporary access restrictions in high-risk zones for safe culling operations.^[85] Following the severe 2023 wildfires that scorched parts of the park and surrounding Tenerife highlands, authorities have ramped up fire prevention through expanded fuel break networks, drone surveillance, and community education programs to reduce ignition risks in drought-prone areas.^[86] Ongoing biodiversity monitoring by the Cabildo and partners, including annual floral and faunal surveys, indicates progressive habitat recovery, with notable regrowth in endemic plant cover attributed to these interventions since the early 2010s.^[48]

Scientific importance

Astronomical observatory

The Teide Observatory, located at the Izaña site on Mount Teide in Tenerife, Canary Islands, at an altitude of 2,390 meters, was established in 1964 with the installation of the first telescope by the University of Bordeaux for pioneering studies of zodiacal light.^[87] Managed by the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias (IAC) since its inception, the observatory has grown into a major international hub for solar and stellar astrophysics, hosting instruments from over 60 institutions across 19 countries.^[87] It spans approximately 50 hectares and benefits from the region's exceptional atmospheric conditions, including more than 300 clear nights per year, low light pollution, and minimal humidity, which enable high-quality observations.^[87]^[88] The facility currently operates more than 20 telescopes and experiments, with a strong emphasis on solar physics through flagship instruments such as the 1.5-meter GREGOR solar telescope, a German-led project providing high-resolution imaging and spectro-polarimetry of solar phenomena.^[89]^[90] Other key solar telescopes include the French-Italian THEMIS (Télescope Héliographique pour l'Étude du Magnétisme et de l'Instabilité Solaire), a 90 cm instrument dedicated to solar magnetism and instabilities, and the German Vacuum Tower Telescope (VTT), a 70 cm vacuum-based system for detailed solar spectroscopy.^[89]^[91] Nocturnal and robotic telescopes, such as the two 1.2-meter STELLA instruments for stellar activity monitoring and the Optical Ground Station (OGS) for space debris tracking, complement the solar focus.^[89] International collaborations are central to operations, with contributions from entities like the Leibniz Institute for Astrophysics (Germany) for GREGOR and VTT, the French National Centre for Scientific Research for THEMIS, and support for Japanese space missions such as Hinode through ground-based validation.^[90]^[91]^[92] In 2025, the observatory underwent upgrades to enhance robotic capabilities, including expansions to the Two-meter Twin Telescope (TTT) facility—a robotic facility consisting of two 2.0-meter and two 0.8-meter telescopes optimized for time-domain surveys—and the deployment of the ATLAS-Teide system for exoplanet and transient detection, improving automation for remote operations and planetary defense.^[93]^[94] These advancements support ongoing exoplanet research, such as the ATREIDES program using STELLA for transit photometry of exo-Neptunian worlds.^[95] The observatory's operations yield over 300 scientific publications annually, many advancing understanding of stellar evolution through long-term monitoring of starspots, activity cycles, and exoplanet host stars.^[96] Public outreach includes guided daytime visits with solar telescope demonstrations and an education center accommodating up to 40 visitors, fostering engagement with astrophysics.^[87]^[97]

Geological and volcanological research

Geological and volcanological research on Teide has focused on understanding its magmatic plumbing system, structural evolution, and potential hazards through integrated geophysical and geochemical methods. The Instituto Geográfico Nacional (IGN) has maintained a long-term seismic monitoring network on Tenerife since the late 1980s, enabling detailed mapping of subsurface structures beneath Teide via seismicity analysis. This ongoing effort, part of broader volcanic surveillance, has identified patterns in earthquake distributions that suggest magma accumulation and movement within the volcanic edifice, including two seismic swarms in August 2025 with over 700 low-magnitude events on August 6-7 and 90 on August 30 at depths of 8-15 km, but no signs of imminent eruption.^[98]^[1]^[99] Recent geochemical studies by the Instituto Volcanológico de Canarias (INVOLCAN) have involved systematic gas sampling at Teide's summit fumaroles, revealing temporal variations in volatile emissions. These findings contribute to models of volcano-hydrothermal interactions and unrest precursors.^[100] Advanced imaging techniques, including local earthquake seismic tomography, have illuminated Teide's subsurface architecture. A high-resolution velocity model extending to about 20 km depth beneath the volcano reveals a low Vp/Vs anomaly at approximately 5 km depth, interpreted as an intermediate phonolitic magma reservoir. Complementary magnetotelluric surveys have not confirmed a broader conductive structure between 6 and 10 km below sea level, suggesting the need for additional data to identify potential partial melt zones.^[101]^[102] Stratigraphic and geochronological investigations, incorporating radiometric dating, confirm that Teide's formation followed a major caldera collapse of the ancestral Las Cañadas edifice around 170,000 to 200,000 years ago. These studies highlight repeated flank instabilities and vertical collapses shaping the current topography, with evidence from landslide deposits and edifice remnants.^[103] Research on rift zone dynamics at Teide employs numerical models to simulate dyke propagation and flank deformation, drawing parallels to hotspot-driven systems like Hawaii. Such models informed planning for a 2025 geothermal drilling initiative on Tenerife, led by international partners including Icelandic experts, aimed at probing shallow crustal heat sources up to several kilometers depth. Collaborations with the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) have facilitated comparative analyses of Teide's evolution against other oceanic hotspots, emphasizing differences in magma fertility and edifice stability.^[104]^[105]^[106]

Notable phenomena

Mountain shadow

The mountain shadow of Teide is a prominent optical phenomenon characterized by a large triangular shadow projected eastward at sunrise or westward at sunset, best observed from the summits of Teide itself or the adjacent Pico Viejo peak. This shadow forms a striking geometric shape despite the volcano's irregular profile, extending more than 40 km across the Atlantic Ocean, potentially reaching up to 100 km or more toward nearby islands under clear conditions, enabled by Teide's elevation of 3,718 meters above sea level.^[107]^[108]^[109] The effect arises from the low-angle sunlight illuminating the mountain just above the ocean horizon, creating an elongated shadow corridor that tapers into a triangle due to linear perspective, much like parallel lines converging in the distance. Tenerife's typically clear atmospheric conditions amplify the shadow's contrast and extent, with optimal visibility occurring from May through September when skies are least obstructed by clouds or humidity.^[107]^[110]^[111] Documented in photographs since the 19th century, the phenomenon has inspired artistic depictions, including sketches of Teide's landscape by explorer Alexander von Humboldt during his 1799 ascent of the volcano. Posing no safety hazards to observers, Teide's shadow is now integrated into tourism resources, such as mobile applications that calculate precise viewing windows based on solar position and weather forecasts.^[109]^[112]^[113]

Lunar namesake

Mons Pico serves as the primary lunar namesake for Mount Teide, representing an isolated mountain rising prominently from the lunar surface. Situated in the northern sector of Mare Imbrium at coordinates 45°48′N 9°12′W, this feature reaches a height of approximately 2.4 km above the basaltic plains of the mare, with a base spanning about 15 by 25 km. The International Astronomical Union (IAU) formally adopted the name in 1935, drawing from the Spanish term for "peak" to honor the Pico del Teide, the distinctive summit of Mount Teide on Tenerife, recognized for its astronomical and geographical significance.^[114] Complementing Mons Pico is the nearby Montes Teneriffe, a rugged range of peaks extending across the same region of Mare Imbrium, with elevations up to 2.4 km. Also approved by the IAU in 1935, the name derives directly from the island of Tenerife, underscoring the Canary Islands' role in early celestial observations that advanced lunar mapping. These features highlight Teide's enduring legacy in nomenclature, linking terrestrial volcanism to the Moon's ancient geological record.^[115]^[116] The basaltic lavas surrounding Mons Pico and Montes Teneriffe exhibit compositional parallels to those erupted at Mount Teide, both characterized by low-silica, fluid mafic rocks typical of shield and stratovolcano formations. Apollo mission samples, particularly from Apollo 11's 1969 landing in nearby Mare Tranquillitatis—approximately 1,000 km southeast—reveal high-titanium and low-titanium basalts with trace element patterns akin to terrestrial ocean island basalts, including those from the Canary hotspot. This resemblance supports comparative studies of volcanic evolution, where Teide's accessible outcrops inform interpretations of lunar mare fill and eruption dynamics.^[117]

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The ATREIDES program relies on photometry for three main objectives: to revise the planet ephemerides with recent transit observations, to catch spot crossings ...
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Teide Observatory, a beacon of science at the heart of the universe
May 13, 2025 · From that first telescope in 1964 to the advanced robotic telescopes of the Two-meter Twin Telescope (TTT), the Teide Observatory has been much ...
[99]
Teide Observatory Guided Daytime Visit
Rating 4.6 (317) From its privileged position, you can gaze at the Sun using portable solar telescopes, explore inside a night-sky telescope, and take part in an astrophysics ...
[100]
Volcano Monitoring in Tenerife - Guralp Systems
IGN runs a network of seismometers in Tenerife (Canary Islands) which provide data to the National Seismic Network for the detection and location of seismic ...Missing: magma chamber mapping
[101]
Output of Volcanic SO2 Gases and Their Dispersion in the Atmosphere
In 2024, a new increase in summit degassing was observed. The reawakening of degassing activity began in May 2024, with a monthly average SO2 flux of 67 t d−1 ...
[102]
Changes in Diffuse Degassing From the Summit Crater of Teide ...
Feb 1, 2021 · The heat flow and gas emission rates from the summit crater of Teide volcano were calculated after spatial interpolation at the unsampled sites ...2 Geological Background · 3 Materials And Methods · 4 Results
[103]
Local Earthquake Seismic Tomography Reveals the Link Between ...
Mar 21, 2023 · Beneath Teide, at a depth of ∼5 km, a low Vp, low Vs, high Vp/Vs anomaly may represent an intermediate phonolitic reservoir. Two similar ...
[104]
On the detectability of Teide volcano magma chambers (Tenerife ...
Jan 25, 2018 · In this work we analyse the capability of the MT dataset presented by Piña-Varas et al. (2015) to detect the magma chambers below Teide volcano.Missing: dome 150000 ya<|control11|><|separator|>
[105]
Geology of the Canary Islands - Wikipedia
In the last 20.2 million years, enough lava has accumulated at several of the underwater volcanic mountains to build them above sea level, forming the Canary ...Islands · Geological map · Fuerteventura · Geological hazards
[106]
Explosive eruption, flank collapse and megatsunami at Tenerife ca ...
May 15, 2017 · Here we document tsunami deposits at high elevation (up to 132 m) on the north-western slopes of Tenerife, Canary Islands, as a new evidence of megatsunami ...
[107]
[PDF] Unique geological values of Mt. Teide as the basis of its inclusion on ...
6), and thus the volcano that develops nested within the collapse basin evolves from initial basal- tic emissions towards intermediate and differentia- ted ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[108]
Icelanders to drill for geothermal energy in Tenerife - RÚV.is
May 30, 2025 · An Icelandic company is leading a project on the Spanish island of Tenerife that will see the first-ever geothermal drilling conducted there ...<|separator|>
[109]
Volcano Watch — The Canary Islands “mega-tsunami” hypothesis ...
Oct 21, 2021 · The recent eruption on La Palma, in the Canary Islands, has stimulated speculation that the volcano might collapse, creating a tsunami that would devastate the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[110]
A Triangular Shadow of a Large Volcano - TWANight.org
A key reason for the strange dark shape is that the observer is looking down the long corridor of a sunset (or sunrise) shadow that extends to the horizon.Missing: causes | Show results with:causes
[111]
The Teide's Perfect Shadow: A Canary Islands Wonder
The shadow's length varies with atmospheric conditions—haze or humidity shorten it, while clear skies extend its reach. Scientists even use it as an ...
[112]
Volcano's Shadow Forms an Eerie, Perfect Triangle - Live Science
Jun 14, 2019 · Nevertheless, as Mount Teide's shadow extends into the distance, it tapers gradually. In doing so, the shadow eventually forms a triangular peak ...
[113]
The shadow of Teide - Tenerife
The Teide is one of the best places to observe the formation and evolution of the shadow of a mountain thanks to its height.Missing: causes | Show results with:causes
[114]
How Can You Enjoy the Precious Shadow of Teide in Tenerife?
When the sun rises the mountain casts a curious pyramidal shadow over the Atlantic Ocean which disappears into the distance like a train track. The shadow ...Missing: causes | Show results with:causes
[115]
Tenerife, an 18th-century explorer's paradise - Sur in English
Mar 31, 2023 · Alexander von Humboldt. The Prussian scientist's travels to the island in 1799 allowed him to collect numerous samples and climb Mount Teide.
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Mount Teide's shadow: the largest in the world over the sea
The condition of island, added to the proximity of the sea and the extreme inclination of Tenerife, makes the shadow that Volcano Teide projects by sunrise and ...Missing: causes | Show results with:causes
[117]
Mons Pico - Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature
Status and Origin ; Spain · Spanish for "peak." · [66] - Named Lunar Formations, by Mary A. Blagg and K. Müller: Percy Lund, Humphries and Co. Ltd., London, 1935.
[118]
Montes Teneriffe - Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature
Status and Origin ; 1935 · Africa · Canary Is. · Named from terrestrial island. · [66] - Named Lunar Formations, by Mary A. Blagg and K. Müller: Percy Lund, ...
[119]
Montes Teneriffe (Chapter 29) - The Cambridge Photographic Moon ...
Mons Pico is an isolated mountain with an area at its base of 15 × 25 km and a height of 2.4 km. It lies exactly on the edge of 'Ancient Newton'. The mountain ...
[120]
Comparative study of lunar basalts with terrestrial basalts and Lonar ...
Sep 21, 2017 · This depleted lunar mantle was enriched in Cr, from which high-Ti and low-Ti mare basalts were later extracted. The parent magmas of both these ...