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Tenotomy

Tenotomy is a surgical procedure that involves the partial or complete division of a tendon to alleviate pain, correct deformities, or improve function in conditions such as contractures, tendinopathies, or muscle imbalances.^[1]^[2] Developed in the early 19th century, tenotomy was first performed subcutaneously by German surgeon Georg Friedrich Louis Stromeyer in 1831 on the Achilles tendon to treat clubfoot, marking a significant advancement over prior manipulative techniques by allowing greater correction of rigid deformities.^[3] This procedure, also known as tendon release or lengthening, has evolved from open surgical methods to minimally invasive options, and it is commonly applied to tendons in the shoulder (e.g., biceps), elbow, ankle (e.g., Achilles), and foot to address issues like chronic tendonitis, rotator cuff dysfunction, or congenital anomalies.^[1]^[2] There are two primary types of tenotomy: open tenotomy, which requires a surgical incision to directly cut or lengthen the tendon, often under general anesthesia; and percutaneous needle tenotomy, a less invasive approach using ultrasound-guided needle punctures to break down damaged tissue and stimulate healing without large incisions.^[2]^[4] Open tenotomy is typically reserved for severe cases, such as in orthopedic reconstructions or clubfoot correction via the Ponseti method, where the Achilles tendon is fully transected to enable dorsiflexion.^[5] Percutaneous techniques, introduced in the 1970s, target chronic tendinopathies like lateral epicondylitis (tennis elbow) by fenestrating scar tissue to promote blood flow and regeneration, often combined with platelet-rich plasma injections for enhanced outcomes.^[1]^[4] While tenotomy generally offers quick pain relief and improved mobility, potential risks include temporary weakness, cramping, scar tissue formation, or recurrence of symptoms if overuse persists post-procedure.^[2] Recovery varies by type and location but typically involves immobilization or bracing for weeks, followed by physical therapy to restore strength, with full return to activities often taking 3 to 6 months.^[2] In specialized applications, such as ophthalmology for strabismus or neurology for spastic muscles, tenotomy has been refined with precise instruments like the Stevens tenotomy scissors, invented in the late 19th century, to minimize complications.^[6] Overall, tenotomy remains a cornerstone in orthopedic and rehabilitative surgery due to its efficacy in managing tendon-related disorders when conservative treatments fail.^[1]

Definition and Overview

Definition

Tenotomy is a surgical procedure that involves the partial or complete division of a tendon to relieve tension, lengthen the tendon, or correct deformities caused by tendon shortening.^[7]^[8]^[9] The primary mechanism of tenotomy relies on transecting the tendon, which permits the attached muscle to pull the ends apart during the healing process, allowing the tendon to regenerate in a lengthened position and thereby restoring balance to the muscle-tendon unit.^[2]^[10]^[11] This procedure is also referred to as tendon release or tendon lengthening, with specific variations such as Achilles tenotomy targeting the Achilles tendon.^[2]^[5] Tenotomy primarily focuses on tendons that connect muscles to bones, most commonly in the extremities, including those in the lower limbs like the Achilles or flexors.^[2]^[12]

Types

Tenotomy procedures are broadly classified by technique and anatomical target, with variations in invasiveness influencing their clinical application. Techniques range from open approaches, which provide direct visualization for complex tendon divisions, to minimally invasive percutaneous and endoscopic methods that reduce recovery time and complications.^[2]^[4] Anatomical specificity further tailors tenotomy to particular deformities or pathologies, often combining technique with targeted tendon release. Open tenotomy involves a surgical incision to expose the tendon, allowing direct visualization and precise cutting, which is particularly suited for complex cases requiring meticulous control and potential tendon repair or lengthening.^[2] This method, while more invasive, enables comprehensive assessment of tendon pathology during the procedure.^[13] Percutaneous tenotomy represents a minimally invasive alternative, employing a needle or small skin puncture under imaging guidance—such as ultrasound. For tendon lengthening or deformity correction, it involves transection of the tendon; for chronic tendinopathies, it uses multiple punctures to fenestrate and break down damaged tissue without large incisions, minimizing tissue trauma and accelerating postoperative recovery.^[4] It is commonly applied to tendons like the Achilles for equinus correction or flexors for toe deformities, offering efficacy comparable to open techniques with lower risk of infection.^[14]^[15] Endoscopic tenotomy utilizes arthroscopic tools for intra-articular visualization and tendon release, emerging as a preferred option for joint-associated tendons in the shoulder or elbow due to its balance of precision and reduced invasiveness.^[16]^[17] This approach facilitates treatment of intra-articular pathologies while preserving surrounding structures. Among anatomical variants, Achilles tenotomy targets the gastrosoleus complex to address equinus deformity, often performed percutaneously to facilitate full dorsiflexion in conditions like clubfoot.^[14] Adductor tenotomy releases the adductor longus or related muscles to alleviate hip spasticity, typically via open or percutaneous routes to improve range of motion and prevent subluxation in cerebral palsy.^[18]^[19] Flexor tenotomy, focused on toe flexor tendons, corrects claw or hammer toe deformities and promotes healing of diabetic ulcers by redistributing plantar pressure, with percutaneous execution proving safe and effective for ulcer prevention.^[15]^[20]

History

Early Developments

The origins of tenotomy trace back to the early 19th century, when surgical interventions began to address the limitations of conservative treatments for congenital deformities such as clubfoot. Prior to this period, methods like manual manipulation and bracing, dating from ancient practices described by Hippocrates and refined by figures like Antonio Scarpa in the late 18th century, often failed to achieve lasting corrections, particularly for rigid equinus deformities caused by Achilles tendon contracture. In 1831, German surgeon Georg Friedrich Louis Stromeyer introduced subcutaneous tenotomy of the Achilles tendon as a pioneering procedure, performing it on several clubfoot patients without reported infections or systemic complications, thereby shifting orthopedic practice toward targeted surgical release of contracted tendons to restore joint mobility.^[21] This innovation quickly gained traction across Europe, with key surgeons adopting and refining the technique for Achilles tendon release in the 1830s and 1840s. French surgeon Jules Guérin advanced subcutaneous tenotomy starting in 1835, applying it extensively to clubfoot and other deformities; he emphasized its role in correcting varus and equinus components when combined with postoperative immobilization. Similarly, Russian surgeon Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov performed his first tenotomy in 1836 on a 14-year-old girl with clubfoot, later conducting detailed anatomical studies on Achilles tendon healing and regeneration, including the importance of maintaining blood supply and thrombus formation to promote functional recovery without full tendon reunion.^[22] Pirogov's work, published in the 1840s, further validated tenotomy's efficacy in military and civilian orthopedics, contributing to its widespread acceptance as a standard for tendon contracture relief. The procedure's early success spurred the development of specialized instruments to enhance precision and safety. Surgeons like Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach in Germany adopted Stromeyer's methods for clubfoot tenotomy by the early 1840s, integrating them into broader reconstructive practices and promoting the use of narrow-bladed knives known as tenotomes, which allowed for controlled subcutaneous incisions with minimal tissue disruption. These tools, exemplified by Dieffenbach's designs, marked a foundational advancement in orthopedic instrumentation, facilitating the procedure's transition from experimental to routine application in European clinics for correcting deformities unresponsive to non-surgical means.^[23]^[24]

Modern Advancements

In the mid-20th century, tenotomy became a key component of the Ponseti method for treating idiopathic clubfoot, a non-surgical approach emphasizing serial manipulation and casting followed by bracing. Developed by Ignacio V. Ponseti at the University of Iowa starting in the 1940s, the method incorporated percutaneous Achilles tenotomy to address persistent equinus deformity after corrective casting, allowing the tendon to heal in a lengthened position without open surgery.^[21] This procedure, typically performed in an office setting under local anesthesia, is required in approximately 80-95% of cases and has demonstrated high success rates, with relapse occurring in only 4-5% of treated infants when followed by appropriate bracing.^[25] Ponseti's technique gained widespread adoption in the late 20th century following the 1995 publication of his seminal article and 1996 book, shifting global standards away from extensive soft-tissue releases toward conservative management.^[26] Advancements in the early 21st century introduced percutaneous needle tenotomy as a minimally invasive option for managing chronic tendinopathies, particularly in tendons affected by degenerative injuries unresponsive to conservative therapies. This technique involves multiple needle passes through the affected tendon under ultrasound guidance to induce microtrauma, promoting neovascularization and tissue remodeling without incision.^[27] First described in detail for common extensor tendinosis in 2006, the procedure has since been applied to various sites, including the Achilles, patellar, and rotator cuff tendons, yielding significant pain reduction (e.g., visual analog scale scores dropping from 5.8 to 2.2 over 12 weeks) and functional improvement in over 80% of patients at long-term follow-up.^[28] By minimizing risks such as infection and scarring compared to open tenotomy, ultrasound-guided needle tenotomy has become a standard outpatient intervention, often combined with platelet-rich plasma injections for enhanced outcomes.^[29] For children with cerebral palsy, adductor tenotomy procedures underwent significant refinement in the 1980s and 1990s, evolving from broad releases to selective approaches that targeted specific muscle fibers and nerves to mitigate spasticity while preserving hip stability. Early comparisons in the 1980s highlighted the benefits of adductor transfer over simple tenotomy for reducing flexion contractures and instability, prompting the development of fractional lengthening techniques combined with selective obturator neurectomy.^[30] By the 1990s, these selective methods, which spared portions of the adductor complex to avoid over-correction and abductor weakness, demonstrated improved long-term hip coverage in quadriplegic patients, with good to excellent results in approximately 50-70% of cases depending on ambulatory status.^[31] Such advancements, informed by radiographic monitoring of migration percentage, reduced the need for subsequent reconstructive surgeries and emphasized early intervention when abduction is limited to less than 30 degrees.^[32] The 1990s also marked the introduction of endoscopic and arthroscopic tenotomy techniques for upper extremity tendons, enhancing precision and accelerating recovery in conditions like biceps tendinopathy. Arthroscopic biceps tenotomy, first proposed in 1990 after observations of pain relief from spontaneous ruptures, allows visualization and release of the long head of the biceps tendon through small portals, avoiding open dissection.^[33] This minimally invasive method, often performed alongside rotator cuff repairs, has shown no significant differences in cosmetic deformity compared to tenodesis. Endoscopic approaches extended these benefits to other upper limb tendons, such as the extensor carpi radialis, by improving intraoperative visualization and reducing postoperative morbidity.^[34]

Indications

Orthopedic Conditions

Tenotomy plays a crucial role in addressing structural deformities and injuries within the musculoskeletal system by releasing contracted tendons to restore joint function and alignment. This procedure is particularly valuable in orthopedic settings where tendon shortening leads to imbalances, such as in congenital anomalies, post-traumatic contractures, and degenerative toe deformities. By severing or partially dividing the tendon, tenotomy enables improved range of motion without extensive reconstruction, often serving as a targeted intervention to prevent secondary complications like ulceration or chronic pain. In the treatment of clubfoot, also known as congenital talipes equinovarus, percutaneous Achilles tenotomy is a key component of the Ponseti method, which involves serial casting to gradually correct the equinus deformity—a persistent plantar flexion caused by Achilles tendon tightness. Performed after initial casting achieves hindfoot correction, the tenotomy allows full dorsiflexion, typically under local anesthesia, with the tendon healing through lengthening over subsequent casts. This approach has demonstrated high success rates, with over 90% of cases achieving correction without major surgery, and low recurrence when followed by bracing.^[35]^[36]^[37] For hammertoe and claw toe deformities, flexor tenotomy targets the contracted flexor tendons (flexor digitorum longus or brevis) to straighten the toes and redistribute plantar pressure, especially in diabetic patients at risk for neuropathic ulcers. This minimally invasive procedure, often percutaneous, prevents or heals distal toe ulcers by reducing peak pressures at the toe apex, with studies showing ulcer healing in up to 95% of cases and recurrence rates below 10% at one year. It is particularly effective in flexible deformities, preserving toe function while avoiding more invasive arthroplasty.^[15]^[38]^[39] Tendon contractures resulting from trauma, such as those causing equinus foot deformity after injury or immobilization, are managed through tenotomy or tendon lengthening to release fibrotic shortening and restore ankle dorsiflexion. Post-traumatic equinus often arises from scar tissue formation following fractures, burns, or compartment syndrome, leading to gait abnormalities and pressure sores; tenotomy addresses this by transecting the Achilles tendon percutaneously or via Z-lengthening, enabling gradual stretching and functional recovery. Clinical outcomes indicate improved ankle motion in most patients, with complications minimized through postoperative immobilization and physical therapy.^[40]^[41]^[42] In biceps tendon pathology, tenotomy of the long head serves as an alternative to repair for superior labrum anterior to posterior (SLAP) lesions, particularly in older or less active patients, by releasing the tendon from its superior glenoid anchor to eliminate pain from instability or inflammation. This arthroscopic or open procedure alleviates shoulder discomfort without requiring tenodesis, yielding comparable pain relief and function to repair in select cases, though it may result in a cosmetic "Popeye" deformity in up to 70% of patients. It is favored when preserving tendon integrity is less critical than rapid symptom resolution.^[43]^[44]^[45]

Neurological and Other Disorders

Tenotomy plays a significant role in managing muscle imbalances arising from neurological disorders, where spasticity or neuropathy leads to contractures and deformities that impair function and quality of life. In cerebral palsy, a common application is adductor tenotomy, which addresses spastic hip subluxation and scissoring gait by releasing the adductor muscles to improve hip positioning and lower limb mobility.^[46] This procedure is particularly effective in children with quadriplegic cerebral palsy, where it serves as a prophylactic measure against severe hip migration, achieving good to excellent outcomes in preventing progression to dislocation.^[31] Soft-tissue releases, including adductor tenotomy, have demonstrated long-term efficacy in preventing hip dislocation in approximately 67% of cases involving spastic hip subluxation.^[47] For patients with stroke or spinal cord injury, selective tenotomies target upper and lower limb contractures to enhance functional independence and personal hygiene. Percutaneous needle tenotomy is a minimally invasive option for treating spastic contractures, such as those in the shoulder following stroke, yielding good results with a low complication rate when applied to superficial muscles and tendons.^[48] In stroke-related equinovarus foot deformities, minimally invasive flexor tenotomy of the digits, combined with Achilles tendon lengthening, improves gait and reduces pain, as evidenced by positive patient-reported outcomes on visual analog scales.^[49] Similarly, for spinal cord injury-induced spasticity, tenotomy is among the most common surgical interventions in both upper and lower extremities, often integrated into comprehensive spasticity management protocols.^[50] In diabetic neuropathy, flexor tenotomy addresses claw toe deformities caused by loss of protective sensation and muscle imbalance, aiming to redistribute plantar pressure and prevent recurrent foot ulcers. Needle-based flexor tenotomies performed by specialists effectively correct hammer and claw toes in neuropathic patients, promoting ulcer healing and reducing ulceration risk by offloading the toe apices. However, long-term follow-up indicates a risk of deformity recurrence and persistent high risk of new ulcers.^[51]^[52] This procedure is particularly valuable for expediting wound closure in individuals with flexion contractures, demonstrating safety and effectiveness in clinical settings.^[53] Beyond these primary applications, tenotomy finds use in other neurological conditions with orthopedic overlaps, such as congenital muscular torticollis, where biterminal tenotomy of the sternocleidomastoid muscle corrects head tilt and rotation deficits, especially when conservative treatments fail.^[54] In strabismus, mini-tenotomy of extraocular muscles weakens overactive rectus muscles to alleviate diplopia and improve alignment in small-angle deviations.^[55] These interventions highlight tenotomy's versatility in bridging neurology and orthopedics for spasticity-driven imbalances.

Surgical Procedure

Preoperative Preparation

Preoperative preparation for tenotomy involves a thorough patient evaluation to confirm the diagnosis, assess surgical candidacy, and optimize outcomes while minimizing risks. This begins with a detailed physical examination to evaluate range of motion, deformity severity, and tendon pathology, often confirming the need for the procedure after conservative treatments such as casting or bracing have been trialed.^[2]^[56] For instance, in clubfoot management using the Ponseti method, the surgeon assesses foot position to ensure adequate correction of the forefoot and midfoot following serial casting before proceeding to Achilles tenotomy.^[11] Imaging modalities, including ultrasound and MRI, are employed to visualize tendon abnormalities and guide percutaneous approaches, providing confirmation of pathology such as thickening or degeneration.^[2]^[57] Medical optimization addresses underlying comorbidities to enhance safety, particularly in patients with conditions like diabetes, cardiovascular disease, or anticoagulation therapy, which may require adjustment of medications prior to surgery.^[58] Informed consent is obtained after discussing procedure-specific risks, such as infection, nerve injury, or incomplete correction, alongside alternatives like continued nonoperative management.^[2] In pediatric cases, particularly for cerebral palsy, a multidisciplinary approach involving orthopedists, neurologists, and physical therapists is essential; this includes preoperative gait analysis, muscle tone assessment, and videotaping of functional skills to tailor the intervention.^[56]^[59] Anesthesia planning varies by procedure type and patient factors, with local anesthesia commonly used for percutaneous tenotomies to numb the area, avoiding the need for general anesthesia in outpatient settings.^[2]^[60] For open tenotomies or in younger children, general anesthesia or deep sedation may be selected, preceded by a history and physical examination, NPO status (e.g., 4-6 hours for milk/formula, 2 hours for clear fluids in infants), and premedication like midazolam for anxiolysis.^[61]^[11] Prophylactic antibiotics are administered if indicated for open procedures to reduce infection risk, though not routinely for minimally invasive techniques. In cerebral palsy patients, preoperative anesthetic assessment in a dedicated clinic evaluates respiratory and neurological status to mitigate perioperative complications.^[62]

Intraoperative Techniques

Tenotomy procedures employ various intraoperative approaches to transect or partially divide tendons, tailored to the anatomical location and clinical goals, such as open, percutaneous, or endoscopic methods.^[63] The open technique involves direct visualization of the tendon through a skin incision, typically 3-7 cm in length over the affected area, such as the lateral epicondyle for extensor carpi radialis brevis (ECRB) tenotomy.^[63] After exposing the tendon with retractors, the surgeon removes any degenerative tissue and performs partial or complete transection using a scalpel or scissors, followed by hemostasis to control bleeding.^[63] Optional steps may include drilling the underlying bone for decortication or inspecting the adjacent joint, depending on variations like the Nirschl procedure, which emphasizes tendon debridement.^[63] In the percutaneous method, a minimal skin puncture—often 1-2 mm—allows needle insertion under ultrasound guidance to fenestrate and sever tendon fibers without extensive dissection.^[64]^[65] For instance, in clubfoot correction, a small stab incision (about 5 mm) is made medial to the Achilles tendon 1-2 cm above the calcaneus, and the tendon is transected transversely with a #15 blade while dorsiflexing the ankle to confirm complete division.^[5] Similarly, for flexor tendons like those in the knee, targeted needle passes are made perpendicular to the tendon, limited to 1 cm depth to avoid neurovascular structures, using a 16.5-gauge needle to disrupt fibers selectively.^[66]^[67] Hemostasis is typically minimal due to the procedure's low invasiveness, and it is often completed on an outpatient basis.^[64] The endoscopic approach utilizes arthroscopic portals for tendon visualization and cutting, particularly in joint-adjacent regions like the shoulder or elbow.^[63] Small incisions (e.g., 1-inch medial and lateral portals) accommodate a 4 mm arthroscope and instruments such as a retrograde knife or shaver, allowing release of the tendon origin—medially to laterally—under direct visualization while protecting nearby structures like the sural nerve.^[68]^[63] In Achilles procedures, the scope is inserted posterior to the tendon, with dorsiflexion aiding the transection, and a slotted cannula maintains working space.^[68] For biceps or elbow tenotomy, a 30° arthroscope via a medial portal enables capsule resection and ECRB release with a 3.5-mm shaver or burr, limiting intervention to the ventral radial head to minimize complications.^[63]

Postoperative Care

Following tenotomy, patients are closely monitored in the immediate postoperative period for signs of bleeding, infection, or excessive pain, with vital signs checked regularly to ensure stability. Pain is managed primarily with acetaminophen, as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may be avoided initially to promote tendon healing, though they can be introduced later if needed. Elevation of the affected limb is recommended to minimize swelling, and ice packs may be applied intermittently over dressings to reduce inflammation, typically for the first 24-48 hours.^[69]^[70]^[61] Immobilization is essential to maintain the tendon in its elongated position and facilitate healing, often involving casting or bracing tailored to the procedure site. For example, in Achilles tenotomy following clubfoot correction, a long-leg cast from toes to thigh is applied, worn for 3-4 weeks to protect the tendon during regeneration. In other cases, such as percutaneous tenotomies, a splint or brace may suffice for 1-2 weeks, with weight-bearing restrictions to prevent stress on the repair site.^[12]^[71] Wound management focuses on keeping the site clean and dry to prevent infection, particularly for open procedures where sterile dressings are changed as needed under medical supervision. Patients are instructed to avoid submerging the area in water for at least one week and to report any redness, drainage, or fever promptly. Activity is restricted to non-weight-bearing or partial support as directed, allowing the tendon to heal without tension.^[69]^[70] Follow-up begins with an initial visit at 1-2 weeks postoperatively to assess wound healing, check immobilization integrity, and monitor for complications like infection. Subsequent appointments, often at 3-4 weeks, involve cast or brace removal and evaluation of tendon length and function before advancing to further care.^[12]^[71]

Complications and Risks

Common Complications

Infection is a rare complication following tenotomy, occurring in approximately 0.7-2% of cases, particularly with percutaneous approaches, though it is more frequent in open procedures due to larger incisions. Signs typically include localized redness, swelling, warmth, and fever, requiring prompt antibiotic intervention to prevent progression.^[72] Over-lengthening of the tendon can result in excessive weakening, leading to symptoms such as foot drop, ankle instability, or calcaneal gait, notably higher in pediatric patients undergoing Achilles tenotomy for clubfoot correction. This arises from incomplete healing or excessive release, compromising tendon integrity and function. Nerve damage, often involving the sural or tibial nerves during Achilles tenotomy, manifests as paresthesia, numbness, or sensory loss in the foot, with an incidence of about 0.7% based on anatomical studies of percutaneous techniques. Proximity of neurovascular structures increases risk, though most cases are transient.^[72] Other complications include hematoma formation from minor bleeding, which is typically self-limited and managed with compression (incidence <1%); deep vein thrombosis (DVT), also rare at less than 1% due to the minimally invasive nature; scarring, more prominent in open tenotomies leading to adhesions; and recurrence of the underlying deformity, observed in approximately 4.2% of clubfoot cases post-Achilles tenotomy.

Prevention and Management

Prevention of complications in tenotomy procedures begins with adherence to strict sterile techniques during surgery, including the use of sterile drapes, skin disinfection with iodine-based solutions, and sterile ultrasound transducer covers in percutaneous approaches to minimize infection risk.^[73] Ultrasound guidance enhances precision by allowing real-time visualization of the tendon and surrounding structures, thereby reducing the likelihood of inadvertent damage to adjacent tissues such as nerves or blood vessels.^[74] For venous thromboembolism (VTE) prophylaxis, particularly in lower extremity tenotomies, mechanical measures like graduated compression stockings or intermittent pneumatic compression devices are recommended, especially for patients at moderate risk, to promote venous return without the bleeding risks associated with pharmacological agents.^[75] If infections occur postoperatively, prompt management involves initiating intravenous antibiotics targeted to the suspected pathogen, combined with surgical intervention such as incision and drainage or debridement to remove necrotic tissue and reduce bacterial load.^[76] In cases of persistent or deep infections, repeat debridement may be necessary, followed by a course of oral antibiotics for 4-6 weeks to ensure complete resolution.^[76] Over-lengthening of the tendon, which can lead to instability or weakness, is addressed through conservative measures including custom orthotics to support joint alignment and prevent excessive stretch during healing, alongside serial clinical examinations to monitor tendon length and function.^[77] If conservative approaches fail, secondary procedures such as tendon transfers may be performed to restore balance and strength, typically after 3-6 months of observation.^[77] Nerve injuries, often transient due to neuropraxia, are initially managed conservatively with observation and time for spontaneous recovery, which occurs in most cases within 3 months, while educating patients on symptoms like persistent numbness or weakness to facilitate early detection of progression.^[78] Surgical exploration is indicated if deficits persist beyond 3-6 months, aiming to relieve compression or repair the nerve to prevent chronic dysfunction.^[78]

Outcomes and Recovery

Expected Results

Tenotomy procedures, particularly Achilles tenotomy as part of the Ponseti method for clubfoot, achieve equinus correction rates of 80-95% in idiopathic cases, enabling full initial deformity resolution in the majority of patients.^[79] In children with cerebral palsy undergoing gastrocnemius or Achilles tenotomy, the procedure often results in improved gait patterns and reduced pain, contributing to enhanced functional mobility.^[80] Key benefits include restoration of ankle joint range of motion, with post-tenotomy dorsiflexion typically exceeding 10 degrees beyond neutral, facilitating improved weight-bearing and ambulation.^[5] This intervention also prevents deformity progression, as evidenced by sustained correction in over 90% of compliant clubfoot cases during early follow-up.^[81] Outcomes are influenced by patient age, with better results when treatment is initiated in children under 2 years.^[82] Percutaneous techniques offer faster recovery compared to open approaches, often allowing immediate casting without hospitalization and return to bracing within 3 weeks.^[11] Adherence to postoperative casting and bracing protocols is critical, as non-compliance increases failure rates by up to 50%.^[83] Long-term success in Ponseti method trials shows recurrence rates of 20-30% overall, reduced to 5-10% with rigorous follow-up and bracing compliance in patients tracked beyond 5 years.^[79] For adult applications, such as percutaneous needle tenotomy for chronic tendinopathies like lateral epicondylitis (tennis elbow), success rates exceed 80%, with significant pain reduction and improved function reported in over 90% of cases at 1-year follow-up.^[84] Recovery is typically faster, with return to activities in 4-6 weeks.

Rehabilitation Protocol

The rehabilitation protocol following tenotomy is designed to promote tendon healing, restore range of motion, and progressively rebuild strength and function while minimizing the risk of recurrence or complications. It typically progresses through three phases, tailored to the underlying condition, with immobilization in the immediate postoperative period to allow controlled healing. This extends the postoperative care by transitioning from passive protection to active therapy, emphasizing patient-specific goals such as improved gait and ambulation.^[85] Phase 1 (0-4 weeks): During this initial period, the focus is on immobilization to facilitate tendon regeneration, followed by the introduction of gentle stretching to prevent stiffness. A cast or boot is applied immediately after surgery, with weight-bearing as tolerated using crutches or assistive devices to protect the site. For percutaneous Achilles tenotomy, a long-leg cast is maintained for approximately 3 weeks, during which isometric exercises and straight-leg raises may begin if tolerated, alongside elevation and pain management. Gentle passive range-of-motion exercises, such as ankle dorsiflexion, are initiated toward the end of this phase once immobilization is reduced, aiming to achieve neutral ankle positioning without excessive force.^[85]^[11]^[86] Phase 2 (4-8 weeks): As healing advances, physical therapy emphasizes strengthening and functional training to support weight-bearing and mobility. Heel cord stretches, gait training, and low-impact activities like stationary cycling are incorporated to improve ankle dorsiflexion and overall lower extremity coordination. Orthotics, such as ankle-foot orthoses, may be prescribed if residual contractures persist, with progression to full weight-bearing without assistive devices. Active range-of-motion exercises for the ankle and kinetic chain activities help normalize walking patterns, with sessions typically 2-3 times per week under therapist supervision.^[87]^[85] Phase 3 (8+ weeks): Advanced rehabilitation targets endurance and sport- or activity-specific return, including resistance training with bands or weights to enhance eccentric and concentric strength in the calf musculature. Monitoring includes regular assessments of ankle dorsiflexion (aiming for 10-15 degrees beyond neutral) and gait symmetry, with clearance for full activities, such as sports, often at 3 months if pain is minimal and strength is at least 80% of the contralateral side. Closed-chain exercises like heel raises and balance training are progressed gradually to prevent overload.^[87]^[85] Tailored protocols adjust these phases based on the diagnosis. In clubfoot treated via the Ponseti method, night bracing with a foot abduction orthosis continues up to age 4 to maintain correction, worn 12-15 hours daily after the initial full-time bracing period ends at 3-4 months post-tenotomy. For cerebral palsy, integration of botulinum toxin injections addresses residual spasticity if present after 8 weeks, combined with ongoing physical therapy focused on spasticity management and functional gains.^[86]^[88]^[89]

References

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Ponseti method represents the most innovative change in clubfoot approach. It was ideated by Ignacio Vives Ponseti, a Spanish orthopaedic surgeon, migrated to ...
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The Ponseti Method—Stay True to It! - ScienceDirect.com
First, it took several years after the 1995 article and 1996 book for most orthopaedic surgeons to convert from surgical management of clubfeet to the Ponseti ...
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Sonographically guided percutaneous needle tenotomy ... - PubMed
Under a local anesthetic and sonographic guidance, a needle was advanced into the common extensor tendon, and the tip of the needle was used to repeatedly ...Missing: development 2000s
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Sonographically Guided Percutaneous Needle Tenotomy for the ...
Sep 1, 2009 · We have incorporated the use of sonographic guidance in the treatment of recalcitrant tendon injuries but have avoided the administration of ...
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Treatment of Chronic Tendinopathy with Ultrasound-Guided Needle ...
In this case series, we found US-guided percutaneous needle tenotomy followed by PRP injection to be a safe and effective treatment for chronic, recalcitrant ...
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Hip adductor transfer compared with adductor tenotomy in cerebral ...
The transferred muscle provides greater pelvic stability, decreases hip-flexion contractures, and reduces instability of the hip.Missing: advancements 1980s 1990s selective procedures
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Adductor tenotomies in children with quadriplegic cerebral palsy
Adductor tenotomy procedures for prophylaxis against severe hip subluxation in children with quadriplegic cerebral palsy have reported good to excellent ...
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This was a retrospective evaluation on 101 spastic cerebral palsy patients who underwent soft-tissue release between 1991 and 2006.
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Ultrasound evaluation of the distal migration of the long head of ...
Nov 1, 2012 · In 1990, Walch, Patte and Boileau observed the beneficial effect of spontaneous rupture of the LHBT and proposed simple arthroscopic tenotomy as ...<|separator|>
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The cosmetic appearance of the biceps muscle after long-head ...
Aug 10, 2025 · Arthroscopic tenotomy was first described in 1990 by Walch et al, in the light of the analgesic effect of spontaneous rupture of the LB in ...
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Percutaneous Needle Tenotomy for Tendo-achillis Release in ... - NIH
Percutaneous tendo-Achilles lengthening with a large-gauge needle: a modification of the Ponseti technique for correction of idiopathic clubfoot. J Foot ...
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A mini-open technique for Achilles tenotomy in infants with clubfoot
Jan 29, 2016 · A tendoachilles lengthening (TAL) is indicated in over 85 % of cases treated with the Ponseti technique. A percutaneous TAL is often performed ...
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Percutaneous Achilles tendon tenotomy in clubfoot with a blade or a ...
Aug 1, 2024 · The needle tenotomy is noninferior to the blade tenotomy for usage in Ponseti treatment for idiopathic clubfoot in children aged below 36 months.
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Percutaneous Flexor Tenotomy for Toe Ulcer Treatment in Diabetes
Tenotomy is a simple, safe and effective procedure for preventing and treating distal plantar neuropathic toe ulcers in claw toe or hammer toe deformities ...
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Flexor Tenotomies for Diabetic Foot Ulcers: Review
Apr 12, 2023 · Flexor tenotomies are a simple, effective, and safe procedure for the treatment and management of DFUs located at the apex of the toes.
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Reconstructive Surgery after Compartment Syndrome of the Lower ...
Progressive contractures are subject to tenotomy, extensive capsular release and excision of scarred tissue. Corrective fusions should be reserved for long- ...Missing: deformity | Show results with:deformity
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Ankle Equinus - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Aug 16, 2024 · Zone 3: Tendo-Achilles lengthening is indicated for refractory ankle equinus when the Achilles tendon is identified as the causative structure. ...Missing: tenotomy | Show results with:tenotomy
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Modified Percutaneous Achilles Tendon Lengthening by Triple ...
Nov 7, 2019 · Achilles tendon lengthening is an effective method for treating Achilles tendon contracture. The goal of surgery is to improve the dorsiflexion ...
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Labral Repair Versus Biceps Tenotomy/Tenodesis for the Treatment ...
The majority of surgeons currently favor biceps tenodesis/tenotomy in older patients and labral repair in younger athletes.
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Oct 4, 2018 · Both the surgical treatments, SLAP repair and the biceps tenodesis, are efficacious in pain alleviation and recovery of shoulder function.
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Biceps Squeeze Tenotomy: Technique to Improve Efficiency of ... - NIH
Biceps tenotomy or tenodesis are both effective surgical techniques to manage lesions of the long head of the biceps tendon, SLAP tears, rotator interval sling ...
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Open adductor tenotomy in the prevention of hip subluxation in ...
We reviewed radiographs of 76 hips in 41 patients with cerebral palsy treated with open adductor tenotomy because of hip subluxation.
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Soft-tissue releases to treat spastic hip subluxation in ... - PubMed
Soft-tissue release was effective for long-term prevention of hip dislocation in 67% (forty-three) of sixty-five children with spastic hip subluxation.
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Percutaneous Needle Tenotomy for the Treatment of Muscle and ...
Percutaneous needle tenotomy yields good results in the management of selected superficial muscle and tendon contractures. The complications rate is very low.
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Surgical Outcomes After Minimally Invasive Release of Stroke ...
Surgery included Achilles tendon lengthening, lengthening of the posterior tibial tendon, and flexor tenotomy of all 5 digits. The 10-cm visual-analog scale and ...
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Trends in spasticity-reducing surgery and botulinum toxin treatment ...
Mar 18, 2025 · Stroke is a leading cause of paresis, and nearly 40% of stroke ... In both upper and lower extremities, tenotomy was the most common surgical ...
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Needle-based flexor tenotomies performed by diabetologists in ...
Feb 9, 2021 · Deformities such as hammer and claw toes are common in people with diabetes and neuropathy. These deformities increase pressure on the tip ...
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The Safety and Effectiveness of the Percutaneous Flexor Tenotomy ...
The flexor tenotomy is an effective procedure to expedite the healing of apical toe ulcers in people with loss of protective sensation and flexion digital ...Missing: claw | Show results with:claw<|control11|><|separator|>
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Biterminal tenotomy for the treatment of congenital muscular ...
Fifty-five patients who, in a twenty-eight-year period, had been managed with a biterminal open release because of congenital muscular torticollis, ...
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Mini-tenotomy procedure to correct diplopia associated ... - PubMed
The mini-tenotomy is a novel minimally invasive surgical technique that weakens rectus muscles to treat small-angle strabismus.
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Preoperative Evaluation | St. Louis Children's Hospital
Preoperative Physical Therapy Assessment. Range of motion, muscle tone, gait, and functional skills are videotaped on the day prior to surgery during a 1½ hour ...
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MRI findings and clinical testing for preoperative diagnosis of long ...
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The Child with Cerebral Palsy and Anaesthesia
... tenotomy or psoas transfer and release. Preoperative assessment. Thorough preoperative preparation is important in ensuring an uneventful perioperative course.
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[PDF] Preoperative gait analysis has a substantial effect on orthopedic ...
Gait analysis offers a more accurate and objective assessment of gait than is possible by conventional methods such as clini- cal examination and visual ...
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Techniques, anaesthesia preferences, and outcomes of Achilles ...
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Sedation protocols for Ponseti clubfoot Achilles tenotomy - PMC - NIH
Ponseti clubfoot management requires percutaneous tenotomy in 90% of cases, typically with local anesthesia. We report two light sedation protocols for ...
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Anaesthesia and cerebral palsy - BJA Education
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Open, Arthroscopic, and Percutaneous Surgical Treatment of Lateral ...
The open technique can be modified with a capsulotomy to allow partial visualization of the elbow joint, while the arthroscopic technique allows visualization ...
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Ultrasound-Guided Percutaneous Tenotomy of the Long Head ... - NIH
Jul 4, 2020 · We prospectively tested technical feasibility and clinical outcome of percutaneous ultrasound-guided tenotomy of long head of biceps tendon (LHBT).
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Endoscopic surgery of the Achilles tendon - PMC - PubMed Central
Introduction. Endoscopic surgery has been one of the fastest growing surgical treatments in orthopaedics for the last decade [1]. The value of endoscopic ...
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Lengthening of knee flexor muscles by percutaneous needle tenotomy
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Ultrasound-assisted musculoskeletal procedures: A practical ... - NIH
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Nov 2, 2025 · NSAIDs , such as ibuprofen, help decrease swelling, pain, and fever. · Prescription pain medicine may be given. · Take your medicine as directed.
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Ponseti Technique in the Treatment of Clubfoot - Orthobullets
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Effectiveness and Complications of Percutaneous Needle Tenotomy ...
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[PDF] Frontal Plane-Guided Percutaneous Tendo Achilles' Lengthening
the subcutaneous Achilles' tenotomy in 1816 to aid in the correction of ... triceps sure muscle complex; a 2% to 10% incidence of calcaneal gait (19); ...
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Ultrasound-Guided Percutaneous Tenotomy of the Long Head of ...
The procedure is performed under strict sterile conditions with sterile cover for the ultrasound transducer and accurate skin disinfection using iodine ...
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The Safety of Ultrasound Guided Tenotomy and Debridement for ...
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Tendon lengthening and transfer - ScienceDirect.com
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Evidence-Based Approach to Timing of Nerve Surgery - PMC - NIH
If chronic pain persists 3 to 6 months after nerve injury, it is recommended that surgical exploration/treatment be electively scheduled, with patient goals and ...
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The Ponseti method for the treatment of congenital club foot - NIH
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A 5-years results of the Ponseti method in the treatment of ... - NIH
According to the results from a 5-years data showed that the Ponseti method in the treatment of congenital clubfoot was successful with a success rate of 93.5%.
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Clubfoot | Pediatric Orthopaedic Society of North America (POSNA)
Although initial correction is achieved in almost 95% of IC by Ponseti method, a recurrence rate up to 50% is reported requiring further treatment. Compliance ...
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Factors associated with the relapse in Ponseti treated congenital ...
Jan 26, 2022 · The rate of relapse was 21.6% (32 cases) at the end of the follow-up. The rate of relapse in the noncompliance with using bracing group was ...
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Prevalence and factors associated with relapse clubfoot treated by ...
The Ponseti method retains a rate of relapse between 10% and 20% (5,6). Relapse clubfoot is the recurrence of any of its above-mentioned four components after ...Introduction · Methods · Results · Discussion
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[PDF] PHYSICAL THERAPY PROTOCOLS - Children's Hospital Colorado
Goals: -good surgical incision scar mobility, begin scar mobilization at ~4-6 weeks post-op. -return to pre surgical level of function. -independent management ...
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EXPERIENCE WITH Ponseti Protocol and Achilles Tenotomy in THE ...
This study has shown that congenital idiopathic clubfeet can be managed with good outcome using the Ponseti protocol with a reduced frequency of Achilles ...
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[PDF] Tenotomy Rehabilitation Protocol - Andrews Sports Medicine
Progress weight bearing activities and start boot wean protocol. • Start low impact aerobic exercise. (i.e. stationary bike).Missing: clubfoot cerebral palsy
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How to Cope with the Ponseti Method for Clubfoot - PMC - NIH
Jul 29, 2022 · It is a low-cost treatment consisting in a series of plaster casts, a percutaneous Achilles' tenotomy and a Mitchell Ponseti brace to wear with ...
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Orthopedic surgery in cerebral palsy: Instructional course lecture
Orthopedic surgery (OS) plays an important role in the management of cerebral palsy (CP). The objectives of OS are to optimize functions and prevent deformity.