Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Tik

Tik is a slang term used in South Africa, particularly in the Western Cape province, to refer to crystal methamphetamine, a highly addictive synthetic stimulant drug that typically appears as clear, chunky crystals resembling ice.^[1] This form of methamphetamine is usually smoked using improvised devices like modified light bulbs and straws, providing intense euphoria and increased energy, though it carries severe risks of addiction and health complications.^[1] Known for its low cost, tik has become one of the most abused substances in the region since its rapid emergence in the early 2000s.^[1] The rise of tik in South Africa began around 2003, when it was virtually unknown in Cape Town, but by 2008, it had overtaken other drugs as the primary substance of abuse, with over 50% of clients at local drug counseling centers reporting it as their main drug, compared to less than 1% just four years earlier.^[1] Its prevalence has continued to grow, especially among adolescents and young adults in Coloured communities, where socioeconomic factors like poverty and limited opportunities contribute to its appeal as a cheap escape or confidence booster.^[2] By 2023, methamphetamine seizures in Africa had increased eightfold compared to 2010 levels, with South Africa ranking among the top sites for large-scale intercepts alongside countries like Mozambique.^[3] South Africa reports the highest prevalence of methamphetamine use on the continent as of 2023.^[4] Tik's effects are profoundly damaging, offering short-term highs of alertness and pleasure but leading to rapid addiction, with users experiencing intense cravings that can persist for months after quitting.^[5] Physically, it causes weight loss, insomnia, and aggressive behaviors, while psychologically, it triggers anxiety, paranoia, hallucinations, and delusions, often resulting in psychotic episodes that prompt early treatment-seeking.^[5] Socially, tik use is linked to heightened HIV risks through behaviors like inconsistent condom use and multiple sexual partners, particularly among out-of-school youth, exacerbating public health challenges in high-prevalence areas.^[2] In response, South African authorities have invested significantly in treatment, allocating R108.8 million in 2023/2024 and increasing to R110 million in 2025/2026 for substance abuse programs in the Western Cape alone, supporting centers with over 670 inpatient beds.^[6]^[7]

Chemical and Pharmacological Properties

Chemical Composition

Tik, the street name for methamphetamine in South Africa, has the molecular formula C₁₀H₁₅N and is chemically known as N-methyl-1-phenylpropan-2-amine.^[8] This structure is derived from amphetamine (C₉H₁₃N) through the addition of a methyl group (-CH₃) to the nitrogen atom, enhancing its lipophilicity and potency compared to the parent compound.^[9] The compound exists primarily as the hydrochloride salt in illicit forms, which is a white to off-white crystalline solid at room temperature.^[10] In its common physical form, tik appears as clear, chunky crystals resembling "ice" or shards, which can be crushed into a white powder for use.^[11] These crystals result from the recrystallization process during synthesis and are odorless with a bitter taste. The hydrochloride salt is freely soluble in water (approximately 1 g in 2 mL) and ethanol (1 g in 3 mL), facilitating its dissolution for various administration methods, though it is less soluble in non-polar solvents like ether.^[12] In South Africa, the purity of tik varies depending on production origin. Locally synthesized tik, often using the Nagai reduction method with red phosphorus and hydriodic acid, may exhibit a cloudy or yellowish appearance due to inadequate purification and contain impurities such as iodine residues, phosphorus compounds, and route-specific by-products like naphthalenes.^[13] However, since around 2016, higher-purity imported methamphetamine—typically clear crystals from sources like Mexico (via Nigeria) or Afghanistan/Pakistan—has dominated the market, often perceived as superior to local product.^[14] As of 2023, methamphetamine trafficking has surged across Africa, with South Africa among key interception sites, further influencing supply dynamics.^[6] The term "tik" originates from the distinctive ticking or crackling sound produced when the crystals are heated and smoked in improvised devices, such as modified light bulbs.^[15] This onomatopoeic name reflects local usage patterns in South Africa's Western Cape region, where smoking is the dominant consumption method.^[1]

Mechanism of Action

Methamphetamine, commonly known as tik in South Africa, primarily exerts its stimulant effects by enhancing the release of monoamine neurotransmitters—dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin—into the synaptic cleft while simultaneously blocking their reuptake.^[16] This occurs through the reversal of monoamine transporters on the plasma membrane, which facilitates the efflux of these neurotransmitters from the neuron, and by disrupting vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2), leading to redistribution from synaptic vesicles to the cytoplasm.^[17] Additionally, methamphetamine inhibits monoamine oxidase, reducing neurotransmitter breakdown, and may increase tyrosine hydroxylase activity, further elevating synthesis.^[16] The drug prominently affects the brain's reward pathway, particularly the mesolimbic dopamine system, where elevated dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens produce intense euphoria and reinforce addictive behaviors.^[17] This surge in dopamine signaling strengthens neural circuits associated with reward and motivation, contributing to the high potential for dependence observed in users.^[16] Norepinephrine release enhances arousal and alertness, while serotonin modulation influences mood and appetite suppression, amplifying the overall psychostimulant profile.^[17] At low doses, methamphetamine promotes wakefulness, enhanced focus, and mild euphoria by modestly increasing monoamine levels without overwhelming the system.^[17] However, high doses trigger neurotoxicity through mechanisms such as oxidative stress, where excessive dopamine auto-oxidation generates reactive oxygen species (ROS) like superoxide anions and hydrogen peroxide, damaging mitochondrial function and inducing lipid peroxidation in neurons.^[18] Excitotoxicity also plays a role, as methamphetamine elevates extracellular glutamate, overactivating N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors and causing calcium influx that precipitates neuronal apoptosis.^[18] Compared to amphetamine, methamphetamine (specifically the d-isomer prevalent in tik) is more lipophilic due to its additional methyl group on the amine, allowing faster diffusion across the blood-brain barrier and resulting in more rapid and intense central nervous system effects.^[17] This structural difference enhances its potency in elevating brain monoamine concentrations, particularly when administered via routes like smoking, which is common for tik.^[16]

History and Emergence

Global Origins of Methamphetamine

Methamphetamine was first synthesized in 1893 by Japanese chemist Nagai Nagayoshi, who derived it from the natural alkaloid ephedrine extracted from the Ephedra sinica plant.^[19] This initial synthesis occurred in liquid form, marking the compound's entry into scientific literature as a potential pharmaceutical agent, though it remained largely experimental for decades. In 1919, Japanese chemist Akira Ogata advanced the process by producing the first crystalline form of methamphetamine hydrochloride, enabling more practical applications.^[19] During the 1930s, methamphetamine gained prominence in Japan when it was patented and commercialized as Philopon by Dainippon Pharmaceuticals for medical purposes, such as treating fatigue and depression.^[20] Its use expanded dramatically during World War II, where it was distributed to military personnel on both Axis sides to enhance alertness and endurance. German forces, for instance, issued Pervitin—methamphetamine tablets—starting in 1939, with over 35 million units supplied to troops during the early campaigns, including the invasion of France in 1940; this widespread administration contributed to post-war addiction epidemics in affected populations.^[21] Similarly, Japanese soldiers and pilots received Philopon, leading to surplus stockpiles that fueled civilian abuse after 1945.^[22] In the United States, methamphetamine entered medical practice in the 1940s under the brand name Methedrine, prescribed for conditions like narcolepsy, obesity, and hypotension to suppress appetite and promote wakefulness. By the 1960s, recreational use emerged prominently within outlaw motorcycle gangs, such as the Hells Angels, who began producing and distributing it illicitly as part of their subculture, associating the drug with long-haul riding and countercultural rebellion.^[23] This shift accelerated in the 1970s as global production transitioned from legitimate pharmaceutical channels to clandestine laboratories, prompted by regulatory crackdowns like the U.S. Controlled Substances Act of 1970, which classified methamphetamine as a Schedule II substance and curtailed legal manufacturing, thereby incentivizing underground synthesis.^[24]

Rise in South Africa

Tik, a street name for methamphetamine in South Africa, was largely unknown and sporadically introduced in the country in the late 1990s, with methamphetamine use first detected in Cape Town in 1997 and the first documented laboratory seizure occurring in 1998 linked to Chinese syndicates involved in the abalone trade.^[14] By 2005, its use had exploded in Cape Town, particularly among Coloured communities in townships such as Manenberg and Delft, becoming the primary substance of abuse in the Western Cape and surpassing traditional drugs like mandrax and cannabis.^[1]^[25] This rapid proliferation marked a shift from earlier, sporadic introductions in the mid-1990s via gang networks on the Cape Flats.^[14] Several post-apartheid factors drove this emergence, including entrenched socioeconomic inequality and high unemployment rates exceeding 40% in affected township areas, which heightened vulnerability to substance abuse amid limited opportunities.^[26] Additionally, easy access to precursor chemicals such as ephedrine and pseudoephedrine—often obtained through over-the-counter medications or illicit trade—facilitated local production by small-scale labs, making tik widely available at low cost.^[14]^[25] Early surveys in the Western Cape highlighted the outbreak's scale: treatment admissions for tik as the primary substance rose from less than 1% of clients in 2004 to over 50% by 2008, reflecting a surge from initial low prevalence.^[1] Street intercept surveys in Cape Town townships in 2006 reported lifetime use among 18% of men and 12% of women, indicating rapid adoption in peri-urban areas where rates climbed toward 10% or higher by 2010 amid ongoing economic stressors.^[25] These figures underscored tik's transition from a niche drug to a dominant one in high-risk communities.^[14] Culturally, tik displaced older substances like mandrax (methaqualone) and dagga (cannabis) due to its affordability, with doses ("straws") selling for R20–R50, and its perceived ability to provide a productivity boost through euphoria and alertness, appealing to unemployed youth facing boredom and lack of prospects.^[25]^[1] This adoption was amplified by peer influence and generational trends in marginalized areas, solidifying tik's role in local drug cultures by the late 2000s.^[14]

Production and Distribution

Methods of Production

The clandestine production of tik, South Africa's prevalent form of methamphetamine, relies on established synthetic routes adapted for local constraints, including limited access to sophisticated equipment and precursors. The primary method involves the reduction of ephedrine or pseudoephedrine, extracted from pharmaceuticals, using red phosphorus and iodine in the Nagai process, which generates hydriodic acid to facilitate the conversion to methamphetamine. This technique, common in small-scale operations, produces the d-isomer of methamphetamine favored for its potency. An alternative route employs reductive amination of phenyl-2-propanone (P2P, also known as BMK), typically via the Leuckart reaction or catalytic hydrogenation, allowing for higher yields when P2P precursors are available through diversion or import. These methods have evolved in response to international precursor controls, with South African producers shifting from ephedrine-based synthesis to P2P amid tightening regulations.^[14]^[27] In South African contexts, particularly in resource-scarce townships, producers favor simplified "one-pot" adaptations of the red phosphorus-iodine method, often conducted in plastic bottles to minimize setup and mobility risks—a technique akin to shake-and-bake processes that combines all reagents in a single container for rapid synthesis. These local variations, driven by the need for discretion and low-cost operations, typically result in tik with 50-70% purity, appearing as cloudy, crushed-ice-like crystals due to incomplete purification and adulterants. Precursors such as ephedrine and pseudoephedrine were historically obtained from over-the-counter cold medications until 2008, when South African regulations under the Medicines and Related Substances Act reclassified certain preparations as Schedule 2 substances with strict dosage, pack size, and sales limits, and single-ingredient products as Schedule 6 substances, to curb diversion. Post-regulation, imports from China and India via illicit networks have sustained supply, though the red phosphorus method introduces environmental hazards, including the release of toxic phosphine gas during reactions.^[14]^[28]^[29]^[30] Production scales vary by location and operator sophistication: township-based clandestine labs, often run by local gangs, generate small 1-5 gram batches to meet immediate demand and avoid detection, while larger rural facilities—sometimes supported by international syndicates—can output up to kilograms per cycle, as evidenced by seizures of industrial-scale operations in Limpopo and Mpumalanga. Despite a decline in domestic labs since 2014 due to imported competition, these methods persist in sustaining tik's availability in the Western Cape and Gauteng, as shown by the September 2025 seizure of a large methamphetamine laboratory in Mpumalanga valued at approximately R360 million.^[14]^[31]

Trafficking and Local Supply Chains

Methamphetamine, known locally as tik, enters South Africa primarily through maritime routes originating from production hubs in West Africa and, to a lesser extent, Afghanistan and Southeast Asia, with shipments concealed in containers arriving at major ports such as Durban and Cape Town.^[14] West African syndicates, particularly Nigerian networks that adopted Mexican production techniques in the early 2010s, have played a pivotal role in this influx, transporting the drug via intermediate stops in Angola, Namibia, and Mozambique before overland movement into South Africa.^[14] Additionally, precursor chemicals essential for local synthesis are imported from China and India, often through the same ports, enabling domestic production that supplements imported supplies.^[32] Once in the country, distribution shifts to localized networks dominated by township-based dealers who leverage informal transport systems like minibus taxis to move tik from urban hubs to peri-urban and rural areas.^[14] These dealers, often embedded in community structures, facilitate rapid dissemination within high-demand areas such as the Cape Flats, where street-level sales occur through small-scale transactions coordinated via mobile apps and personal networks. Prices escalate significantly along the chain: wholesale quantities from border points like Maputo sell for approximately R10 per gram, rising to R100 per gram in bulk at intermediate levels, and reaching retail prices of R225 to R350 per gram in the Western Cape by 2020.^[14]^[33] Key players in these supply chains include international actors such as Nigerian cartels handling bulk importation and Chinese networks supplying precursors, alongside local gangs like the Numbers gang in Cape Town, which exert control over street-level distribution in townships.^[14] These groups collaborate through hybrid models, with foreign syndicates providing logistics and locals managing retail to minimize risks. The economic scale of the tik market underscores its significance, with national retail value estimated at approximately R11 billion in 2020, of which the Western Cape—home to about 190,000 users—accounts for a substantial portion driven by high consumption rates.^[33] This market fuels ancillary activities, including money laundering through informal township economies like shebeens, amplifying its broader financial footprint.^[14]

Patterns of Use

Common Methods of Consumption

In South Africa, smoking is the predominant method of Tik consumption, accounting for the vast majority of use among active methamphetamine users in community settings such as Cape Town townships.^[34] Users typically heat the crystalline powder in improvised glass pipes or modified light bulbs. This route delivers a rapid onset of euphoric effects within 5-10 seconds due to direct absorption through the lungs. Snorting involves crushing Tik into powder and inhaling it through the nose using rolled paper, straws, or similar implements, a method favored by novice users for its relative simplicity compared to smoking.^[35] Effects from snorting emerge more gradually, typically in 3-5 minutes, as the drug is absorbed through nasal mucous membranes. Injecting Tik, where the substance is dissolved in water and administered intravenously via syringes, is less prevalent but occurs among a subset of chronic users in township environments, with lifetime prevalence around 6% in sampled active user cohorts.^[34] This method carries the highest potential for rapid addiction due to immediate bioavailability, and it heightens risks of infection and overdose. Oral ingestion remains rare, usually in pill form, as it produces slower and less intense effects unsuitable for the sought-after rush.^[35] Across routes, typical per-use dosages range from 10-50 mg, with users frequently engaging in binge sessions lasting several days to maintain euphoria.

User Demographics in South Africa

In South Africa, Tik (methamphetamine) use is predominantly observed among young males aged 15 to 35 years, with adolescent initiation frequently occurring through peer pressure in social settings. Studies indicate that approximately 91% of teenage users are male, often starting around age 16, and lifetime prevalence among school-going youth reaches about 5%, with 65% of those users reporting recent (past-month) consumption. This pattern aligns with broader treatment data from the South African Community Epidemiology Network on Drug Use (SACENDU), where methamphetamine admissions are highest among individuals under 20 years in provinces like the Eastern Cape and Western Cape.^[36]^[37]^[38] Ethnically, Tik use is concentrated among Coloured communities in the Western Cape, particularly in urban townships such as the Cape Flats, Lavender Hill, and Mitchells Plain. Prevalence is notably lower in rural areas or Black-majority communities outside the Western Cape, reflecting geographic disparities tied to local production and distribution networks. SACENDU reports confirm the Western Cape accounts for 31% of national methamphetamine treatment admissions as a primary substance, compared to 24% in Gauteng and 23% in the Eastern Cape.^[36]^[38] Socioeconomically, users are often from working-class backgrounds characterized by high unemployment (over 40% in areas like Lavender Hill), low educational attainment, and poverty, which exacerbate vulnerability to substance initiation. Polydrug use is common, with methamphetamine users also consuming cannabis, alcohol, or heroin (such as nyaope), particularly in treatment-seeking populations. These factors contribute to Tik comprising up to 50% of primary or secondary substances in Western Cape treatment cases.^[36]^[38] Recent trends from 2020 onward show sustained high use in the Western Cape alongside gradual spread to other provinces, with SACENDU phase 54 (first half of 2023) reporting stable but elevated treatment admissions for methamphetamine at 24-31% across key sites; trends remained stable as of 2024 per Central Drug Authority reports.^[38]^[2]^[36]^[39] Among adolescents, male users remain predominant for frequent use, though some studies highlight elevated rates among young Coloured females in out-of-school settings, suggesting shifting gender dynamics in certain subgroups. Overall, estimates from the early 2010s suggest around 200,000 individuals in Cape Town used Tik, underscoring the drug's entrenched role in regional youth demographics.^[38]^[2]^[36]

Health and Physiological Effects

Acute Effects

Upon ingestion, smoking, or injection, tik induces immediate physiological and psychological responses due to its potent stimulant properties. These acute effects typically onset within seconds to minutes, depending on the route of administration, and peak rapidly before gradually subsiding.^[16] Physically, users experience tachycardia, with heart rates often rising to 150 beats per minute or higher, alongside elevated blood pressure, hyperthermia, dilated pupils (mydriasis), and suppressed appetite. These cardiovascular and thermoregulatory changes stem from the drug's activation of the sympathetic nervous system.^[40]^[41] Psychologically, the initial rush produces intense euphoria, heightened energy, and increased talkativeness, fostering a sense of alertness and confidence. At higher doses, however, acute paranoia and anxiety may emerge, contributing to erratic behavior. Following the peak, a crash phase ensues, characterized by profound fatigue, irritability, and depressive symptoms, typically lasting 4-12 hours.^[40]^[16] The duration of effects varies by administration route: intravenous or smoked tik peaks within 30 minutes and lasts 8-24 hours, while oral ingestion delays onset but extends the overall experience. Overdose risks escalate during binges, with signs including seizures, stroke, or cardiac arrest; severe toxicity can occur with high doses in non-tolerant individuals.^[40]^[42]^[16]

Chronic Health Consequences

Chronic methamphetamine use, commonly referred to as "tik" in South Africa, leads to profound neurological damage primarily through the depletion of dopamine neurons and transporters in brain regions such as the striatum. This neurotoxicity results in persistent cognitive deficits, including impairments in attention, decision-making, and executive function, as well as memory loss that can endure even after prolonged abstinence.^[43]^[44]^[45] Studies indicate that these changes may predispose users to Parkinson's-like symptoms, with methamphetamine abuse associated with a threefold increased risk of developing Parkinsonism due to dopaminergic neuron loss.^[46] Additionally, sustained use can precipitate "meth psychosis," a chronic condition characterized by hallucinations, paranoia, and delusions that mimic schizophrenia and may persist beyond active drug use.^[47] Oral health deteriorates severely among chronic tik users, manifesting as "tik mouth," a localized variant of the globally recognized "meth mouth" syndrome. This condition involves rampant tooth decay, gum disease, and tooth loss, driven by methamphetamine-induced xerostomia (dry mouth), bruxism (teeth grinding), and poor hygiene practices. Approximately 70% of chronic users experience these effects, with dry mouth reported in up to 72% and jaw clenching in 68%, exacerbating enamel erosion and periodontal damage.^[48]^[49]^[50] Cardiovascular complications from prolonged tik exposure include chronic hypertension and accelerated heart disease, stemming from repeated vasoconstriction and elevated sympathetic activity. These changes heighten the risk of cardiomyopathy and arrhythmias, with methamphetamine users exhibiting earlier onset of cardiovascular disease compared to non-users. Stroke risk is substantially elevated, with studies showing a 2- to 5-fold increase in intracerebral hemorrhage among young adults using the drug.^[51]^[52]^[53] Other systemic effects of chronic use encompass significant weight loss due to appetite suppression and hypermetabolism, leading to malnutrition and muscle wasting. Skin sores arise from compulsive picking induced by formication (sensations of insects crawling under the skin) and impaired wound healing, often resulting in chronic infections. Methamphetamine also suppresses immune function by disrupting T-cell activity and increasing susceptibility to opportunistic infections. In pregnant women, tik use heightens risks of low birth weight and preterm delivery, with South African studies linking prenatal exposure to adverse fetal outcomes, including increased risks of miscarriage.^[54]^[55]^[56]^[57] Recent studies also indicate that chronic tik use impairs male fertility by reducing sperm motility, viability, and count, potentially contributing to infertility issues.^[58]

Community and Crime Associations

Tik use in South Africa, particularly in Cape Town's Western Cape province, is closely intertwined with gang activity, exacerbating violence and community disruption. Gangs dominate the tik trade, using it to fund operations and recruit youth through coercion or incentives. This control fuels intense turf wars, with gangs clashing over distribution territories, leading to heightened levels of shootings and retaliatory attacks in townships like Manenberg and Mitchells Plain.^[25] ^[59] ^[60] The tik economy has been directly implicated in escalating gang violence, contributing to a surge in homicides and other serious crimes. In the 2014/15 reporting period, the Western Cape recorded 3,186 murders—a 9.7% increase from the previous year—with gang conflicts over drug markets accounting for a substantial portion, particularly in high-density precincts where tik is the drug of choice due to its low cost and local production. By 2015, tik represented the primary substance for 35% of patients entering treatment facilities in the province, underscoring its role in sustaining gang profitability and violence. Province-wide drug-related crimes reached 88,731 cases that year, comprising 33.2% of national totals, with Cape Town precincts like Mitchells Plain reporting over 4,700 incidents.^[59] ^[60] Beyond gang dynamics, tik use correlates with broader crime patterns, including property theft and assaults, as users resort to opportunistic crimes to finance addiction. Community reports highlight rampant theft of household items, electrical goods, and personal belongings, often sold to dealers, which erodes trust and economic stability in affected neighborhoods. Intoxication from tik amplifies aggressive tendencies, making users significantly more prone to violent acts such as physical assaults and muggings during use episodes. In peri-urban areas, residents associate tik with a breakdown in social cohesion, as corruption and vigilantism emerge in response to unchecked crime.^[25] ^[60] ^[59] At the family level, tik addiction disrupts households, fostering child neglect and domestic violence in ways that strain community welfare systems. Users often prioritize the drug over parental responsibilities, leaving children unsupervised, malnourished, or exposed to unsafe environments, including direct contact with dealers or violence. This neglect contributes to adverse outcomes like premature births among addicted mothers and increased school absenteeism, prompting greater involvement from child protection services; in tik-prevalent townships, such interventions have risen notably, reflecting the drug's role in family disintegration. Domestic violence escalates as tik-induced paranoia and irritability lead to bidirectional abuse between partners, with physical and sexual assaults becoming common, further isolating families.^[25] ^[60] Stigma surrounding tik perpetuates marginalization, especially in Coloured communities where the drug's prevalence reinforces a vicious cycle of poverty and crime. In the Western Cape's predominantly Coloured townships, 44% of residents report knowing a close friend or relative using tik, compared to lower rates among Black populations, framing it as a community-specific crisis that deepens social exclusion. This perception deters treatment-seeking due to shame and gender biases—women users face heightened judgment—while economic fallout from addiction entrenches unemployment and reliance on illicit economies, sustaining gang recruitment and intergenerational trauma.^[25] ^[60]

Public Health Burden

Tik addiction imposes a significant public health burden on South Africa. Tik users face elevated risks of HIV infection, primarily through engagement in high-risk sexual behaviors such as unprotected sex and sex trading.^[61] This vulnerability exacerbates the national HIV epidemic, straining public health resources in regions with high Tik prevalence. Epidemiological trends reveal strong links between Tik use and outbreaks of tuberculosis (TB) and hepatitis, as the drug compromises immune function and promotes risky behaviors that facilitate transmission.^[62] As of 2024, methamphetamine trafficking, including tik, has continued to surge across Africa, with increased seizures indicating growing availability and use.^[63] The economic toll of Tik addiction includes substantial lost productivity due to unemployment and impaired functioning among users. In affected townships, addiction contributes to reduced workforce participation, hindering local economic development and perpetuating cycles of poverty.^[60]

Legal and Policy Framework

Legislation in South Africa

Methamphetamine, commonly known as tik in South Africa, is classified as a dependence-producing substance in Part III of Schedule 2 of the Drugs and Drug Trafficking Act 140 of 1992.^[64] Possession of tik is an offence under section 4(b) of the Act, punishable by a fine or imprisonment for up to 15 years, or both, depending on the quantity and circumstances.^[65] Trafficking or dealing in tik, prohibited under section 5(b), carries a minimum sentence of 15 years' imprisonment for a first offender, with a maximum of 25 years or a fine in addition.^[65] Key legislative reforms have aimed to curb tik production and distribution. In 2008, amendments to the Medicines and Related Substances Act 101 of 1965 classified precursor chemicals such as pseudoephedrine and ephedrine as Schedule 6 substances, restricting their over-the-counter sales and requiring prescriptions to limit access for illicit methamphetamine synthesis.^[66] The Prevention of Organised Crime Act 121 of 1998 provides tools to target clandestine tik laboratories through asset forfeiture and racketeering charges against organised networks involved in production.^[67] South Africa's National Drug Master Plan 2019-2024 serves as the overarching policy framework, integrating law enforcement, prevention, treatment, and harm reduction strategies to address substance abuse, including methamphetamine.^[68] Enforcement of tik-related laws faces significant challenges, including corruption within police and judicial systems that undermines investigations and prosecutions. Conviction rates remain low amid high arrest numbers of 259,698 in 2022/23, exacerbated by court backlogs and evidentiary issues.^[69] To address this, community policing forums in townships collaborate with the South African Police Service to report tik dealing and support local anti-drug initiatives. In 2022, the Drugs and Drug Trafficking Amendment Act 14 of 2022 updated Schedules 1 and 2 to align with international conventions and repealed provisions allowing ministerial additions to controlled substances without parliamentary oversight, indirectly strengthening penalties for small-scale dealing by clarifying classifications.^[70]

International Controls

Methamphetamine, commonly known as tik in South Africa, is classified as a Schedule II substance under the United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances of 1971, which establishes an international control regime for psychoactive drugs including amphetamine-type stimulants to limit their use to medical and scientific purposes.^[71] The International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) oversees the implementation of this convention and monitors the trade in precursors essential for methamphetamine production, such as ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, under the provisions of the 1988 United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances.^[72] The 1988 Convention further strengthens global efforts by requiring signatory states to criminalize the production, sale, and trafficking of controlled substances like methamphetamine, while mandating extradition and mutual legal assistance for offenders involved in international drug trafficking.^[73] This agreement directly influences South Africa through regional mechanisms, including the 1996 Protocol on Combating Illicit Drug Trafficking adopted by the Southern African Development Community (SADC), which harmonizes member states' responses to cross-border drug offenses in alignment with the UN framework.^[74] Export controls on key precursor chemicals have played a significant role in curbing the global methamphetamine supply since 2005. In the United States, the Combat Methamphetamine Epidemic Act restricted over-the-counter sales and exports of pseudoephedrine and ephedrine, contributing to a decline in domestic production and broader disruptions in international precursor flows.^[75] Similarly, the European Union's Regulation (EC) No 111/2005 imposed licensing and notification requirements for exporting drug precursors to third countries, reducing the diversion of chemicals like phenyl-2-propanone to illicit methamphetamine manufacturing sites worldwide.^[76] These measures, as noted in UN analyses, have collectively diminished the availability of precursors, shifting production patterns but overall constraining global supply chains.^[77] South Africa aligns its national drug enforcement with these international obligations through agencies such as the South African Police Service's Narcotics Bureau, ensuring compliance with UN reporting and control standards. However, 2022 UN reports highlight persistent gaps in border monitoring, exacerbated by porous frontiers and limited maritime surveillance, which facilitate methamphetamine trafficking along southern African routes.^[78]

Treatment and Recovery

Medical Interventions

Medical interventions for tik (methamphetamine) dependence primarily focus on managing withdrawal symptoms, acute intoxication, and reducing cravings through pharmacological approaches, though no medications are specifically FDA-approved for treating methamphetamine use disorder. Withdrawal from tik often involves severe anxiety, agitation, and risk of seizures, which are commonly managed with benzodiazepines such as lorazepam or diazepam to alleviate these symptoms and prevent complications.^[79] There is no FDA-approved antagonist for methamphetamine, but bupropion has shown promise in reducing cravings and supporting abstinence when used in combination with other agents.^[80] In clinical trials, pharmacotherapies like modafinil and methylphenidate have been investigated as potential substitutes to mitigate withdrawal and cravings, though results have been mixed with limited overall efficacy demonstrated.^[80] A notable advancement includes the combination of extended-release naltrexone and bupropion, which in a 2021 phase 3 randomized controlled trial significantly increased the proportion of participants achieving sustained methamphetamine abstinence (13.6% response rate versus 2.5% with placebo), highlighting its potential to reduce use in moderate to severe cases.^[81] For acute care in cases of tik intoxication, intravenous fluids are administered to address dehydration and support renal function, particularly in the presence of rhabdomyolysis, while antipsychotics such as haloperidol or olanzapine are used to control methamphetamine-induced psychosis and severe agitation.^[79] Short-term detoxification programs for tik dependence typically yield low success rates due to intense cravings and psychological distress, emphasizing the need for integrated follow-up care. In South African clinics treating tik dependence, contingency management—providing incentives for verified abstinence—has been implemented as an adjunct to pharmacological interventions, showing feasibility and association with prolonged abstinence periods in pilot studies.^[82]

Rehabilitation and Support Programs

Rehabilitation and support programs for Tik (methamphetamine) addiction in South Africa emphasize community-based and psychological interventions to foster long-term recovery, often delivered through non-governmental organizations and provincial health services. The South African National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence (SANCA) operates key facilities in the Western Cape, providing community-based treatment, early intervention, outpatient services, aftercare, and reintegration support tailored to substance use disorders including methamphetamine.^[83] These programs align with broader 12-step models commonly integrated into South African addiction recovery frameworks, drawing from mutual support groups like Narcotics Anonymous to promote peer accountability and spiritual growth.^[84] Government-funded initiatives further expand access, offering structured outpatient and residential support for low-income individuals affected by Tik use.^[85] Counseling approaches in these programs prioritize psychological strategies to address relapse and social barriers. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is widely employed for relapse prevention, helping individuals identify triggers, develop coping skills, and restructure thought patterns associated with methamphetamine dependence, as evidenced in behavioral interventions evaluated for efficacy in South African contexts.^[86] Family therapy complements this by targeting stigma and relational dynamics, involving caregivers in sessions to rebuild trust, reduce enabling behaviors, and mitigate the emotional distress experienced by families of Tik users in high-prevalence communities.^[87] These modalities are often delivered in group or individual formats within outpatient settings, following initial medical detoxification where necessary.^[88] Community initiatives adapt evidence-based models to township environments, where Tik use is prevalent. The Matrix model, a 16-week intensive outpatient program originally developed for stimulant use disorders, has been implemented since 2007 in Cape Town's peri-urban areas, including adaptations for local methamphetamine users through structured group sessions, family education, and urine monitoring.^[89] Evaluations of its application show that primary Tik users exhibit 50% greater odds of treatment initiation and over four times the likelihood of attending at least four sessions compared to those with other primary substances, with approximately 40.7% achieving verified abstinence at program exit.^[89] In a related pilot of contingency management integrated with such behavioral supports, 61% of participants remained abstinent throughout an eight-week period, underscoring potential for sustained engagement in resource-limited settings.^[82] Despite these efforts, challenges persist in scaling programs, particularly limited access in rural areas due to insufficient infrastructure, personnel shortages, and overburdened social services, which exacerbate isolation for Tik-dependent individuals far from urban treatment hubs. Integration with HIV services remains inconsistent, even in co-located facilities like Matrix clinics adjacent to HIV care sites, where only 1.5% of people living with HIV and problematic substance use receive referrals, hindered by provider stigma and unclear protocols—critical given the heightened HIV risks among methamphetamine users.^[90] As of 2025, international collaborations, such as those with the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), are supporting the development of quality assurance mechanisms to improve ethical and effective treatment for drug use disorders in South Africa.^[91]

References

[1]
"Tik": Crystal meth in Cape Town
Jun 13, 2008 · In Cape Town, South Africa, crystal methamphetamine use has exploded very quickly. Known locally as "tik," the drug was virtually unknown as late as 2003.
[2]
Methamphetamine (“tik”) Use and Its Association with Condom ... - NIH
Little is known about the association between methamphetamine use and sexual risk behaviors among young South African women between 13 and 20 years of age.
[3]
World Drug Report: Tik on the increase in Africa | Western Cape ...
Jul 11, 2023 · The latest World Drug Report from the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) reveals Methamphetamine trafficking is on the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[4]
None
### Tik/Methamphetamine Summary
[5]
Methamphetamine | C10H15N | CID 10836 - PubChem - NIH
Methamphetamine | C10H15N | CID 10836 - structure, chemical names, physical and chemical properties, classification, patents, literature, ...
[6]
Methamphetamine - the NIST WebBook
Methamphetamine · Formula: C10H15N · Molecular weight: 149.2328 · IUPAC Standard InChI: InChI=1S/C10H15N/c1-9(11-2)8-10-6-4-3-5-7-10/h3-7,9,11H,8H2,1-2H3/t9-/m1/s1
[7]
(+)-Methamphetamine hydrochloride | C10H16ClN | CID 66124
Molecular Formula. C10H16ClN ; Synonyms. Methamphetamine hydrochloride; 51-57-0; Methamphetamine HCL; (+)-Methamphetamine hydrochloride; Methamphetaminium ...<|separator|>
[8]
Methamphetamine drug profile | www.euda.europa.eu
Sorry, the download of the PDF failed. crystal meth. About Methamphetamine. A synthetic substance. Normally seen as a white ...
[9]
Methamphetamine (PIM 334) - INCHEM
Methamphetamine International Programme on Chemical Safety Poison Information Monograph 334 Pharmaceutical 1. NAME 1.1 Substance Methamphetamine 1.2 Group ...
[10]
[PDF] Iodine in Methamphetamine Production - Department of Justice
Hydriodic acid can be produced by combining iodine crystals with water and some form of phos- phorus, including red phosphorus, hypophosphorous acid, or ...Missing: tik africa contaminants
[11]
Use of crystal methamphetamine among male adolescents in Cape ...
Mar 27, 2017 · It is locally referred to as ““tik” due to the “ticking” sound produced when smoked [4]. The prevalence of methamphetamine (“tik”) use is ...
[12]
Methamphetamine - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
If these types of behavior develop after using the methamphetamine, the meth use may have developed dependency. Chronic meth users also usually show poor ...Continuing Education Activity · Indications · Mechanism of Action · Adverse Effects
[13]
Pharmacologic mechanisms of crystal meth - PMC - PubMed Central
Jun 17, 2008 · Crystal meth is a form of the stimulant drug methamphetamine that, when smoked, can rapidly achieve high concentrations in the brain.
[14]
The Main Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Methamphetamine
The illustration summarizes the main mechanisms of Methamphetamine (METH)-elicited neurotoxic effects ... mechanism of action is not known (Table 2). Table ...
[15]
9️⃣Who Was the First to Synthesize Methamphetamine?
Dec 18, 2024 · Nagayoshi Nagai first synthesized methamphetamine in liquid form in 1893. Akira Ogata (1887–1978) later crystallized methamphetamine in pure form for the first ...
[16]
HISTORY OF AMPHETAMINES AND METHAMPHETAMINES
Japanese Use of Methamphetamines in World War II. In Japan, methamphetamine was sold under the registered trademark of Philopon by Dainippon Pharmaceuticals ...Origin And Early History Of... · Blitzkreig And... · Meth-Laced Chocolates Given...
[17]
How Methamphetamine Became a Key Part of Nazi Military Strategy
Jan 7, 2020 · Temmler-Werke began selling methamphetamine under the brand name Pervitin in the winter of 1937. Partly thanks to the company's aggressive ...Missing: 1939-1945<|control11|><|separator|>
[18]
UNODC - Bulletin on Narcotics - 1989 Issue 1 - 006
Jan 1, 1989 · ... methamphetamine. It was sold to the general public under the name of Philopon, which became a synonym for all stimulants available on the ...
[19]
[PDF] Methamphetamine Trafficking by the Hells Angels Motorcycle Gang
Law enforcement authorities generally believe the Hells Angles first became involved in drug trafficking in the mid-1960s. Today, they are considered one of the ...Missing: biker | Show results with:biker
[20]
Methamphetamine: Background, Prevalence, and Federal Drug ...
Jan 24, 2007 · 37 Ibid. 38 U.S. DOJ, OJP, NIJ, Meth Matters: Report on Methamphetamine Users in Five Western Cities, by Susan Pennell, Joe Ellett, Cynthia ...
[21]
[PDF] A SYNTHETIC AGE
Mar 27, 2021 · With ephedrine being a principal precursor chemical in the production of methamphet- amine, 20 tonnes could have produced a staggering. 13 ...
[22]
The impact of methamphetamine (“tik”) on a peri-urban community in ...
Oct 26, 2013 · Over the last decade, South Africa's Western Cape has experienced a dramatic increase in methamphetamine (“tik”) use.
[23]
[PDF] labour market dynamics - TIPS
This meant that in 2004, the national broad unemployment rate was 41,0 percent, while that of narrow unemploy- ment was 26,2 percent, the former representing a ...
[24]
https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/RL33857.html
[25]
[PDF] Prescription appetite suppressants: A drug utilization study using a ...
Aug 27, 2014 · Appetite suppressants are, however, strictly regulated in South Africa. In 2008, ephedrine, d- norpseudoephedrine and pseudo-ephedrine were ...
[26]
[PDF] GLOBAL SMART UPDATE - United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
Globally there are significantly more users of synthetic drugs, such as amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS), than heroin and cocaine, combined. Additionally, ...
[27]
South Africa police uncover $20m crystal meth lab - BBC
Sep 20, 2025 · South African police say they have dismantled a crystal methamphetamine laboratory, with drugs worth $20m (£15m), discovered on a farm in ...Missing: tik plastic bottles
[28]
[PDF] Maritime-based-drug-trafficking-in-Eastern-and-Southern-Africa-An ...
Feb 27, 2024 · The coastal states and islands of the Eastern and Southern African (ESA) region are being buffeted by illicit drug markets.
[29]
Insights into the Value of the Market for Cocaine, Heroin and ...
Feb 14, 2024 · This is the first study to estimate the market value of cocaine, heroin and methamphetamine in South Africa.Missing: tik | Show results with:tik
[30]
Addiction and treatment experiences among active ...
In South Africa, methamphetamine is generally smoked using a glass pipe, and is known as “tik” due to the sound produced when heated (Peltzer et al., 2010).Missing: zols | Show results with:zols
[31]
Drug Use And Sexual HIV Risk - South African Health Information
Jul 2, 2014 · ... Tik [crystal methamphetamine],they also book me overnight. (21 year ... zols”. Otherinterviewees do smoke drugs in a pure form, such as ...<|separator|>
[32]
How is the Tik Drug Taken - Pretoria - Crossroads Recovery Centre
Oct 21, 2022 · Smoking and injecting produce the quickest and most intense “high” and are generally the most common ways of using Tik. Because of the intensity ...
[33]
Use of crystal methamphetamine among male adolescents in Cape ...
Mar 27, 2017 · Against the background that crystal methamphetamine (colloquially known as “tik”) is extensively used by the emerging working class Coloured ...
[34]
The state of methamphetamine ('tik') use among youth in the ...
Background. Methamphetamine use among youth in the Western Cape Province of South Africa has increased at alarming rates over the past decade.
[35]
[PDF] MONITORING ALCOHOL, TOBACCO AND OTHER DRUG USE ...
In the first half of 2023, treatment admissions increased. Alcohol was primary for 12-43% of all ages, 4-16% of those under 18. Cannabis was most common in NR ...Missing: 2025 Tik demographics
[36]
https://substanceabusepolicy.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13011-017-0102-9
[37]
Page Not Found (404) | National Institute on Drug Abuse
**Summary:**
[38]
Effects of acute and chronic systemic methamphetamine on ... - PMC
Methamphetamine (METH) abuse is escalating worldwide, with the most common cause of death resulting from cardiovascular failure and hyperthermia; however, ...
[39]
Methamphetamine overdose: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia
### Methamphetamine Overdose Signs and Risks
[40]
Association of Dopamine Transporter Reduction With Psychomotor ...
Methamphetamine at dose levels taken by human abusers of the drug leads to dopamine transporter reduction that is associated with motor and cognitive ...
[41]
Is Cognitive Functioning Impaired in Methamphetamine Users? A ...
Nov 16, 2011 · The prevailing view is that recreational methamphetamine use causes a broad range of severe cognitive deficits.Missing: neurological | Show results with:neurological
[42]
Cognition and Related Neural Findings on Methamphetamine Use ...
Existing evidence highlights cognitive deficits as an impediment against daily function and treatment of chronic meth use. Similar deficits are also ...
[43]
Atypical Parkinsonism: Methamphetamine may play a role
May 5, 2022 · However, it is indicated that Meth abuse causes damage to dopaminergic neurons, and can develop symptoms of dopamine-related disorders and a 3- ...<|separator|>
[44]
Methamphetamine Psychosis: Epidemiology and Management - PMC
... psychosis among individuals who use methamphetamines. Prevention of methamphetamine relapse is the most direct means of preventing recurrence of psychotic ...
[45]
Tik teeth and meth mouth - a dentist's worst... - UWC
Sep 28, 2018 · Methamphetamine or tik causes serious mouth and teeth problems commonly known as “meth mouth”. It presents as extensive tooth decay and gum disease.
[46]
A closer look at how crystal meth attacks gums and teeth
Oct 17, 2018 · ... oral and dental signs of methamphetamine use. The effects. My ... Meth mouth is one of the devastating effects of abusing tik. Author ...
[47]
Sympathomimetic effects of chronic methamphetamine abuse on ...
May 26, 2016 · Results. The majority of methamphetamine abusers reported a dry mouth (72 %) and jaw clenching (68 %). Almost half of all methamphetamine ...
[48]
Methamphetamine Use and Cardiovascular Disease
Aug 21, 2019 · While the opioid epidemic has garnered significant attention, the use of methamphetamines is growing worldwide independent of wealth or ...
[49]
Methamphetamine use increases the risk of cerebral small vessel ...
May 25, 2023 · Methamphetamine use causes spikes in blood pressure. Chronic hypertension is a major risk factor for cerebral small vessel disease (cSVD).
[50]
Editorial: Stroke and cerebrovascular disease in young adults - PMC
May 12, 2025 · Methamphetamine use has seen increased use and is associated with a higher risk of intracerebral hemorrhage up to 2–5 folds.
[51]
Effects of Substance Use on Your Skin - American Addiction Centers
Jan 17, 2025 · studies suggest that drug and alcohol misuse and addiction can affect the skin—with conditions ranging from rashes to infections ...
[52]
Immune System and Methamphetamine: Molecular Basis of a ...
The use of methamphetamine (Meth) as a drug of abuse is on the rise worldwide. Besides its effect on the function of the brain, Meth has detrimental effects ...Missing: weight sores
[53]
Methamphetamines and Pregnancy Outcomes - PMC - NIH
Methamphetamine (MA) is one of the most commonly used illicit drugs in pregnancy, yet studies on MA-exposed pregnancy outcomes have been limited because of ...Missing: tik | Show results with:tik
[54]
Pregnant and Nonpregnant Women in Cape Town, South Africa - NIH
The multiple risks associated with methamphetamine use are of serious concern for women. These risks and consequences are magnified during pregnancy.Missing: miscarriage | Show results with:miscarriage
[55]
[PDF] Western Cape Crime Overview 2014/15 Analysis of Crime Statistics ...
Sep 29, 2025 · In fact, the Nyanga police precinct appears in the top 10 police precincts for murder, assault. GBH and sexual offences in the year 2014/15.
[56]
[PDF] AN EXPLORATION OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF TWO ...
... methamphetamine (tik) and public health concerns in the case of brown ... Schoofs, Mark, 2007: South Africa becomes a hub for meth trade. In: The Wall ...Missing: timeline | Show results with:timeline
[57]
[PDF] annual report of the central drug authourity
Oct 8, 2024 · methamphetamine being trafficked from South-East Asia to West Africa into South Africa. ... Methamphetamine Tik: 187073. Kataamine powder gr ...
[58]
(PDF) The state of methamphetamine ('tik') use among youth in the ...
Aug 6, 2025 · PDF | Background: Methamphetamine use among youth in the Western Cape Province of South Africa has increased at alarming rates over the past ...Missing: timeline | Show results with:timeline
[59]
[PDF] Prevention of and Treatment for Substance Use Disorders Policy
Nov 10, 2023 · The social and economic cost of illicit drug and alcohol use in the country has been estimated at 6.4% of the annual gross domestic product ( ...
[60]
Positive Outcomes Emerge from Study on “Tik” Use and HIV in ...
Nov 17, 2015 · A project funded by the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) on methamphetamine use in South Africa that has achieved many of these elements of success.
[61]
The hidden risks of taking Tik - News24
Jan 18, 2012 · In this, it is again highlighted that drug use often leads to risky sexual behaviour and increased HIV/Aids, TB, hepatitis B and C risk and ...
[62]
Substances of abuse and their effect on SAR-CoV-2 pathogenesis
A study conducted from December 2019 to November 2020 during the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic found that methamphetamine use increased 37 % from the ...
[63]
[PDF] in the high court of south africa - SAFLII
Jul 3, 2014 · Drugs and Drug Trafficking Act 140 of 1992 read with certain ... Methamphetamine is a drug. It is listed in Part III of Schedule. 2 to the ...
[64]
WHAT IS THE PENALTY FOR THE POSSESSION OF DRUGS IN ...
Nov 5, 2024 · 3) Ecstasy possession can result in a fine or imprisonment of up to 15 years, depending on the amount of ecstasy involved. 4) Methamphetamine ...
[65]
[PDF] Drugs and Drug Trafficking Act 140 of 1992
Apr 30, 1993 · ... South Africa, as follows:- ARRANGEMENT OF SECTIONS. Sections. CHAPTER ... Pseudoephedrine. Safrole. 2. The salts of all substances ...
[66]
[PDF] Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for 2008
In April 2008, the Government of South Africa strengthened its precursor control legislation by including ephedrine and pseudoephedrine in its. Medicines and ...
[67]
[PDF] Prevention of Organised Crime Act 121 of 1998
Jan 21, 1999 · ACT To introduce measures to combat organised crime, money laundering and criminal gang activities; to prohibit certain activities relating to ...Missing: 2011 tik
[68]
[PDF] ILLICIT DRUG MARKETS OF EASTERN AND SOUTHERN AFRICA
Several other synthetic drugs are produced in clandestine labs across the region. Domestic synthesis of methamphetamine, methcathinone, MDMA and methaqualone ...
[69]
[PDF] Drugs and Drug Trafficking Amendment Act 14 of 2022 (English ...
Dec 14, 2022 · 1. Section 63 of the Drugs and Drug Trafficking Act, 1992 (hereinafter referred to as ''the principal Act''), is hereby repealed.
[70]
INCB Psychotropics - Green List
The Green List contains the four schedules of control for psychotropic substances under the 1971 Convention.Missing: methamphetamine | Show results with:methamphetamine
[71]
[PDF] Precursors - INCB
Mar 4, 2025 · Methods used in the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine in Mexico are now being observed in South Asia and Southern Africa, with the alleged ...
[72]
United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs ...
This Convention provides comprehensive measures against drug trafficking, including provisions against money laundering and the diversion of precursor ...
[73]
[PDF] combating illicit drug trafficking - SADC
"Illicit Drug Trafficking" means the offenses set forth in Article 3, paragraphs 1 and 2 of the 1988 UN Convention Against Illicit Drugs and Psychotropic ...
[74]
[PDF] Methamphetamine Trends In the United States
In 2005, Congress passed the Combat Methamphetamine Epidemic Act (CMEA), which required that pseudoephedrine (PSE), ephedrine, and phenylpropanolamine. 5 be ...Missing: impact global
[75]
Drug Precursor Control - Taxation and Customs Union
Given the wide range of legitimate uses of drug precursors, their trade cannot be prohibited. Therefore, EU legislation ...
[76]
[PDF] 1.4 The global ATS market - United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
Jan 28, 2010 · The reported decline after 2004 can be linked to improvements in US precursor controls which made access to such chemicals in the United States ...
[77]
[PDF] ANNUAL REPORT 2022 - Unodc
The 2022 report covers transnational crime, including trafficking, and UNODC's work on gender-based violence, HIV/AIDS, and drug use, and strengthening ...
[78]
Methamphetamine Toxicity Treatment & Management
Jan 30, 2023 · Prehospital Care. Patients with acute methamphetamine intoxication may be highly agitated and present a serious safety risk to themselves and ...Prehospital Care · Emergency Department Care · ConsultationsMissing: dehydration | Show results with:dehydration
[79]
Current and Emerging Treatments for Methamphetamine Use Disorder
Almost two decades have passed since the last methamphetamine (METH) abuse epidemic. In recent years, METH abuse in the United States has been rapidly ...
[80]
Bupropion and Naltrexone in Methamphetamine Use Disorder | NEJM
### Key Results on Naltrexone and Bupropion for Methamphetamine Use Disorder
[81]
Treatment outcome, cognitive function, and psychopathology ... - NIH
Jul 19, 2022 · RESULTS. A total drop-out rate of 40% (methamphetamine-group: 36.4%; OS-group: 43.6%) was observed without significant differences between ...Missing: success detoxification
[82]
Contingency Management Treatment for Methamphetamine Use ...
As South Africa, especially the Western Cape Province, faces an epidemic of methamphetamine use disorder (MUD), therapeutic approaches suited to the South ...
[83]
SANCA Athlone | Western Cape Government
Community based treatment and early intervention, outpatient treatment, aftercare and reintegration. Location: Athlone. Owned / Funded by / Endorsed by:.Missing: Tik 500 beds
[84]
Best 12 Step Rehabs in South Africa - Recovery.com
Find the best twelve step rehab centers in South Africa. Recovery.com helps you find luxury, inpatient, detox and outpatient treatment centers near you.Missing: SANCA Tik
[85]
Non-pharmacological interventions for methamphetamine use ...
Jul 1, 2020 · Behavioural interventions, i.e. cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), contingency management (CM), exercise, residential rehabilitation based ...
[86]
Substance Abuse Family Therapy - Changes Rehab
Substance abuse affects not only the individual but also their entire family. This makes family therapy a critical component in the healing process.Missing: Tik | Show results with:Tik
[87]
12-Step Interventions and Mutual Support Programs for Substance ...
Social workers and other behavioral health professionals are likely to encounter individuals with substance use disorders in a variety of practice settings ...Missing: SANCA Tik
[88]
Documenting the implementation of the Matrix model of substance ...
Since 2007, the Matrix model has been implemented in Cape Town, South Africa, where one in four treatment-seeking individuals are primarily opioid rather than ...
[89]
Methamphetamine (Tik) addiction negatively impacts rural social ...
“They experience burnout due to a lack of infrastructure, insufficient personnel, a lack of the necessary knowledge and skills, as well as unrealistic ...
[90]
Substance use referral, treatment utilization, and patient costs ... - NIH
SU treatment referrals and uptake were rare among PLWH reporting problematic SU, despite the high proportion of individual resources allocated to substances.

Tik