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Wadding

Wadding is a soft, fibrous material consisting of short loose fibers, such as cotton, wool, or synthetics, formed into sheets, masses, or wads for use in padding, stuffing, packing, or sealing.^[1] The term derives from the verb "wad," meaning to form into a compact mass, with its first known use dating to the 1620s, initially in contexts like gunnery where it referred to material for compacting charges.^[2] In modern applications, wadding serves multiple purposes across industries, including textiles, medicine, ballistics, and model rocketry, providing insulation, protection, or structural support. In textile and crafting contexts, wadding—often interchangeably called batting in American English—is the insulating middle layer sandwiched between the top fabric and backing in quilts, jackets, and other sewn projects to add warmth, loft, and durability.^[3] Common types include natural fibers like cotton (which offers a traditional, breathable feel with slight shrinkage) and wool (providing superior warmth but requiring careful washing), as well as synthetics like polyester (known for its low cost, minimal shrinkage, and ease of quilting).^[3] Bamboo blends are also popular for their eco-friendly, silky properties and anti-bacterial qualities, making wadding versatile for both functional items like duvets and decorative crafts such as placemats.^[3] Beyond sewing, wadding has specialized uses in other fields; for instance, in firearms, it functions as a disc or cup-shaped component in shotgun shells or muzzleloading guns to seal propellant gases behind projectiles, prevent leakage, and separate powder from shot or shot from the barrel.^[4] In model rocketry, wadding serves as a protective material in recovery systems to cushion parachutes and prevent damage to the rocket during landing.^[1] Historically, materials like felt, paper, or cloth served this role in cannons and early rifles to ensure efficient combustion and accurate firing.^[5] In medicine, wadding appears as absorbent sheets of cotton or cellulose for surgical dressings and wound care, valued for its softness and ability to hold liquids without adhering to tissue.^[1] These diverse applications highlight wadding's enduring role as an essential, adaptable material in everyday and technical uses.

Overview and History

Definition and Purpose

Wadding is a soft, fibrous material consisting of short loose fibers, such as cotton, wool, or synthetics, formed into sheets, masses, or wads for use in padding, stuffing, packing, or sealing.^[1] In propulsion systems, such as those in firearms and model rocketry, it serves as a compressible or semi-rigid separator and protective component to isolate propellants from projectiles or payloads, seal against gas leakage, and provide cushioning during launch or deployment.^[2] In these roles, it prevents direct contact that could lead to premature ignition, structural damage, or inefficient energy transfer. The primary purposes of wadding in propulsion contexts include gas sealing to enhance efficiency by containing combustion gases, separation to avoid mixing of reactive components that might cause instability or harm, and impact absorption to mitigate forces on sensitive elements. By forming a tight barrier, wadding ensures that propellant gases propel the load forward without significant bypass, thereby maximizing velocity and range. This sealing action is crucial for maintaining consistent performance, as any leakage would dissipate energy and reduce effectiveness.^[5]^[6] From a physics perspective, wadding creates a bore seal that directs pressure behind the load, allowing gases to expand within a confined volume to build propulsive force. This process aligns with the ideal gas law, PV = nRT, where the wadding maintains the volume V of the gas chamber, enabling pressure P to increase as temperature T rises from combustion while the number of moles n remains constant. Without this seal, gas would escape, reducing the contained volume and thus the pressure buildup essential for efficient acceleration.^[7]

Historical Development

The use of wadding-like materials dates back thousands of years, with padded textiles and quilting appearing in ancient civilizations for insulation and protection; for example, quilted garments and armor were documented in Egypt around 3400 BCE and in Europe during the Middle Ages.^[8] The modern term "wadding" derives from the verb "wad," meaning to form into a compact mass, with its first known use dating to 1627 in a gunnery context.^[2] Textile applications, such as cotton or wool used to line garments, emerged later in the early 18th century.^[2] In firearms, the use of wadding originated in the 16th to 18th centuries, primarily in muzzle-loading smoothbore guns, where improvised materials such as cloth, leather, or paper served to separate the black powder charge from the projectile, prevent movement during handling, and provide a basic gas seal upon firing.^[9] These early wads were essential for maintaining load integrity in flintlock and matchlock weapons, often sourced from available household or natural items to ensure the powder remained dry and the shot or ball seated properly against the breech.^[10] In the 19th century, the transition to percussion cap ignition systems in the 1820s prompted advancements in wad design, with felt wads introduced by the mid-century offering improved compression and lubrication to reduce barrel fouling in both muzzle- and breech-loading shotguns.^[11] Lubricated fiber wads emerged in the mid-century, enhancing gas sealing and shot retention as shotgun cartridges became more standardized following the invention of brass-cased shotshells in the 1860s.^[12] By the late 1800s, these materials supported the shift to breechloaders, allowing for more consistent performance with black powder loads. The 20th century marked a significant evolution, beginning with the widespread adoption of paper and cardboard wads in shotshells during the early 1900s, including innovations by Remington in the 1920s that refined layered constructions for better powder separation and reduced misfires in smokeless powder era ammunition.^[13] Post-World War II, the rise of synthetic materials led to the development of plastic wads using polyethylene in the late 1950s, with Ronald Comerford patenting a one-piece design in 1958 that integrated gas sealing, cushioning, and shot containment for superior velocity and pattern control.^[14] This innovation, sold to Winchester in 1963, quickly gained traction across manufacturers.^[14] Key milestones in the 1960s included the standardization of plastic wads in commercial shotshell production, exemplified by Federal's 1964 Pellet Protector, which featured an air-cushioned polyethylene structure to minimize shot deformation and improve downrange performance.^[15] Concurrently, wadding found application in model rocketry, where Estes Industries incorporated flame-retardant cellulose sheets in kits from the late 1950s to shield parachutes from ejection charge heat during recovery.^[16] By the 1980s, traditional felt, fiber, and paper wads had largely been phased out in commercial shotgun ammunition, supplanted by durable synthetics that lowered production costs and enhanced reliability, though biodegradable alternatives persisted for niche uses.^[17]

Applications in Firearms

Shotgun Wads

Shotgun wads are integral components of modern shotshell ammunition, typically designed as multi-piece assemblies that include a base cup for powder containment, a shot collar to encircle the projectiles, and flexible petals that facilitate gas sealing and shot release. These elements work together to ensure effective containment of shot in common calibers like 12-gauge, preventing premature dispersion while allowing controlled exit from the barrel.^[18]^[19] During firing, the wad seals the bore against escaping gases as the propellant burns, directing pressure rearward to propel the payload forward while cushioning the shot column to minimize deformation and promote even spread. This sealing action retains powder energy (PE), contributing to muzzle velocity calculated as v = \sqrt{\frac{2 \cdot PE}{m}}, where m is the mass of the shot and wad assembly, enabling velocities of around 800-900 mph in standard and high-velocity loads. The wad's cushioning also protects the barrel from direct shot contact, reducing wear and enhancing pattern uniformity.^[18]^[20] Common types include roll-crimp wads, which use a folded closure for lighter loads, and star-crimp wads, featuring a star-shaped fold for higher-pressure applications that accommodate denser payloads. Sabot wads, specialized for slug ammunition, encase the projectile in a plastic sleeve that engages rifling in dedicated barrels, imparting spin for improved accuracy and stability over distance without the slug directly contacting the bore.^[18]^[21] Wad design significantly influences performance, with pressure curves peaking at around 11,500 psi in 12-gauge loads to balance propulsion and safety, as standardized by SAAMI. Effective wads enhance shot pattern consistency, reducing variability in pellet distribution—rear-braking variants, for instance, can tighten patterns by up to 20% at 40 yards compared to standard designs—critical for applications like waterfowl hunting or clays shooting.^[22]^[18] Modern shotgun wads are primarily manufactured via injection molding of durable plastics such as polyethylene, enabling precise formation of complex geometries like petals and seals for optimal performance. This approach marked a key shift in the 1960s, when plastic wads largely replaced earlier fiber-based designs for superior gas retention and consistency in mass production.^[18]

Muzzle-Loading Firearms

In muzzle-loading firearms, particularly black powder rifles and smoothbores, wadding plays a critical role in the manual loading process, where components are sequentially rammed down the barrel using a rod. The procedure begins with pouring a measured charge of black powder into the bore, followed by placing an over-powder wad directly on top to seal the charge and protect it from moisture or contamination. Next, the projectile—either a patched round ball for rifles or shot for smoothbores—is positioned, often with an additional lubricating wad or patch, and an over-shot wad is added last to secure the load and prevent movement during handling. This sequential ramming ensures a tight fit, with the ramrod applying firm pressure to seat each layer without air gaps.^[23] Lubrication of wads is essential to mitigate leading, where lead residue from the projectile adheres to the bore, by softening fouling and facilitating smoother gas expansion. Traditional mixtures, such as beeswax and tallow (often in a 1:2 ratio), are applied to felt or fiber wads to create a non-petroleum barrier that prevents hard residue buildup without reacting adversely with black powder. Common materials include cardboard or nitro cards for rigid separation, felt or wool for compressible cushioning, and vegetable fiber for biodegradability; for example, in .50 caliber rifles, wads are typically sized at 0.510 inches in diameter to provide a snug fit within the bore.^[24]^[25]^[26] The primary functions of wadding in these firearms are to prevent powder migration between layers, which could cause inconsistent ignition, and to minimize shot or ball deformation during firing by absorbing recoil forces. By creating a friction-based seal against the bore walls, wads reduce gas blow-by, enhancing velocity and accuracy; for instance, tests with leather over-powder wads in .50 caliber rifles have shown velocity increases of up to 28 feet per second while lowering shot deviation. This sealing action also protects the projectile base from direct powder heat, preserving integrity in repeated shots.^[23]^[27] Variations in wadding application appear in cap-and-ball revolvers, such as the Colt 1851 Navy, where lubricated felt wads are seated under the ball to seal chambers, often topped with "grease cookies"—discs of beeswax-tallow mixture pressed over the ball to further lubricate and exclude moisture. In modern reproductions, polymer wads made from low-density polyethylene have emerged as alternatives, offering consistent sealing and reduced fouling without the need for traditional lubrication, though they maintain compatibility with black powder loads.^[28]^[29] Historically, wadding was indispensable in 18th- and 19th-century hunting and military applications, where smoothbore muskets relied on natural or improvised materials like cloth, grass, or paper to load buck-and-ball charges efficiently during field use. Poor wadding quality posed safety risks, such as chain fires in revolvers, where inadequate sealing allowed flash to ignite adjacent chambers, potentially causing multiple unintended discharges.^[30]^[31]

Applications in Model Rocketry

Recovery System Role

In model rocketry, wadding serves a critical protective function in the recovery system by shielding parachutes, streamers, or other components from the intense heat and burning particles produced by the motor's ejection charge during deployment at apogee. Positioned forward of the ejection charge within the body tube, it absorbs and dissipates hot gases, preventing melting, singeing, or ignition of sensitive recovery elements like the nose cone or shroud. This applies to rockets using parachute or streamer recovery; tumble recovery designs do not require wadding.^[32]^[33] The deployment sequence occurs as follows: upon reaching apogee, the rocket motor's delay element expires, igniting the ejection charge—typically black powder in low-power engines or composite propellants in advanced motors—which generates rapidly expanding gases. These gases propel the wadding forward through the body tube ahead of the recovery system, forming a transient buffer that isolates the parachute or streamer from direct exposure to flames and embers.^[34]^[35] Sizing and quantity of wadding are determined by the rocket's body tube dimensions to ensure sufficient coverage without restricting ejection force; a common guideline is to fluff and pack the material to fill 2 to 3 times the body tube's diameter in length. For instance, in a standard 18 mm (BT-20) tube with approximately 0.74-inch diameter, 2-3 sheets of commercial flame-resistant wadding suffice, providing a protective column roughly 1.5 to 2.2 inches long.^[36]^[37] Safety standards from the National Association of Rocketry (NAR) Model Rocket Safety Code require the use of flame-resistant recovery wadding in rockets with active recovery systems to safeguard the recovery system. Biodegradable options are commonly used to minimize environmental impact. The Tripoli Rocketry Association echoes this in its unified safety code, stipulating only fire-resistant wadding to mitigate deployment risks. These guidelines are implemented in entry-level kits like the Estes Alpha, which employs parachute recovery and includes wadding provisions for safe operation with A- through C-class motors.^[38]^[39]^[40] With proper materials and placement, wadding significantly reduces the incidence of burn-through or recovery failure, enabling consistent, gentle descents and minimizing damage in repeated flights.^[33]

Preparation and Alternatives

In model rocketry, preparation of recovery wadding begins with selecting a suitable material and ensuring it is properly conditioned to protect the parachute or streamer from ejection charge heat. For commercial flameproof wadding, such as Estes Recovery Wadding, users typically employ 3-5 sheets for average low-power rockets, though larger models may require up to 8-10 sheets to achieve sufficient depth. These pre-cut sheets, made from flame-retardant tissue paper, are sourced in packs costing approximately $6 for 75 sheets, providing enough for 18-25 flights depending on rocket size.^[41]^[42] To prepare the wadding for insertion, sheets are loosely crumpled or folded accordion-style to fit the body tube diameter without tight compression, allowing them to expand upon ejection for effective heat dispersion. This technique ensures the wadding forms a billowy barrier approximately two tube diameters deep, preventing hot gases from reaching the recovery system.^[37]^[43] For DIY alternatives using cellulose insulation—often called "dog barf" due to its appearance—material is purchased as loose-fill from hardware stores and fluffed by hand-breaking compressed clumps into a light, airy mass, equivalent to 8-10 paper sheets in volume for standard flights. This recycled newspaper-based product, pre-treated with flame retardants, is then loosely packed into the tube to the same depth guideline.^[43] Installation involves layering the prepared wadding forward of the motor but aft of the folded recovery harness, such as a parachute secured by elastic shock cord, to shield it from ejection gases. Rocketeers test the setup by manually simulating deployment—gently pushing the wadding forward—to verify it lofts evenly without charring the harness, ensuring reliable parachute ejection.^[44] Non-traditional substitutes offer practical options for reducing litter or enhancing reusability. Dog barf serves as a biodegradable alternative to paper sheets, degrading quickly in the environment while providing similar protection. For high-power rockets, Nomex sheets—flame-resistant aramid fabric—act as reusable chute protectors, layered directly over the parachute to withstand intense heat without disposable wadding. Ejection baffles, consisting of metal mesh or plywood bulkheads installed in the rocket's coupler, trap burning particles and eliminate the need for wadding entirely; their adoption surged in the 2000s through kits from manufacturers like Public Missiles Ltd (now LOC Precision), promoting cleaner launches in advanced rocketry.^[43]^[45]

Materials and Manufacturing

Textile and Medical Wadding

Wadding in textile applications, often termed batting in American English, is typically made from natural or synthetic fibers such as cotton, wool, polyester, or blends including bamboo. Cotton wadding provides a breathable, traditional feel, while wool offers superior insulation. Synthetic polyester is favored for its affordability and low shrinkage. Manufacturing processes include carding to align fibers, followed by needling or thermal bonding to form lofted sheets suitable for quilting and upholstery.^[3]^[46] In medical contexts, wadding consists of absorbent materials like cotton or cellulose, produced through processes such as bleaching and layering to create soft, non-adherent sheets for dressings and wound care. These are valued for their liquid-holding capacity without sticking to tissue.^[1]

Traditional Materials

Traditional wadding for pre-20th century firearms primarily consisted of natural fibers such as wool, cotton, or hemp, often formed into felt and compressed to approximately 1/8 inch thickness to create effective seals between the powder charge and projectile. These fiber wads were valued for their absorbency, helping to reduce fouling in the barrel during repeated firing. Hemp, in particular, was a common choice for its durability and availability, as evidenced by artifacts recovered from 18th-century naval guns on H.M.S. Endeavour, where cylindrical lumps of hemp wadding, featuring knots of hemp rope, were used to secure cannonballs in place.^[47]^[48] Paper variants, including card stock or lubricated newsprint, served as over-shot wads to contain shot or balls, offering advantages in biodegradability compared to more durable materials and allowing for quick loading in field conditions. These paper wads were often sourced from readily available printed materials or handmade sheets, providing a lightweight seal without adding significant weight to the load. In 18th-century loading procedures, paper also functioned as wadding in cartridges, where it wrapped the powder and ball to facilitate assembly and gas containment.^[49] Leather and composite materials, such as tanned hides, were employed for durable seals in early muskets, prized for their flexibility in conforming to barrel irregularities. Despite their advantages, traditional wadding materials suffered from limitations, including inconsistent sealing due to variations in fiber quality and compression.

Modern Synthetic Materials

Modern synthetic wadding primarily utilizes thermoplastics such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE) for shotgun applications, valued for its durability and ability to form flexible petals that protect shot during discharge.^[50] HDPE wads exhibit a tensile strength typically ranging from 20 to 30 MPa, enabling the petals to withstand high pressures while expanding to seal the bore effectively.^[51] Nylon, a polyamide polymer, is occasionally incorporated in composite wad designs for enhanced toughness, offering tensile strengths up to 50-80 MPa to improve resistance to deformation under impact.^[52] In the realm of composites, biodegradable options like polylactic acid (PLA) emerged in the 2010s as alternatives to traditional plastics, often blended with additives such as calcium carbonate to adjust density and improve mechanical properties for better shot column stability.^[53] These PLA-based wads degrade under environmental conditions, addressing pollution concerns while maintaining performance comparable to non-biodegradable counterparts.^[54] Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), another plant-derived composite, have also gained traction in wad formulations since the mid-2010s, providing full biodegradability through microbial breakdown without compromising gas sealing.^[55] Manufacturing of these synthetic wads predominantly employs injection molding, where molten polymer is injected into precision molds at temperatures between 200-270°C for HDPE and similar ranges for PLA composites, ensuring uniform wall thickness and intricate petal geometries.^[56] Recycling poses significant challenges, as dispersed wads in fields and waterways lead to contamination issues.^[57] This results in substantial landfill contributions, prompting shifts toward biodegradable synthetics to mitigate long-term accumulation.^[17] Synthetic wads offer advantages in consistent bore sealing over traditional fiber types due to the plastic's expandable skirt that minimizes gas leakage.^[58] Additionally, color-coding on wads, such as red for standard loads or green for specialty types, aids in quick gauge and load identification during reloading.^[59] Innovations in the 2020s include Federal Ammunition's eco-friendly Hi-Bird loads, featuring plant-based cellulose fiber wads that reduce plastic pollution while providing lead-free, non-toxic performance for hunting.^[60] These wads, introduced around 2023, use renewable polymers to seal propellant gases effectively, marking a commercial push toward sustainable synthetics without sacrificing velocity or pattern density.^[61]

Environmental and Safety Impacts

Ecological Effects

Plastic shotgun wads contribute significantly to environmental pollution, with billions of wads fired annually in the United States alone, many of which accumulate in wetlands and coastal areas due to their trajectory of 30-50 yards upon discharge.^[62]^[63]^[17] Globally, production reaches 10 to 15 billion wads per year, leading to an estimated dispersal of at least 2,100 tonnes of wad material into natural environments in Europe alone, with broader worldwide impacts exacerbating plastic debris in ecosystems.^[17]^[57] These non-biodegradable plastics, primarily made from polyethylene, fragment slowly over time into microplastics through environmental processes such as UV exposure, with surface degradation rates for polyethylene typically below 0.04 mm per year under natural conditions.^[64]^[65] Wildlife in affected habitats faces direct harm from this debris, as birds and other animals ingest plastic wads mistaken for food, leading to internal blockages, reduced fitness, and compromised health; for instance, such items have been documented in the stomachs of ocean-foraging seabirds like albatrosses.^[64] In waterfowl populations, plastic ingestion rates are notable, with studies showing up to 46% of examined mallards containing plastic debris in their gizzards, though specific wad contributions vary by region and remain a subset of broader microplastic pollution.^[66] Additionally, if wads become contaminated with lead residues from shotgun pellets during discharge, they may facilitate secondary lead leaching into soil and water, posing toxicity risks to aquatic organisms, though primary lead pollution stems from the shot itself. In model rocketry, the ecological footprint of wadding is comparatively minor, as traditional cellulose-based materials are fully biodegradable and flame-retardant, breaking down naturally without persistent pollution.^[32] Synthetic alternatives, while less common, could introduce rare fire hazards in dry ecosystems if not properly managed, but overall impacts are negligible compared to shotgun applications. Efforts to mitigate these effects include the development and promotion of biodegradable wads, such as those made from polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), which degrade via bacterial action in aquatic environments, addressing the fragmentation issue of conventional plastics. As of 2024, companies like Eco Shot have introduced commercial PHA-based wads that biodegrade in natural environments within months.^[64]^[67] In the European Union, the 2023 REACH regulation (EU 2023/2055) restricts intentionally added microplastics in various products, potentially influencing future ammunition designs, though shotgun wads are not directly addressed.^[68] Cleanup initiatives, such as the NOAA Marine Debris Program's "No Silver Bullet" campaign launched in the 2020s, encourage hunters to retrieve spent wads during sessions, fostering behavioral changes to reduce debris in sensitive areas like San Francisco Bay wetlands.^[69]

Safety and Forensic Considerations

Handling wadding in shotgun applications requires caution due to the high ejection velocities, which can exceed 1,000 feet per second at the muzzle, posing risks of injury from ricocheting or direct impact, particularly to the eyes.^[70] Shooters are advised to wear protective eyewear to mitigate these hazards, as studies indicate a high risk of ocular injury from shotgun discharge components at close ranges.^[71] In model rocketry, wadding serves as a barrier against hot ejection gases, which can reach temperatures sufficient to ignite or melt unprotected materials, potentially causing burns if mishandled during preparation or recovery.^[72] Wad failures, such as incomplete separation or deformation, can lead to malfunctions like squibs or barrel obstructions in shotguns, emphasizing the need for quality ammunition and regular firearm maintenance.^[73] In forensic investigations, wadding materials are examined for characteristics including color, dimensions, design features like petals or shape, composition, and impressions from shot size to identify gauge, manufacturer, and shot cup type.^[74] Striated marks on wads, if present, are compared microscopically to standards from test-fired ammunition to link evidence to a specific firearm.^[74] Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) can analyze plastic additives in wads for compositional matching to ammunition brands, aiding in case linkage.^[75] The National Institute of Justice (NIJ) outlines protocols for wadding examination consistent with the Association of Firearms and Tool Mark Examiners (AFTE) manual, involving preliminary documentation, physical comparisons, and test firing when necessary.^[74] Evidence preservation follows general forensic guidelines to prevent degradation, such as storing in dry conditions to avoid moisture damage to plastic components.^[76] Case studies demonstrate wadding's utility in ballistics forensics; for instance, in a 2021 autopsy investigation of a shotgun slug injury, recovered wads were analyzed alongside test data to estimate firing range, confirming close-quarters discharge.^[77] In model rocketry incidents, wadding residues have been identified in fire investigations, such as those linked to ejection charge ignitions in dry conditions, helping determine ignition sources.^[78]

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1. wads or material for making wads 2. a soft mass or sheet of short loose fibers used for stuffing or padding
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Amazon.com: Estes 2274 Recovery Wadding, Rocket-Model ...
30-day returnsThis pack of 75 flame-resistant 2274 Recovery Wadding sheets provides enough material for about 18–25 flights, depending on how many sheets your model-rocket ...
[44]
Different Methods for Protecting Your Parachute Peak of Flight ...
One of the most commonly used methods to shield parachutes in rocketry is with recovery wadding. Made from lightweight, fire-resistant paper, this wadding is ...
[45]
Model Rockets : 26 Steps - Instructables
... wadding that it jams the fuselage and inhibits the blast. Lay the parachute flat, fold over lengthwise, then wrap the edges inwards to make a tube shape.
[46]
Model Rocket Ejection Baffle System - Loc Precision
1–4 day delivery 30-day returnsThis sturdy cardboard and plywood model rocket ejection baffle system is a wonderful way to protect your recovery system from sparks and flame. Order now!Missing: 2000s | Show results with:2000s
[47]
Hemp wadding from one of the gun carriages of HMB ENDEAVOUR
Cylindrical lump of hemp wadding that was in one of the cannons of HMB ENDEAVOUR when it was thrown overboard. The top has knots of hemp rope, the bottom is ...
[48]
[PDF] Guns from the 'Endeavour' - UQ eSpace
Two of the cannon were found loaded, ready for firing. On the left is hemp wadding, in the middle a four pounder cannon ball and on the right the gun powder.
[49]
Physics, Manufacturing, and Sources of Variability | Ballistic Imaging
Historically, with firearms of the 18th century, shooters had to assemble these components manually in order to reload, inserting black gunpowder, wadding ...
[50]
[PDF] The Preservation of Iron Cannon after 200 Years under the Sea - DTIC
Dec 30, 1970 · The hemp wadding was soaked in a number of solutions of ethanol in distilled water, ... design of gun carriages used during the 18th century.
[51]
Plastic pollution in shooting ranges and warfare areas
Jul 15, 2025 · The possible contamination by plastics and microplastics in soil has been widely overlooked despite potential plastic sources, such as shotgun cartridges, ...
[52]
HDPE (High Density Polyethylene) Typical Properties - K-mac Plastics
Tensile Strength, Ultimate, 3480 - 6530 psi, 30 MPa. Tensile Strength, Yield, 2180 - 4350 psi, 21.9 MPa. Elongation at Break, 500 - 1000 %, 840%. Tensile ...Missing: shotgun wads
[53]
Overview of materials for High Density Polyethylene (HDPE ...
Tensile Strength, Yield, 11.0 - 43.0 MPa, 1600 - 6240 psi ; Film Elongation at Break, MD, 595 - 900 %, 595 - 900 % ; Film Elongation at Break, TD, 650 - 950 % ...Missing: shotgun wads
[54]
US10139206B2 - Biodegradable shotgun wad system
In some embodiments, said biodegradable powder wad comprises a biodegradable polymer selected from the group consisting of PHA, PLA, PCL, PBS, PBSA, and PBS(c).Missing: introduction | Show results with:introduction
[55]
Startup Develops Biodegradable Shotgun Wads - Plastics Today
May 29, 2024 · Colorado-based Eco Shot aims to replace conventional plastic wads that contribute to long-lasting environmental pollution with PHA-based products that ...Missing: 2010s calcium carbonate
[56]
Latest weapon to reduce marine debris? Biodegradable shotgun wads
May 31, 2016 · At VIMS, researchers are testing wads made from PHA, or polyhydroxyalkanoate, the same biodegradable and commercially available polymer they ...<|separator|>
[57]
Plastic Material Melt & Mould Temperature Chart | PlastikCity
Plastic Material Melt & Mould Temperatures Table ; HDPE, 210-270, 20-60, 410-518, 68-140 ; LDPE, 180-240, 20-60, 356-464, 68-140.
[58]
[PDF] Plastic litter from shotgun ammunition in marine ecosystems
May 10, 2021 · Injection molding is the most common production method for plastic, as it is inexpensive, ensures high tolerances for dimen- sions, and allows ...
[59]
Plastic VS Fiber Wad Pressures | Shotgun Forum
Aug 22, 2016 · Simply, the plastic wad will produce more pressure due to it plastic powder seal, but if you are staying with the established data of any load, ...Fibre Wads vs Plastic Wads | Shotgun ForumPlastic wads vs Natural/card wads | Shotgun ForumMore results from www.shotgunworld.com
[60]
12 gauge Wad identification | Shooters Forum
Nov 12, 2006 · It looks like the PC 12 Red wad, used for standard target loads, according to Lyman shotshell book, 4th Ed.
[61]
Federal's New Hi-Bird Fiber Wad Loads Now Shipping
The new Hi-Bird loads use a cellulose fiber wad, reducing plastic waste, and come in No. 4, No. 5, and No. 6 shot, 12-gauge, 2¾-inch shells with 1¼ ounces of ...Missing: plant- 2020s
[62]
Federal's New Hi-Bird Fiber Wad Loads Now Shipping Nationwide
Aug 7, 2025 · Eco-Friendly Innovation: Cellulose fiber wads degrade naturally, reducing plastic pollution in hunting areas. Proven Lethality: Maintains Hi ...Missing: plant- 2020s
[63]
The Environmental Impact of Plastic Shotgun Wads
Aug 8, 2024 · Environmental impacts on shotgun wads and alternative plastic: a key topic at the California Coastal Commission's July meeting.Missing: injection molding temperature recycling
[64]
Shotgun Wads - Virginia Institute of Marine Science
Shotgun wads are plastic components of shotgun shells that separate shot from powder and seal the shell. They are discharged with the shot and are hard to ...
[65]
[PDF] Fact Sheet Biodegradable PHA Shotgun Wads
Plastic shotgun wad production is in the billions annually and in the US over 3 million ... Nelson, 2013, Environmental Pollution 177: 1-3. 3 Chanprateep ...
[66]
An advanced analytical approach to assess the long-term ... - Nature
Jul 26, 2023 · Using real world data, we reveal that plastic surfaces can degrade at a rate of up to 469.73 µm per year, 12 times greater than previous ...
[67]
Game Birds Ingesting Plastic and Garbage Metal: Study
They found that the mallards ingested the largest amount of garbage, with six out of 13 individuals (46 percent) having plastic in their gizzards. Six out of 87 ...
[68]
Commission Regulation (EU) 2023/2055 - Restriction of ...
Jul 18, 2025 · The microplastics restriction concerns synthetic polymer microparticles - better known as microplastics - on their own or intentionally added to mixtures.Missing: shotgun wads 2015 PLA
[69]
No Silver Bullet: Addressing Shotgun Wad Debris in San Francisco ...
Apr 28, 2020 · These shotgun wads likely come from waterfowl hunting, year-round shooting ranges, and target shooting fields along the San Francisco Bay and Delta.
[70]
Velocity and Pattern Density | Shotgun Forum
Oct 10, 2010 · It needs to be moving a certain amount, but a 300 fps increase at the muzzle will be 50-60 fps at 40 yds, so in essence for all that increase in ...Difference between SAAMI and UK 'muzzle' velocity figures7/8 12 gauge Why shoot higher velocity | Shotgun ForumMore results from www.shotgunworld.com
[71]
Shotgun eye injuries. Ocular risk and eye protection efficacy - PubMed
Results showed that the eye is at a high risk (55% to 100%) of being hit with shot pellets at ranges of 15 to 40 yards.
[72]
Temperature of bp ejection charge | Rocketry Forum
Dec 28, 2011 · Depending on which table you look at, the ignition temperature of black powder is between 270 - 300 C (per the Ignition handbook by Babrauskas)The Ejection Charge | Rocketry ForumEjection Temp | Rocketry ForumMore results from www.rocketryforum.com
[73]
wad failures | Shotgun Forum
Sep 16, 2023 · I am having wad failures real bad. These are being shot out of a Rem 870 with a cantilever rifled barrel. I am using a 3-9x scope shooting at 50 ...What causes failures in store-bought ammunition? - Shotgun ForumWin AA hulls and podium wads problem - Shotgun ForumMore results from www.shotgunworld.com
[74]
Archived | Firearms Examiner Training | Wadding Material
Jul 12, 2023 · Examination of wadding involves comparing physical characteristics like color, dimensions, design, and composition to standards, and comparing ...
[75]
Interpol review of forensic firearm examination 2019–2022
The polymer colors could be seen on the lead-in portions of certain ricochets, but no visible residues of the coatings could were observed in the bores of the ...
[76]
Biological Evidence Preservation Handbook: Best Practices for ...
This handbook offers guidance for individuals involved in the collection, examination, tracking, packaging, storing and disposition of biological evidence.Missing: wadding | Show results with:wadding
[77]
Shotgun slug wads as a marker of range of fire - PubMed
Jul 26, 2021 · Assessment of wound characteristics and the identification of various constituents of firearm discharge at autopsy play a key role in the ...
[78]
fire caused by model rocket on the 4th of July -dry conditions
Jul 5, 2013 · I need some explainin'-"The Aurora Fire Department said a model rocket is not considered fireworks, but is still illegal. The two brothers ...