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al-Farabi

Abū Naṣr Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Fārābī (c. 870 – c. 950 CE), known in the Latin West as Alpharabius, was an influential Muslim philosopher, logician, and music theorist of probable Persian or Turkic origin born in the region of Farab in Transoxania (modern-day Kazakhstan).^[1]^[2] He spent much of his life in Baghdad, Syria, and Damascus, where he studied and taught, becoming renowned for bridging Greek philosophy—particularly the works of Aristotle and Plato—with Islamic intellectual traditions.^[1] Often dubbed the "Second Teacher" after Aristotle, al-Fārābī advanced logical methodologies and contributed original treatises on metaphysics, ethics, and politics that shaped subsequent Islamic philosophy.^[1]^[3] Al-Fārābī's major works include extensive commentaries on Aristotle's logical corpus, which extended syllogistic reasoning, and independent compositions such as Iḥṣāʾ al-ʿulūm (Enumeration of the Sciences), outlining a classification of knowledge, and Kitāb al-mūsīqī al-kabīr (Great Book of Music), a foundational text in medieval music theory that analyzed scales, instruments, and the ethical effects of music.^[1]^[3] In political philosophy, his Mabādiʾ ārāʾ ahl al-madīna al-fāḍila (Principles of the Opinions of the Inhabitants of the Virtuous City) envisioned an ideal society governed by philosopher-rulers, drawing from Platonic ideals while integrating prophetic revelation as a symbolic expression of philosophical truth.^[1] This synthesis emphasized the harmony between reason and religion, positing philosophy as the highest form of human attainment.^[1] His ideas profoundly influenced later thinkers like Avicenna and Averroes, and through Latin translations, impacted medieval European scholasticism, particularly in logic and political theory.^[1] While details of his life remain sparse and subject to scholarly dispute—such as his exact ethnic background and the chronology of his travels—al-Fārābī's enduring legacy lies in establishing philosophy as a rigorous discipline within Islamic civilization, prioritizing demonstrative knowledge over mere opinion.^[1]^[2]

Biography

Early Life and Ethnic Origins

Al-Farabi, whose full name was Abū Naṣr Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Fārābī, was born around 870 CE (AH 257) in the district of Fārāb (also spelled Farab or Farayb), a region in Transoxiana along the Syr Darya River that encompasses the ancient site of Otrar in present-day southern Kazakhstan.^[1]^[2] The nisba "al-Fārābī" directly derives from this birthplace, which medieval geographers like the author of Ḥodūd al-ʿĀlam identified with the older Persian form Pārāb, reflecting its pre-Islamic Iranic roots amid a diverse population of Sogdians, Persians, and emerging Turkic groups.^[2] His ethnic origins have been contested among historians, with claims of both Turkic and Persian/Iranic descent. Some medieval and modern accounts, particularly those emphasizing his birth in Turkestan, describe him as of Turkic parentage or append "al-Turkī" to his name, potentially linking him to military families in the Samanid era's frontier zones.^[1] However, primary biographical sources like Ibn Abī Uṣaybiʿa (d. 1270 CE) and Ibn Khallikān (d. 1282 CE) explicitly state that his father was a Persian (fārisī) army commander, situating al-Farabi within the Iranic cultural milieu of Transoxiana, where Sogdian Iranic speakers predominated before widespread Turkic migrations.^[2] Recent scholarly reassessments, analyzing linguistic evidence from his works and the demographics of Fārāb, argue for an Iranic Sogdian heritage, dismissing Turkic attributions as later nationalistic projections rather than contemporaneous testimony.^[1]^[4] Details of his early childhood are sparse, as al-Farabi's own writings focus on philosophy rather than autobiography, but he likely received initial education in Islamic sciences and local dialects in Fārāb before migrating southward in his youth to centers of learning in Khorasan and Iraq.^[1] By early adulthood, around the late 9th century, he had settled in Baghdad under the Abbasid caliphate, where access to Greek manuscripts and diverse scholars shaped his formative years.^[1]

Education and Intellectual Formation

Al-Farabi likely received preliminary instruction in basic sciences and languages in his native Farab (modern Otrar, Kazakhstan), where he was born around 870 CE, before relocating to Baghdad circa 901 CE for advanced learning amid the Abbasid intellectual hub. There, he pursued rigorous training in logic under the Nestorian Christian cleric Yuhanna ibn Haylan, a Syriac-speaking scholar who died between 908 and 932 CE and served as his primary mentor in philosophical methodology.^[5]^[6] This apprenticeship emphasized Aristotelian Organon texts via Syriac intermediaries and emerging Arabic translations, fostering al-Farabi's early mastery of demonstrative reasoning and syllogistic forms.^[7] Expanding beyond logic, al-Farabi immersed himself in interconnected disciplines including grammar, mathematics, music theory, natural philosophy, and metaphysics, often through interactions with Baghdad's circle of translators and commentators who preserved Greek heritage.^[8] He acquired proficiency in Arabic as a scholarly medium, alongside Syriac for ecclesiastical and translational works, and elements of Greek to access primary sources, supplementing his presumed Turkic vernacular and Persian familiarity.^[3] This multilingual competence, honed in a cosmopolitan environment blending Muslim, Christian, and Sabian scholars, enabled direct engagement with Platonic and Aristotelian corpora, shaping his analytical rigor and later innovations in harmonizing empirical observation with abstract principles.^[9] His intellectual formation prioritized logical foundations as prerequisites for higher sciences, reflecting a hierarchical epistemology where precise demonstration underpins ethical and political inquiry, distinct from mere dialectical or rhetorical pursuits.^[7] This Baghdad phase, spanning roughly two decades, crystallized al-Farabi's role as a bridge between ancient Hellenic traditions and Islamic thought, unencumbered by sectarian dogma yet attuned to causal hierarchies in knowledge acquisition.^[5]

Later Career, Travels, and Death

In the later phase of his career, al-Farabi departed Baghdad amid political turmoil and relocated to Damascus around 943 CE (331 AH), where he completed his treatise Mabādeʾ ārāʾ ahl al-madīna al-fāżela (The Principles of the Opinions of the Inhabitants of the Virtuous City).^[10] From there, he traveled to Aleppo, entering the patronage of the Hamdanid ruler Sayf al-Dawla (r. 945–967 CE), who provided him residence and support; during this period, al-Farabi taught philosophy and dictated a commentary on Aristotle's Posterior Analytics to his student Ebrāhīm ibn ʿAdī.^[10] ^[3] Accounts indicate further travels, including a possible visit to Harran and a sojourn in Egypt circa 948–949 CE (337 AH), where he composed six summary sections of his Mabādeʾ.^[10] ^[3] He returned to Syria shortly thereafter, continuing his scholarly pursuits amid the region's Hamdanid courts.^[1] Al-Farabi died in Damascus in Rajab 339 AH (14 December 950–12 January 951 CE), at about age 80.^[10] ^[1] This date and location are corroborated by the historian al-Masʿūdī in his Tanbīh, composed five years later, though one variant tradition claims he was killed by robbers en route to Ascalon.^[10] He remained unmarried throughout his life and was buried in Damascus's Bab al-Saghir cemetery.^[10]

Historical and Cultural Context

Setting in the Islamic Golden Age

The Islamic Golden Age, spanning roughly from the 8th to the 13th century under the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 CE), represented a pinnacle of intellectual, scientific, and cultural advancement in the Muslim world, driven by centralized patronage and cross-cultural exchange. Baghdad, established as the caliphal capital in 762 CE, emerged as the epicenter, hosting diverse scholars—Muslims, Christians, Jews, Persians, and others—who synthesized knowledge from Greek, Persian, Indian, and Syriac sources. This era's dynamism stemmed from economic prosperity via trade routes and agricultural innovations, which funded scholarly pursuits, alongside a caliphal policy favoring rational inquiry aligned with Mu'tazilite theology under rulers like al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833 CE).^[11]^[12] A hallmark was the translation movement, peaking in the early 9th century, where caliphs commissioned renditions of over 100 major Greek philosophical and scientific texts into Arabic, including works by Aristotle, Plato, and Ptolemy, often via Syriac intermediaries handled by Nestorian Christians. The House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikma), initiated around 825 CE under Caliph al-Mansur and expanded by al-Ma'mun, functioned not merely as a library but as a research academy integrating translation with original composition in fields like mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. This institutional support preserved classical heritage amid Europe's post-Roman decline, enabling advancements such as al-Khwarizmi's algebraic treatises (c. 820 CE) and refinements in optics by Ibn al-Haytham later in the period. Patronage extended to stipends for translators—paid by weight in gold for manuscripts—fostering a merit-based ecosystem that prioritized empirical observation and logical deduction over dogmatic constraints, though not without critiques from traditionalist theologians.^[11]^[13] Al-Farabi's era (c. 872–950 CE) unfolded in this milieu's mature phase, amid Baghdad's continued role as a philosophical crossroads despite political fragmentation post-al-Mu'tasim (r. 833–842 CE). The city's intellectual environment featured circles debating Aristotelian logic and Neoplatonic emanation, with non-Arab thinkers like Farabi—a Turkic scholar from Transoxiana—benefiting from access to Syriac-Arabic commentaries by Christian logicians such as Abu Bishr Matta (d. 940 CE). While orthodoxy grew wary of philosophy's potential to challenge revelation, caliphal and vizieral support sustained discourse, allowing Farabi to compose systematic works bridging Greek metaphysics with Islamic ethics amid a backdrop of urban academies, observatories, and manuscript production exceeding 400,000 volumes in Baghdad's libraries by the 10th century. This setting underscored causal chains from patronage to innovation, where empirical data from astronomy and medicine informed philosophical realism, unhindered by later institutional biases toward literalism.^[14]^[15]

Role of Non-Arab Thinkers in Islamic Philosophy

Non-Arab thinkers, often designated as mawālī in early Islamic terminology, played a pivotal role in the development of Islamic philosophy by integrating Hellenistic traditions with Islamic theological concerns, drawing on their pre-Islamic cultural heritages such as Sassanid Persian scholarship. These converts and descendants from Persian, Sogdian, and Central Asian backgrounds contributed disproportionately to the Peripatetic (mashshāʾī) school, which emphasized Aristotelian logic and metaphysics, after the initial translations from Greek and Syriac texts in Baghdad's House of Wisdom. Persians and Iranic peoples, in particular, preserved and expanded upon ancient knowledge through their familiarity with Pahlavi and Syriac intermediaries, enabling a synthesis that Arabs alone might not have achieved as readily due to linguistic and cultural distances from the sources.^[16]^[17] Al-Farabi (c. 870–950 CE), born in Fārāb (modern Otrar, Kazakhstan) in Transoxiana, exemplifies this non-Arab influence, with scholarly analysis indicating an Iranic Sogdian or Persian ethnic background rather than Arab or Turkic, evidenced by his use of Soghdian terms in writings and naming conventions in musical theory aligned with Persianate modes. His father's possible role as a Persian-origin army commander at a Turkish court further underscores his non-Arab roots in a multicultural frontier region. Relocating to Baghdad for studies under Syriac Christian scholars like Yūḥannā b. Ḥaylān, al-Farabi bridged Central Asian intellectual currents with the cosmopolitan Abbasid center, where non-Arabs formed a significant portion of philosophical innovators.^[10]^[18]^[4] Al-Farabi's contributions advanced Islamic philosophy by systematizing Aristotelian logic into a comprehensive framework compatible with Neoplatonism and Quranic principles, earning him the title "Second Teacher" after Aristotle among later Muslim thinkers. His works, such as Kitāb al-Mūsīqī al-Kabīr and Mabādiʾ ārāʾ ahl al-madīna al-fāḍila, demonstrated how non-Arab perspectives could harmonize philosophy with prophecy and politics, influencing Persian successors like Avicenna (Ibn Sīnā, 980–1037 CE), who credited al-Farabi explicitly. This non-Arab lineage ensured the persistence of rational inquiry in Islamic thought, countering tendencies toward pure theological literalism prevalent in some Arab-centric kalām traditions, and fostering a legacy that transmitted Greek philosophy back to Europe via Latin translations.^[10]^[19]^[20]

Corpus of Works

Major Surviving Treatises

Al-Fārābī's surviving corpus consists primarily of philosophical treatises, logical commentaries, and works on music and sciences, with authenticity confirmed through manuscript evidence and scholarly analysis by experts such as Ulrich Rudolph, who catalogs over 130 attributed texts but identifies a core of genuine long-form works.^[1] These treatises demonstrate his systematic integration of Aristotelian and Neoplatonic ideas, often structured as expositions, summaries, or independent analyses rather than original systematic treatises. Manuscripts of these works survive in Arabic, with some preserved in libraries like the Bodleian and Bibliothèque Nationale de France, dating from the 10th to 13th centuries.^[21] In logic, al-Fārābī's major contributions include extensive commentaries on Aristotle's Organon, such as the Commentary on De Interpretatione* and the Book of Demonstration (Kitāb al-burhān), which elaborate on syllogistic reasoning, categories, and modal logic, extending Greek frameworks to address Arabic linguistic nuances.^[7] His Short Treatise on Logic (al-Fuṣūl al-khamsa) provides concise summaries of demonstrative, dialectical, sophistical, rhetorical, and poetic syllogisms, serving as an accessible introduction to his logical system.^[7] The Great Book of Music (Kitāb al-mūsīqā al-kabīr), a voluminous treatise exceeding 600 pages in surviving manuscripts, represents his most comprehensive non-philosophical work, classifying musical modes, rhythms, and instruments while incorporating empirical observations on acoustics and Ptolemaic harmonics, influencing later Islamic and European music theory.^[1] Key political and ethical treatises include The Attainment of Happiness (Taḥṣīl al-saʿāda), which delineates theoretical and practical virtues as paths to intellectual perfection, and Principles of the Opinions of the Citizens of the Virtuous City (Mabādiʾ ārāʾ ahl al-madīna al-fāḍila), an outline of cosmology, metaphysics, and governance in an ideal polity ruled by philosopher-kings.^[1] Complementing these is Enumeration of the Sciences (Iḥṣāʾ al-ʿulūm), a classificatory schema dividing knowledge into eight categories— from logic to metaphysics and politics—prioritizing philosophy as the capstone discipline for human welfare.^[1] These works, preserved in multiple recensions, underscore al-Fārābī's emphasis on harmonizing reason, revelation, and statecraft.^[21]

Authenticity Debates and Lost Works

Scholars have debated the authenticity of several works attributed to al-Fārābī, primarily due to inconsistencies with his established doctrines, stylistic divergences, and historical attributions by later authors. The Treatise on the Harmonization of the Opinions of the Two Sages (Plato and Aristotle), for instance, defends positions on the eternity of the world and other metaphysical issues that contradict al-Fārābī's views as expressed in undisputed texts, aligning instead with those of his contemporary Yaḥyā ibn ʿAdī, leading researchers to conclude it is pseudepigraphic.^[22] Similarly, a purported commentary on Ptolemy's Almagest has been identified as spurious based on astronomical and textual analysis inconsistent with al-Fārābī's logical and scientific framework.^[1] These debates persist amid incomplete critical editions, though editions by Muhsin Mahdi have confirmed authenticity for major logical and political treatises through manuscript collation.^[1] Al-Fārābī's corpus originally comprised over 100 titles, many announced in his autobiographical catalog but now lost, reflecting the precarious transmission of Arabic philosophical texts through medieval copying and destruction.^[1] Prominent among the lost works is his commentary on Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics, referenced by Ibn Bājjah, Ibn Ṭufayl, and Ibn Rushd, which reportedly argued that human happiness consists solely in political life achievable in this world, rejecting posthumous beatitude or mystical union with the Active Intellect—a stance that provoked later philosophical controversy.^[23] Fragments of this commentary survive in Hebrew manuscripts, such as Oxford Bodleian MS Oppenheim 591, but the full text remains irretrievable, underscoring gaps in understanding his ethical synthesis of Aristotle with Islamic thought.^[23] Another lost treatise, On Changing Beings and the Possibility of a Demonstration of the Eternity of the World, addressed cosmological arguments for eternal motion, drawing on Aristotelian physics; its reconstruction from citations suggests it defended the world's eternity against creation ex nihilo without relying on emanationist metaphysics.^[1] Additional vanished works include extensive commentaries on Aristotle's Physics, Metaphysics, and other Organon texts, as well as political and musical compositions alluded to in surviving prefaces, with recovery efforts limited to indirect Hebrew or Latin transmissions that occasionally preserve Arabic originals otherwise lost.^[1] The scarcity of these texts hampers full assessment of al-Fārābī's systematic philosophy, though surviving risālas demonstrate his method of concise, aphoristic exposition prone to later interpolation.^[1]

Philosophical Framework

Metaphysics and Cosmology

Al-Fārābī's metaphysics centers on the study of being qua being, distinguishing it from theology, which he associates with the study of the First Cause as divine. He posits the First Cause as the necessary existent, characterized by pure actuality without potentiality, serving as the ultimate source of all existence through emanation rather than voluntary creation ex nihilo. This framework integrates Aristotelian notions of substance and causality with Neoplatonic emanation, where the First Cause overflows (fayḍ) inevitably due to its perfection, generating subsequent beings without diminishing itself.^[24] In his cosmology, the universe emerges hierarchically from the First Cause via a chain of ten intellects, each contemplating the prior cause and itself to produce a celestial sphere and the next intellect. The First Intellect, emanating directly from the First Cause, gives rise to the outermost sphere (of the fixed stars) and the Second Intellect; this process continues through nine additional intellects and spheres, aligning with Ptolemaic astronomy's nine primary heavenly motions. The Tenth Intellect, or Active Intellect, governs the sublunary realm, illuminating human souls and enabling conjunction with higher realities.^[25]^[26] This emanative structure implies an eternal, necessary cosmos, where motion and change in the material world result from the perpetual activity of celestial souls moved by their corresponding intellects. Al-Fārābī argues that the First Cause knows all things simpliciter through self-knowledge, as its essence encompasses the causes of multiplicity, rejecting anthropomorphic will in favor of necessary causation. Critics, including later theologians like al-Ghazālī, contend this diminishes divine voluntarism, but al-Fārābī maintains compatibility with prophetic revelation by interpreting it philosophically.^[24]^[27]

Epistemology and Theory of Knowledge

Al-Fārābī's epistemology posits that human knowledge originates in sensory perception, which provides raw material for the intellect to abstract universal forms, drawing on Aristotelian principles adapted to an emanationist cosmology. Sensory data enters through the external senses and is processed by internal faculties, including imagination, which purifies phantasms into suitable forms for intellectual apprehension. The theoretical intellect, initially potential, receives intelligible universals from the active intellect—a separate, divine entity that emanates forms downward from higher metaphysical realities—enabling the transition from potentiality to actuality in cognition.^[28] Central to his theory is a hierarchy of intellects within the human soul: the potential intellect, which possesses the innate capacity to abstract essences from matter; the habitual intellect, developed through repeated engagement with particulars, storing acquired principles; and the acquired intellect, the highest state achieved via conjunction with the active intellect, yielding complete comprehension of immaterial objects independent of sensory substrate. This progression allows the soul to grasp essences—defined by genus, species, and difference—through demonstrative proofs, unifying sensory particulars with eternal truths.^[29] Al-Fārābī distinguishes between 'ilm (knowledge), akin to grasping propositions via logical demonstration, and yaqīn (certitude), a superior cognitive state incorporating self-reflexive awareness ("knowing that one knows") applicable to both necessary and contingent truths. In works such as Šarā’iṭ al-Yaqīn (Conditions of Certitude) and Kitāb al-Burhān (Epitome of the Posterior Analytics), he argues that certitude arises from reliable demonstrative methods, introducing elements of reliabilism where justification stems from the intellect's alignment with emanated forms, rather than mere opinion or dialectical inference. This framework resolves tensions between empirical origins and immaterial knowledge by positing the active intellect's role in bridging the corporeal and supralunary realms.^[30]

Psychology and the Active Intellect

Al-Farābī conceives of the soul as the substantial form and first actualization of a natural organic body, possessing potentialities that it realizes through its faculties, in accordance with Aristotelian hylomorphism as articulated in De Anima.^[25] The soul's faculties form a hierarchical structure: the nutritive faculty, shared with plants, handles growth and reproduction; the sensitive and appetitive faculties, common to animals, enable perception of particulars and pursuit or avoidance of them; the imaginative faculty processes and retains sensory data into phantasms; and the rational or intellective faculty, unique to humans, abstracts universals from these phantasms to achieve certain knowledge.^[25] This rational faculty, housed in the soul's highest part, interacts with external cosmic principles, allowing the soul's immortality only insofar as its intellectual achievements transcend bodily perishability.^[25] Central to al-Farābī's psychology is his doctrine of the intellect, elaborated in the Treatise on the Intellect (Risālah fī al-ʿaql), where he identifies four progressive states of the human intellect, influenced by Aristotelian and Neoplatonic sources such as Alexander of Aphrodisias and Themistius.^[25] The potential or material intellect represents the blank dispositional capacity within the human soul to receive primary intelligible forms, akin to a tablet without writing.^[25] Upon acquiring these first principles—such as the law of non-contradiction—it becomes the intellect in habitu, storing knowledge habitually; when actively abstracting and contemplating forms from phantasms, it functions as the actual intellect.^[25] The pinnacle, the acquired intellect (al-ʿaql al-mustafād), emerges through repeated conjunction with separate intelligibles, enabling direct grasp of eternal truths and conferring ultimate human happiness.^[25] The active intellect (al-ʿaql al-faʿʿāl), a distinct, eternal substance as the tenth and lowest emanated intellect in al-Farābī's cosmological hierarchy, governs the sublunary realm by bestowing forms on matter and serving as the efficient cause of human intellection.^[25] It actualizes the potential intellect by "illuminating" sensory phantasms, much like light renders visible objects perceptible to the eye, transforming particular representations into abstracted universals without altering the phantasms themselves.^[25] This process, essential for demonstrative science and ethical virtue, integrates epistemology with psychology: without the active intellect's perpetual efflux, human cognition remains mired in potentiality, underscoring al-Farābī's causal realism wherein separate immaterial agents enable corporeal actualization.^[25] Attainment of the acquired intellect via this conjunction ensures the rational soul's subsistence post-mortem, as only intellective content, not sensitive or imaginative faculties, endures eternally.^[25]

Political and Ethical Philosophy

The Virtuous City and Ideal Ruler

Al-Farabi delineates the Madinat al-Fadila (Virtuous City) in his treatise Mabadi' Ara' Ahl al-Madinah al-Fadilah as an ideal polity where citizens attain true happiness through the cultivation of virtue and intellectual perfection, mirroring the harmony of the human soul and body.^[31] The city functions as a unified organism, with specialized roles assigned according to natural aptitudes—rulers guide with wisdom, guardians enforce order, producers sustain material needs—ensuring cooperation toward the common good of felicity, defined as conjunction with the Active Intellect and eternal truths.^[32] This structure presupposes a metaphysical foundation where political order reflects cosmic hierarchy, from the First Cause downward, privileging demonstrative knowledge over mere opinion or imitation.^[1] The ideal ruler, or supreme leader of the Virtuous City, embodies the philosopher-king archetype, fused with prophetic qualities to apprehend and impart ultimate realities.^[1] Al-Farabi specifies that this ruler must excel in theoretical sciences, grasping metaphysics, physics, and mathematics to comprehend the divine overflow and the hierarchy of beings.^[33] Practical virtues are equally essential: profound insight into human natures, customs, and laws; deliberative acumen for policy; rhetorical skill to persuade the masses via symbolic representations; and, if necessary, military prowess to defend the city.^[33] Unlike mere despots or demagogues, the ruler's authority derives from intellectual supremacy, enabling the issuance of laws that align individual actions with universal felicity, often through religious imagery accessible to non-philosophers.^[32] In al-Farabi's schema, the ruler's singularity ensures unity, as divided leadership fragments the polity akin to a diseased body; succession prioritizes those inheriting similar perfections, potentially through education or divine designation.^[31] This model critiques flawed regimes—ignorant, timocratic, or pleasure-seeking—contrasting them with the Virtuous City's rational order, where the ruler's knowledge prevents deviation from the true good.^[32] Empirical realization demands rare conditions, as the ruler must unite philosophical insight with political efficacy, a synthesis al-Farabi deemed possible only under prophethood's guidance in historical contexts.^[1]

Integration of Philosophy, Religion, and Politics

Al-Farabi posited that philosophy represents the highest form of knowledge, attained through rational demonstration and intellectual ascent to the divine Active Intellect, while religion serves as an exoteric counterpart, conveying the same ultimate truths through symbolic, imaginative representations tailored to the capacities of the unphilosophical majority.^[31] In works such as The Book of Religion and The Attainment of Happiness, he argued that religious doctrines, including those of Islam, are valid insofar as they mirror philosophical principles, such as the hierarchy of beings emanating from the First Cause, but they employ persuasive myths and laws rather than syllogistic proofs to foster virtue and social order.^[31] This hierarchical distinction ensures that philosophy guides the elite toward theoretical perfection, whereas religion directs the masses toward practical imitation of that perfection, preventing societal discord from conflicting epistemologies.^[34] Central to al-Farabi's integration is the figure of the ideal ruler, who embodies the convergence of philosophical wisdom, prophetic revelation, and political authority, akin to Plato's philosopher-king but augmented by Islamic prophetic faculties.^[31] In The Virtuous City, he described this ruler—potentially an imam or prophet—as possessing not only demonstrative knowledge of metaphysics and ethics but also the imaginative power to receive divine overflow in symbolic forms, enabling the formulation of religious laws that align the polity with cosmic order.^[34] Such a leader legislates jurisprudence (fiqh) derived from philosophy's rational insights, ensuring that political governance promotes citizens' ascent toward happiness, defined as intellectual conjunction with the divine, rather than mere material prosperity.^[31] Absent this unified authority, al-Farabi warned, religion risks devolving into ignorant superstition or philosophy into isolated abstraction, both undermining the state's telos.^[35] Politically, al-Farabi envisioned religion and philosophy as interdependent instruments for the virtuous regime, where the ruler's philosophical insight informs religious exegesis, and prophetic symbolism legitimizes rational policies among the populace.^[36] This synthesis adapts Platonic and Aristotelian ideals to an Islamic context, positing that true religion, like philosophy, derives from the same divine source but addresses human diversity in cognitive abilities, with politics as the art of harmonizing these through hierarchical education and law.^[31] For instance, he critiqued purely revelatory authority without philosophy as insufficient for genuine rulership, emphasizing causal necessity: only a philosophically informed prophet can causally link individual souls to universal intellect via tailored religious narratives.^[34] Thus, al-Farabi's framework subordinates theology to philosophy's demonstrative rigor while elevating religion's role in political praxis, fostering a polity where empirical observation of human nature justifies this epistemic-political unity.^[35]

Critiques of Alternative Political Forms

Al-Farabi classifies non-virtuous political communities into three broad categories—ignorant, immoral, and erring cities—each failing to realize the hierarchical harmony and intellectual ascent essential for human felicity, which he defines as conjunction with the Active Intellect and emulation of divine order. Ignorant cities prioritize material necessities or flawed conceptions of the good, such as survival amid scarcity or adherence to erroneous ancient doctrines, resulting in governance by unqualified rulers who cannot foster virtue or unity; this leads to chronic instability, as citizens pursue disparate aims without a shared telos oriented toward theoretical knowledge.^[37]^[38] Immoral cities, by contrast, chase honor (timocracy), wealth (oligarchy), or unchecked liberty (democracy), inverting the natural order by elevating lower appetites over reason; here, Al-Farabi argues, the absence of philosophical oversight permits factionalism and excess, eroding the disciplined cooperation required for the city's organic unity, akin to a disordered soul.^[39]^[40] Erring cities rest on counterfeit imitations of religion, promulgating false prophets or doctrines that misrepresent the First Cause, thereby directing worship toward idols or anthropomorphic deities; such regimes, Al-Farabi contends, perpetuate delusion and prevent genuine prophetic insight, confining inhabitants to cyclic ignorance rather than progressive enlightenment.^[41]^[42] Central to these critiques is the inadequacy of non-philosophical rulership: in all alternative forms, leaders lack the speculative wisdom to align politics with metaphysics, causing a rupture between the city's body politic and its rational soul. For instance, democratic regimes, while permitting diverse opinions and resembling the virtuous city in their potential for change, devolve into permissiveness where the multitude's whims override merit, fostering anarchy over the deliberate excellence of a philosopher-king; Al-Farabi notes this as the "most admirable" among ignorant types yet ultimately defective for lacking coercive unity toward truth.^[43]^[38] Tyrannical or domineering variants exacerbate this by imposing rule through force alone, devoid of legitimacy from intellectual or revelatory authority, yielding oppression without edification.^[41] These structures, Al-Farabi maintains, mirror Plato's degenerate regimes but are reframed through an Islamic lens, emphasizing the integration of prophecy and philosophy; their persistence stems from the rarity of virtuous individuals, perpetuating cycles of flawed association until a capable ruler emerges.^[44]^[45] Ultimately, Al-Farabi's analysis underscores causal realism in politics: flawed forms arise from epistemological deficits and misdirected causality, where unexamined opinions supplant first principles, barring the teleological progress from potentiality to actuality that defines human perfection. He posits that while some, like democracies, offer transitional utility—nurturing latent philosophers amid variety—none suffice without subordination to the virtuous paradigm, as evidenced by historical polities' recurrent failures to sustain happiness beyond temporal goods.^[46]^[47] This critique prioritizes empirical observation of societal ills, such as greed and faction in his era's caliphates, over idealistic concessions to popular sovereignty.^[48]

Contributions to Specific Disciplines

Innovations in Logic

Al-Fārābī (c. 870–950 CE) produced extensive commentaries and treatises on Aristotle's Organon, including long dissections of texts such as Categories, De Interpretatione, Prior Analytics, and Posterior Analytics, which systematized Aristotelian logic for Arabic-speaking scholars and emphasized its role in achieving certain knowledge.^[7] In works like Kitāb al-Qiyās (Book of Syllogism), an abridgment of Prior Analytics, he codified valid deductive arguments across disciplines, recognizing three categorical syllogistic figures with their respective moods (four in the first, four in the second, six in the third), treating the first figure as "perfect" and reducing others to it for validation.^[7] ^[49] He defined logic as the study of primary concepts signified by expressions—such as universals, predicates, subjects, and their compounds—to investigate truth, certainty, and the intellect's proper operations, distinguishing it from other sciences by its universal applicability as an instrument for exact reasoning.^[7] Al-Fārābī likened logic to measuring tools like rulers and compasses, which ensure precision and avert errors in intellectual pursuits, positioning it as essential for guiding the mind toward demonstrative certainty rather than mere opinion.^[50] In Kitāb al-Burhān (Book of Demonstration) and Kitāb al-Jadal (Book of Dialectic), he prioritized demonstrative syllogisms, derived from true, primary premises yielding necessary conclusions, over dialectical ones based on commonly accepted opinions for debate and refutation.^[50] ^[51] Al-Fārābī classified argumentative arts into demonstrative (for scientific certainty), dialectical (for disputation from endoxa), rhetorical (for persuasion via probabilities), and poetic (for imaginative representation), extending Aristotle's framework to underscore logic's utility in philosophy, theology, and public discourse while warning against sophistical fallacies.^[7] He integrated linguistic analysis, arguing in Risāla fī al-ʿIbāra (Letters) that expressions must accurately signify concepts to prevent reasoning mismatches, and introduced terminology like yufīdu for effective debate, thereby linking logic to grammar and clarifying language's role in valid inference.^[7] On modalities, surviving fragments from his Commentary on De Interpretatione apply possibility to practical sciences like medicine, influencing later modal syllogistics, though full details remain limited due to lost works on Prior Analytics.^[7] To facilitate study, al-Fārābī divided logic into takhayyul (conception or idea-formation) and thubūt (proof or assent), simplifying Aristotle's progression from terms to propositions to syllogisms and making the system more accessible for non-Greek contexts.^[51] His efforts clarified logic's functions—such as defining it distinctly from grammar while analogizing their roles—and laid groundwork for successors like Avicenna by harmonizing Greek theory with Islamic intellectual needs, though he adhered closely to Aristotle without introducing novel figures like the fifth syllogism.^[7] ^[51]

Theories of Music and Harmonics

Al-Farabi's primary contribution to music theory appears in his Kitāb al-mūsīqī al-kabīr (Great Book of Music), a comprehensive treatise composed around 940 CE that systematically analyzes acoustics, intervals, scales, modes, rhythm, and instrumentation, drawing from Greek sources like Ptolemy and Aristoxenus while adapting them to observed practice.^[52] The work divides music into practical (performance and composition) and theoretical (scientific inquiry into sound production and perception), with the latter emphasizing empirical observation over mystical numerology; al-Farabi rejected notions of music as direct imitation of planetary motions, arguing that celestial bodies produce no audible harmony.^[53] Theoretical music, for him, investigates sound (ṣawt) as vibrations in air caused by struck or plucked bodies, prioritizing arithmetic ratios derived from string divisions rather than symbolic interpretations.^[54] In harmonics, al-Farabi detailed interval ratios using the monochord principle, where string lengths yield consonant sounds: the octave at 2:1, perfect fifth at 3:2, perfect fourth at 4:3, whole tone at 9:8, and semitone approximations via 256:243 or 243:2187 for Pythagorean tuning, which he extended to include microtonal divisions observed in Arabic practice.^[55] He classified tetrachords (four-note segments spanning a fourth) into genera—diatonic (tone-semitone-semitone), chromatic (semitone-tone-semitone or variants), and enharmonic (two quarter-tones followed by a ditone)—allowing conjunctions and disjunctions to form scales up to two octaves, with 15 possible continuous scales from tetrachord combinations.^[52] These ratios were verified through instrumental tuning, particularly the ūd (lute), which he described with five strings tuned in fourths and a course, recommending 12-17 frets positioned by equal or unequal divisions to produce quarter-tones (limma at approximately 90:89) and other small intervals essential for modal variety.^[56] Al-Farabi integrated harmonics with ethics, positing that consonant intervals and modal structures (iqtāʿ or maqāmāt) could represent and induce psychological states—joy via major seconds and thirds, sorrow via minor ones—serving moral education by aligning the soul with rational order, though he cautioned against excessive indulgence that disrupts contemplation.^[57] His system influenced later theorists like Avicenna, who adopted its interval calculations, and Safi al-Din al-Urmawi, who refined the fret divisions, bridging Greek rationalism with empirical Arabic traditions.^[58]

Natural Philosophy and Physics

Al-Farabi's natural philosophy, or ʿilm al-ṭabīʿa, constitutes a systematic exposition of Aristotelian principles applied to the sublunary realm, focusing on the causes, motions, and compositions of natural bodies. In his Iḥsāʾ al-ʿulūm (ca. 940 CE), he positions natural science within theoretical philosophy, subordinate to mathematics and logic but foundational for metaphysics, as it examines changeable beings through demonstration.^[59] This classification delineates physics as inquiring into the principles of motion and rest, the four elements (earth, water, air, fire), composite bodies, and incidental properties like generation and corruption.^[59] Unlike purely mathematical disciplines, physics incorporates final and efficient causes to explain teleological processes in nature.^[60] Adhering to Aristotle's Physics, al-Farabi maintains that all natural motion is rectilinear and directed toward a body's natural place, governed by its dominant elemental qualities—downward for heavy elements (earth, water) and upward for light ones (air, fire).^[3] He divides natural bodies into simple (the elements, characterized by hot/cold and wet/dry qualities) and composite, with the latter undergoing qualitative changes, augmentation, and locomotion as primary modes of alteration.^[60] Prime matter, the substrate for these changes, arises from the perpetual circular motion of the celestial spheres, which generates the conditions for sublunary flux without implying creation ex nihilo.^[25] This mechanism underscores causal continuity between the superlunary and sublunary domains, rejecting voids or infinite regress in causal chains.^[61] Al-Farabi critiques prevalent astrological interpretations, insisting that celestial influences on terrestrial events operate through natural causality—such as heat from the sun affecting generation—rather than deterministic or divinatory forces, though he accommodates chance (ittifāq) within probabilistic frameworks.^[62] His paraphrases of Aristotle's Physics and related works, though fragmentary, integrate these doctrines with demonstrations from observation, prioritizing empirical validation where possible over unverified traditions.^[9] This approach preserves Aristotelian hylomorphism while subordinating physics to higher emanative principles in cosmology, ensuring coherence across sciences.^[61]

Intellectual Influences and Transmission

Adaptation of Greek Sources

Al-Fārābī (c. 870–950 CE) demonstrated a profound engagement with Greek philosophical traditions, primarily through systematic commentaries, paraphrases, and syntheses of Aristotle's corpus, supplemented by Platonic and Neoplatonic elements. He produced long commentaries dissecting Aristotle's logical works, such as the Organon, including detailed analyses of Prior Analytics and De Interpretatione, where he clarified syllogistic reasoning and linguistic propositions while extending their application to demonstrative sciences.^[7]^[63] These efforts preserved and refined Aristotelian logic, adapting it as a foundational tool for rational inquiry compatible with Islamic monotheism, though al-Fārābī prioritized empirical demonstration over dialectical concessions to theology.^[64] In metaphysics and cosmology, al-Fārābī harmonized Aristotle's views on causation and the unmoved mover with Neoplatonic emanation theories derived from Plotinus, positing a hierarchical intellect descending from the First Cause (God) to generate celestial spheres and the active intellect influencing human souls.^[24] He critiqued Platonic Forms as separate entities, aligning more closely with Aristotle's immanent universals, yet incorporated Platonic idealism in his doctrine of prophetic imagination, where the active intellect illuminates particulars to achieve conjunction with divine knowledge.^[65] This synthesis, evident in works like The Book of Letters (a commentary on Aristotle's Metaphysics), resolved apparent contradictions between Plato and Aristotle by portraying them as complementary stages in philosophical development, with Aristotle providing the pinnacle of demonstrative precision.^[66]^[67] Politically, al-Fārābī adapted Plato's Republic into his Mabādiʾ ārāʾ ahl al-madīna al-fāḍila (Principles of the Opinions of the Inhabitants of the Virtuous City), reimagining the philosopher-king as an imam-prophet who rules through demonstrative philosophy veiled in religious imagery for the masses.^[31] He drew from Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics and Politics to emphasize virtue ethics and hierarchical social orders, but subordinated these to a Neoplatonic teleology where ultimate happiness arises from intellectual union with the divine, diverging from Aristotle's eudaimonia tied to contemplative life within the polis.^[68] Such adaptations often involved esoteric interpretation, attributing to Aristotle a deliberate obscurity in texts to conceal truths from the unprepared, as in a purported Aristotelian letter to Plato cited by al-Fārābī.^[69] This approach not only transmitted Greek sources amid the Abbasid translation movement but critically reshaped them to affirm philosophy's supremacy over unexamined religious dogma.^[46]

Impact on Successors in the Islamic World

Al-Farabi's philosophical system, particularly his synthesis of Aristotelian logic and Platonic political ideals, profoundly shaped the thought of Avicenna (Ibn Sina, d. 1037), who explicitly acknowledged al-Farabi's influence in his early works, such as the Compendium on the Soul composed around 1000 CE in Bukhara.^[70] Avicenna adopted and expanded al-Farabi's hierarchical model of sciences, where theoretical wisdom subordinates practical philosophy, including jurisprudence and theology, thereby prioritizing rational inquiry over revealed religion in ethical and political matters.^[71] This framework enabled Avicenna to develop his own metaphysics, including the concept of necessary existence for God, which echoed al-Farabi's emanationist cosmology derived from Plotinus and Aristotle.^[72] In political philosophy, al-Farabi's Virtuous City (al-Madina al-Fadila, ca. 940 CE) provided a blueprint for an ideal polity ruled by a philosopher-king who harmonizes philosophy, religion, and statecraft to achieve collective happiness, influencing Avicenna's views on governance as an extension of cosmic order.^[31] This integration of falsafa (philosophy) with madaniyya (civic science) resonated in subsequent Islamic thinkers, framing religion as imaginative representations of philosophical truths accessible to the masses, a doctrine that persisted in Eastern Islamic intellectual circles despite orthodox resistance.^[31] Al-Farabi's emphasis on the virtuous ruler's prophetic intellect, blending intellectual perfection with legislative authority, informed Avicenna's practical philosophy, where the ideal state mirrors the emanative hierarchy from the Active Intellect downward.^[73] Al-Farabi's legacy extended to later Western Islamic philosophers like Averroes (Ibn Rushd, d. 1198), whose commentaries on Aristotle built upon al-Farabi's logical innovations and political harmonization of reason and revelation, establishing a continuum of Peripatetic thought across the Islamic world from Baghdad to Andalusia.^[74] By systematizing philosophy as a coherent discipline independent yet complementary to theology, al-Farabi enabled successors to advance fields like psychology and natural philosophy, though his subordination of prophetic law to dialectical reasoning drew critiques that curtailed its dominance after the 11th century.^[75] His works, transmitted through Avicenna's encyclopedic Healing (al-Shifa', ca. 1020 CE), sustained rationalist traditions in Persianate and Ottoman scholarship until the Mongol invasions disrupted intellectual centers around 1258 CE.^[76]

Influence on Medieval Latin and Renaissance Thought

Al-Farabi's works reached the Latin West primarily through translations in the second half of the 12th century during the Arabic-Latin translation movement centered in Toledo, Spain. His treatise Iḥṣāʾ al-ʿulūm (Enumeration of the Sciences) was rendered into Latin twice—once by Gerard of Cremona and once by Dominicus Gundisalvi—providing a systematic classification of knowledge that integrated philosophy, logic, and other disciplines.^[77] These translations, conducted under the patronage of figures like Archbishop Raymond of Toledo, facilitated the assimilation of al-Farabi's (known as Alpharabius) commentaries on Aristotle and his original syntheses, preserving and adapting Greek thought for Christian scholars.^[77] In medieval scholasticism, al-Farabi exerted influence on the organization of logic and sciences, with his division of logic into eight parts shaping works by 13th-century thinkers such as Roger Bacon and Arnoul de Provence.^[77] His metaphysical doctrines, including the concept of the active intellect as the Tenth Intellect bridging divine and human realms, informed Neoplatonic-Aristotelian frameworks adopted by Albertus Magnus and, indirectly via intermediaries like Avicenna, Thomas Aquinas.^[3] Aquinas engaged with al-Farabi's essence-existence distinctions in God, which underpinned scholastic debates on being and causation, though often filtered through Latinized Arabic sources rather than direct attribution.^[3] Politically, al-Farabi's ideal of the virtuous city, harmonizing philosophy and rule, contributed to Latin discussions on governance, echoing Platonic models adapted to monarchical and ecclesiastical contexts.^[77] During the Renaissance, al-Farabi's impact persisted indirectly through the scholastic tradition he helped establish, aiding the recovery of Greek originals while his systematic approach to philosophy influenced humanist classifications of knowledge.^[77] Figures like Gundisalvi's adaptations of his science divisions echoed in Renaissance encyclopedism, though direct citations waned as primary Greek texts supplanted Arabic intermediaries.^[77] His role in transmitting Aristotelian logic and Platonic politics laid causal groundwork for Renaissance syntheses of antiquity with emerging secular thought, evident in broader intellectual revivals rather than specific endorsements.^[3]

Controversies and Orthodox Critiques

Subordination of Religion to Philosophy

Al-Farabi maintained that philosophy occupies the highest epistemic authority, with religion functioning as its derivative and subordinate counterpart, designed to convey universal truths to those incapable of grasping them through rigorous demonstration. In his view, philosophy achieves knowledge via logical proofs and intellectual intuition, whereas religion employs symbolic imagery, persuasive rhetoric, and similitudes to approximate these truths for the masses, whose faculties limit them to imaginative rather than demonstrative understanding. This hierarchy ensures that religious doctrines and laws imitate philosophical principles, preventing conflict when properly aligned, as religion's validity derives from its conformity to philosophical certainty rather than independent revelation.^[31]^[34] Central to this subordination is al-Farabi's conception of the prophet as an exalted philosopher endowed with an exceptionally active imagination, enabling the translation of metaphysical and ethical truths into accessible symbols, such as parables or legal imperatives, without altering their essence. For instance, divine attributes in scripture represent the Active Intellect or necessary existent in philosophical terms, and prophetic legislation mirrors the rational order of the cosmos as discerned by dialectic and syllogism. He argued that true religion—termed "virtuous religion"—must thus submit to philosophical scrutiny; any deviation renders it erroneous or tyrannical, as seen in his critique of doctrines that prioritize unexamined faith over reason. This framework positions the philosopher-ruler, who unites theoretical wisdom with practical governance, as the ultimate arbiter, promulgating a religion that reinforces rather than challenges philosophical governance in the ideal polity.^[31]^[34]^[78] Al-Farabi's explicit articulation of this relationship appears in treatises like The Enumeration of the Sciences, where he delineates religion's two pillars—beliefs and actions—as imitative arts inferior to philosophy's demonstrative sciences, and in The Attainment of Happiness, which elevates the contemplative life of the philosopher above prophetic legislation for ultimate human perfection. By subordinating religion, he aimed to harmonize revealed traditions with Aristotelian-Neoplatonic metaphysics, averting the antagonism between kalām theologians and falsafa practitioners, though this provoked later orthodox backlash for ostensibly demoting scripture to mere allegory. Empirical alignment with observable cosmic hierarchy—where lower spheres imitate higher intelligences—further justifies this view, as religion's symbolic mode parallels the sublunary world's imperfect reflection of supralunary order.^[34]^[31]

Attacks by Theologians like al-Ghazali

Al-Ghazali, in his Tahafut al-Falasifah (The Incoherence of the Philosophers), composed around 1095 CE, launched a systematic critique against the philosophical tradition exemplified by al-Farabi and Ibn Sina, accusing them of twenty erroneous propositions that contradicted core Islamic doctrines.^[79] He identified al-Farabi specifically as a key innovator whose Neoplatonized Aristotelianism deviated from orthodoxy, particularly in positing the eternity of the world as a necessary emanation from God rather than a voluntary creation ex nihilo.^[80] This view, al-Ghazali argued, undermined divine omnipotence by implying a deterministic causal chain independent of God's free will, rendering God a passive necessity rather than an active agent.^[81] Central to al-Ghazali's assault was al-Farabi's emanationist cosmology, where intellects emanate hierarchically from the First Cause, culminating in the Active Intellect governing the sublunary realm; al-Ghazali contended this precluded God's direct knowledge of particulars and bodily resurrection, reducing eschatology to a metaphorical intellectual survival incompatible with Quranic literalism on physical reward and punishment.^[82] He further targeted al-Farabi's political philosophy in works like The Virtuous City, which portrayed prophecy as an imaginative mode of philosophical truth accessible to the elite via reason alone, subordinating revelation to dialectic and implying that non-prophets could achieve perfect governance through intellect—a position al-Ghazali deemed heretical for equating religious law with symbolic imagery rather than binding divine command.^[83] Of the twenty propositions, al-Ghazali declared three—eternal world, denial of God's knowledge of universals, and negation of bodily resurrection—as grounds for unbelief (kufr), explicitly applying this charge to al-Farabi and his followers, which under Islamic jurisprudence warranted severe penalties including execution.^[79] Other Ash'arite theologians echoed these objections, viewing al-Farabi's integration of Greek metaphysics as a form of anthropomorphic rationalism that prioritized causality over occasionalism, wherein God recreates the world anew at each instant without intermediary necessities.^[84] Al-Ghazali's arguments, while not extinguishing philosophy outright, marginalized al-Farabi's rationalist framework in Sunni orthodoxy by framing it as incompatible with tawhid (divine unity) and prophetic authority, influencing subsequent critiques that prioritized theological voluntarism over emanative determinism.^[85]

Esoteric Doctrines and Charges of Heresy

Al-Farabi maintained that true philosophical knowledge must be conveyed esoterically to prevent misuse by the unprepared masses, employing multilayered writings where surface-level religious imagery masked rational truths accessible only to the philosophically adept. Drawing from Plato's model in The Republic, he posited that religion serves as an imaginative, symbolic representation of metaphysical realities—such as the emanation of intellects from the First Cause—to foster civic virtue and social order among the multitude, while the philosopher-ruler grasps these through demonstrative reason.^[86]^[69] This approach implied a hierarchy subordinating prophetic revelation to philosophy, with prophets functioning akin to philosophers who adapt eternal truths into persuasive myths tailored to human capacities, rather than delivering unmediated divine knowledge. In works like The Book of Religion and The Attainment of Happiness, al-Farabi outlined the ideal polity where religious law (shari'a) enforces moral habits derived from philosophical first principles, yet he viewed unreflective adherence to scripture as insufficient for ultimate human perfection, which demands intellectual ascent to the Active Intellect.^[87]^[88] Such doctrines provoked charges of heresy from orthodox theologians, who interpreted them as reducing Islam to a utilitarian construct invented by elites, thereby eroding the Quran's literal authority and prophetic uniqueness. Critics, including later Ash'arite scholars, accused al-Farabi of infidelity (kufr) for doctrines like the world's emanative eternity from God—contradicting creation ex nihilo—and for implying that divine causation operates through necessary intermediaries rather than direct volition, positions grouped with Aristotelian-Neoplatonic errors deemed incompatible with scriptural orthodoxy.^[88]^[89] Although al-Farabi avoided explicit confrontation and framed his system as harmonious with Islam, detractors like al-Ghazali extended critiques of falsafa to him, charging that affirming the pre-eternity of the world, denying God's comprehensive knowledge of temporal particulars, and rejecting bodily resurrection constituted outright unbelief warranting takfir. These imputations persisted in kalam traditions, portraying al-Farabi's esotericism not as prudent pedagogy but as deliberate concealment of heterodox views that prioritized pagan Greek metaphysics over revealed theology.^[90]

Legacy and Modern Reassessment

Persistence in Islamic Intellectual Traditions

Al-Farābī's logical and metaphysical innovations, particularly his commentaries on Aristotle's Organon and his emanationist cosmology, exerted a foundational influence on Avicenna (Ibn Sīnā, d. 1037 CE), who integrated them into his own Shifāʾ and Najāt, thereby embedding al-Farābī's Peripatetic framework within the core of Islamic philosophical discourse.^[3] This direct lineage ensured al-Farābī's persistence as the "Second Teacher" in curricula across Baghdad and Transoxiana, where his classification of sciences shaped epistemological hierarchies in madrasas.^[91] Avicenna's adaptations, such as refining al-Farābī's active intellect into a more systematic agent of cosmic causation, propagated these ideas eastward, sustaining rationalist inquiry amid rising Ash'arite kalām dominance.^[92] Post-al-Ghazālī (d. 1111 CE), whose Tahāfut al-Falāsifa impugned al-Farābī's eternalism and necessary emanation as incompatible with divine voluntarism, al-Farābī's doctrines endured in peripheral yet resilient centers like the Buyid and Seljuq courts, where logicians such as Bahmanyār ibn Marzubān (d. 1065 CE) extended his syllogistic methodologies.^[93] In 13th-century Persia under the Ilkhanids, Naṣīr al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī (d. 1274 CE) reconciled al-Farābī's political philosophy—emphasizing the philosopher-prophet's role in virtuous governance—with Twelver Shiʿi theology, commenting on his Fuṣūl al-Madani to defend hierarchical emanation against occasionalist critiques.^[94] This synthesis preserved al-Farābī's causal realism in Shiʿi intellectual enclaves, influencing later Safavid thinkers who prioritized demonstrative reasoning over fideism.^[34] Al-Farābī's esoteric hermeneutics, distinguishing exoteric religion from philosophical truth, found echoes in Ismaili and Illuminationist (Ishraqi) traditions, where Suhrawardī (d. 1191 CE) selectively critiqued yet retained his Neoplatonic hierarchies, ensuring transmission into Ottoman and Mughal philosophical texts up to the 17th century.^[95] Manuscripts of his works, including Arabic recensions of Greek logics, circulated in libraries from Samarkand to Istanbul, attesting to their role in sustaining a minority rationalist strand against theological hegemony, though often refracted through orthodox lenses to evade heresy charges.^[96]

Rediscovery Through Recent Scholarship

In the mid-20th century, Muhsin Mahdi initiated a pivotal phase of textual recovery by producing critical Arabic editions of al-Farabi's works, including The Political Regime (1964) and Philosophy of Plato and Aristotle (1961, revised 2001), which established reliable bases for subsequent analysis by collating disparate manuscripts and resolving corruptions in prior transmissions.^[97] These editions addressed longstanding gaps, as medieval catalogues listed over 100 titles but fewer than half had been fully recovered by then, enabling scholars to reconstruct al-Farabi's systematic integration of Aristotelian logic with Neoplatonic metaphysics.^[98] Building on Mahdi's foundations, 21st-century scholarship expanded through new translations and monographs, such as Charles E. Butterworth's English renderings of Political Regime and Summary of Plato's Laws (2020), which highlighted al-Farabi's hierarchical model of virtuous governance as a bridge between Platonic ideals and practical polity.^[99] Joshua Parens's An Islamic Philosophy of Virtuous Religions (2006) reassessed al-Farabi's doctrines on prophetic imitation and religious pluralism, arguing their utility for contemporary interfaith discourse without subordinating philosophy to theology.^[100] Ulrich Rudolph's comprehensive surveys, including detailed bibliographies in works like Abū Naṣr al-Fārābī (2017), cataloged emerging manuscript discoveries and clarified al-Farabi's ethnic and intellectual contexts, countering earlier unsubstantiated claims of Turkish origins with evidence favoring Persian roots. These efforts revealed al-Farabi's esoteric strategies for reconciling revelation with reason, prompting reevaluations of his influence on later thinkers like Averroes. Recent studies have further emphasized al-Farabi's enduring relevance, as in a 2022 analysis correlating his ethical state with modern democratic challenges, positing that his emphasis on philosopher-rulers anticipates tensions between popular sovereignty and elite guidance.^[101] A 2023 examination of his political thought underscored the coequal roles of philosophy and religion in fostering civic virtue, challenging narratives of inherent conflict in Islamic rationalism.^[34] This scholarship, grounded in primary texts rather than secondary interpretations, has revitalized al-Farabi's status from a mere transmitter of Greek ideas to an original synthesizer whose causal framework for societal harmony informs debates on rational inquiry's decline in post-classical Islam.

Causal Role in the Decline of Rational Inquiry

Al-Farabi's systematic subordination of religion to philosophy, viewing the former as an imaginative approximation of philosophical truths accessible only to the elite, sowed seeds of conflict with Islamic orthodoxy that ultimately contributed to the erosion of rational inquiry. In works such as The Book of Religion, he explicitly denies religion autonomy as a source of wisdom, reducing it to symbolic representations—e.g., depicting the First Cause as "God" and active intellects as "angels"—meant for the masses incapable of demonstrative reasoning.^[31] This framework, while preserving philosophy's integrity through esoteric doctrines, portrayed religious law (shari'a) as provisional and revisable under philosophical guidance, undermining the absolute authority claimed by theologians.^[31] Such positioning invited vehement opposition, most decisively from Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (1058–1111), whose The Incoherence of the Philosophers (c. 1095) directly critiqued al-Farabi's emanationist cosmology, eternity of the world, and denial of bodily resurrection as heretical deviations from Islamic doctrine.^[79] Al-Ghazali convicted philosophers on three core propositions—world's pre-eternity, God's non-knowledge of particulars, and causal denial—arguing they contradicted revelation and promoted skepticism.^[102] His advocacy for Ash'arite occasionalism, positing all events as direct divine interventions without natural necessity, dismantled the Aristotelian causal framework al-Farabi had adapted, rendering empirical science metaphysically untenable in orthodox circles.^[103] The triumph of this critique accelerated philosophy's decline: by the 12th century, Ash'arism permeated madrasa education across Sunni lands, prioritizing kalam theology over falsafa (peripatetic philosophy), while the informal "closure of the gates of ijtihad" (c. 10th–11th centuries) curtailed independent rational exegesis.^[103] Al-Farabi's elitist esotericism, confining true knowledge to a select few, failed to cultivate institutional or popular defenses, leaving rational traditions isolated and susceptible to suppression amid geopolitical upheavals like the Mongol sack of Baghdad in 1258.^[31] Unlike in Latin Christendom, where rationalism found ecclesiastical integration, al-Farabi's model exacerbated an unbridgeable divide, fostering a theological monopoly that marginalized sustained scientific and philosophical progress for centuries.^[103]

References

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[24]
al-Farabi's Metaphysics - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Nov 22, 2021 · “Al-Fârâbî's metaphysics”, as understood here, means not just his views, and arguments for those views, on a series of metaphysical topics.2. Fârâbî On Metaphysics... · 3. Fârâbî's Ontology: The... · 4. Fârâbî's Philosophical...<|separator|>
[25]
al-Farabi's psychology and epistemology
Feb 11, 2016 · He wrote extensively on logic, philosophy of language, metaphysics, natural philosophy, ethics, political philosophy, philosophical psychology and epistemology.Missing: education | Show results with:education
[26]
The Ten Spheres of Al-Farabi: A Medieval Cosmology
Apr 3, 2016 · In the framework of his metaphysics, he developed a theory of emanation describing the origin of the material universe.
[27]
Some Considerations on the Theory of Emanation in Alfarabi ...
Jun 19, 2025 · Al-Ghazālī holds that emanation constitutes a major obstacle to a correct conception of God as portrayed in the Qurʾan. More specifically, it is ...
[28]
Epistemology in Islamic philosophy
Al-Farabi's and Ibn Sina's general view, however, is that these imagined universals only prepare the theoretical intellect for the reception of the universals ...
[29]
[PDF] Essence and Typology of Intellect in al-Farabi's Epistemology*
Based on the achievements of ancient thinkers in the field of ontology and epistemology, al-Farabi developed an original conception of cognition and human ...
[30]
KNOWLEDGE ('ILM) AND CERTITUDE (YAQĪN) IN AL-FĀRĀBĪ'S ...
Feb 15, 2006 · She argues that the identification of certitude as a cognitive state distinct from knowledge enabled al-Fārābī to introduce a number of ...
[31]
al-Farabi's Philosophy of Society and Religion
Jun 15, 2016 · To our knowledge, al-Farabi was the first philosopher in the Islamic world who not only displayed a serious interest in philosophy of society ...Conceptual Background · What is 'philosophy of society'? · The principle of similitude
[32]
FĀRĀBĪ vi. Political Philosophy - Encyclopaedia Iranica
Fārābī begins his discussion of the supreme ruler with the emphasis on the common function of the ruler-philosopher and the ruler-prophet as rulers who are the ...
[33]
https://www.al-islam.org/history-muslim-philosophy-volume-1-book-3/chapter-35-al-farabi
[34]
Philosophy and Religion in the Political Thought of Alfarabi - MDPI
Jul 13, 2023 · Abu Nasr Alfarabi was one of the most prolific and eminent 10th-century medieval Muslim philosophers who is considered the founder of Islamic ...
[35]
(PDF) Al-Farabi on the interdependence of religion and politics
Aug 7, 2025 · Middle Platonism (Mahdi, 1961: 3; Mahdi, 2001:2). His main thesis consists in the preponderance of. philosophy over theology. Religion is used ...
[36]
Alfarabi and the Creation of an Islamic Political Science
Jul 12, 2016 · Alfarabi argued that traditional texts should be reinterpreted in light of a new political science, one based on Greek sources but adapted to ...
[37]
https://brill.com/display/book/9789004464728/BP000037.xml
[38]
Alfarabi's Political Teaching - Article - Renovatio
Mar 28, 2024 · Statue of Abū Naṣr al-Fārābī at the Al-Farabi Kazakh National University in Kazakhstan ... Active Intellect—are in no way corporeal. They ...
[39]
[PDF] ARTICLE AL-FA¯ RA¯ BI¯ ON THE DEMOCRATIC CITY ...
Effectively, therefore, in the erring cities the rulers are immoral whereas the people are ignorant. In addition to devising three different categories of ...
[40]
Democracy under the Caliphs: Alfarabi's Unusual Understanding of ...
Apr 20, 2015 · Alfarabi's only extensive treatment of democracy occurs in a treatise called the Political Regime. Alfarabi also discusses several other types ...Missing: Farabi critiques
[41]
Al-Farabi's Political Philosophy: Reconciling Platonic Ideals with ...
Al-Farabi categorizes non-virtuous cities into three types—ignorant, immoral, and erring—with the domineering city (al-madīna al-taghāllubiyya) as the core ...
[42]
[PDF] Al-Fārābī on Islam and Politics Closing the Chasm
Al-Fārābī rests his classification of ignorant cities upon the flawed goals around which ... Al-Fārābī mentions six categories of the ignorant city: the necessary ...<|separator|>
[43]
Democracy under the Caliphs: Alfarabi's Unusual Understanding of ...
The philosopher Alfarabi (870-950) ranks among the few medieval Islamic authors who treated the subject of democracy.1 He inherited the theme from clas-.Missing: critiques | Show results with:critiques
[44]
(PDF) Political Philosophy: A Comparative Analysis of Al-Farabi and ...
Aug 20, 2025 · This paper aims to find common ground and differences in political philosophy thought between Aristotle and Al-Farabi.
[45]
https://brill.com/downloadpdf/book/9789004464728/BP000037.xml
[46]
[PDF] The Puzzle of Alfarabi's Parallel Works - Scholarly Commons
Abstract: Scholars disagree about the correct interpretation of Alfarabi's Political. Regime and Virtuous City, treatises that have striking similarities, ...Missing: major authentic
[47]
https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.7208/9780226774664-008/html
[48]
[PDF] Introducing Al-Farabi's Political Philosophy to Modern Politics ...
Dec 4, 2022 · This fact corresponds to two of Al-Farabi axiological works: Tahsil As-. Sa'adah (Attainment of Happiness) and At-tanbih' ala sabili as-sa'adah ...
[49]
Al-Farabi, Syllogism: An Abridgement of Aristotle's Prior Analytics
Free delivery over $35Apr 21, 2022 · In it Farabi discusses Aristotle's invention, the syllogism, and aims to codify the deductively valid arguments in all disciplines.Missing: fifth | Show results with:fifth
[50]
Logic in Islamic philosophy
Al-Farabi compares logic to tools such as rulers and compasses, which are used to ensure exactness when we measure physical objects subject to the errors of ...
[51]
[PDF] 1 Logic Functions in the Philosophy of Al-Farabi By Prof. Abdul ...
6. Al-Farabi's design of logic began to make the study of logic easier by dividing it into two categories: Takhayyul (idea), and Thubut (proof). 7. Al-Farabi ...
[52]
FĀRĀBĪ v. Music - Encyclopaedia Iranica
In contrast, Fārābī's training as a logician and a practicing musician meant that his theory reflected practice in a clear discourse. He did indeed expound ...
[53]
The Planets Cannot Sing! : Al-Fārābī on Music Theory and Practice
Oct 26, 2021 · Here, al‑Fārābī gives a definition of the science of music, the division into practical and theoretical music, and a further explanation of both ...Missing: analysis | Show results with:analysis
[54]
Ratio and Interval (Chapter 6) - The Science of Music
Dec 19, 2024 · This numerological notion of intervals is completely absent in al-Farabi's writings. According to his own writings, he resorts to an arithmetic ...
[55]
8/2: Arabic Theorists | 53 Music
The Arabian theorist Al-Farabi (~900-950 A.D.) incorporated Ptolemy's musical systems into his own, accepting 5-limit harmonies such as the major and minor ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[56]
Al-Farabi's Uds - Musical Mathematics - The Chrysalis Foundation
The most famous and complex Arabian treatise on music is a work entitled Kitab al-musiqi al-kabir (Major Book on Music),[1] by Al-Farabi (d. c. 950).
[57]
Music Theory of Al-Farabi - The Gulf Observer
Sep 5, 2023 · In “Kitab al-Musiqa al-Kabir”, he argued that music can evoke emotions such as joy, sadness, and anger, and that it should be used for moral ...
[58]
[PDF] The Arab Contribution to Music of the Western World - Muslim Heritage
The influence of Al-Farabi continued to be felt up to the sixteenth century. 10 .Kitab al-Musiqi of Al-Farabi was translated by Ibn Aqnin (1160-1226) into ...
[59]
(PDF) Classification of Science in the Ihsha' Al-'Ulum (Encyclopedia ...
Aug 9, 2025 · Al-Farabi divides knowledge into two parts, namely: Theoretical Sciences (al-'Ulum al-Nadzoriyah), and Practical Sciences (al-'Ulum al-'Amaliyah ...
[60]
https://brill.com/display/book/9789004217324/B9789004217324-s003.pdf
[61]
[PDF] Intellect, Substance, and Motion in al-Fārābī‖s Cosmology
Feb 2, 2009 · This dissertation offers a new and comprehensive analysis of Abū Naṣr al-Fārābī‖s (d. 950) cosmology by focusing on various important issues ...
[62]
Al-Farabi: The Philosopher of Unity and Harmony in Islamic Thought
In his physics, Al-Farabi rejects astrology prevalent at the time, emphasizing causality but acknowledging the role of chance events. He contends that the ...
[63]
Al-Farabi's Short Commentary on Aristotle's Prior Analytics
The recent discovery of several Arabic manuscripts in Istanbul revealed the “Short Commentary on Prior Analytics” by the medieval Arabic philosopher al-Farabi.
[64]
Greek Sources in Arabic and Islamic Philosophy
Feb 23, 2009 · To some extent, scholars disagree about the role of the Greek sources ... al-Farabi to build up the project of a curriculum of higher ...
[65]
Al-Fārābī, Creation ex nihilo, and the Cosmological Doctrine ... - jstor
May 9, 2025 · these two works are indeed authentic treatises by al-Färäbi, or at least that Jam( should not hastily be dismissed as spurious. If Jam( is ...
[66]
Commentary on Aristotle's MetaphysicsAlfarabi's Book of Letters
Al-F'r'bî's Book of Letters Commentary on Aristotle's Metaphysics.Muhsin ... Al-Farabi's Commentary and Short Treatise on Aristotle's De Interpretatione.
[67]
Al-Farabi Harmonization between the Greek Legacy of Philosophy ...
Al-Farabi concludes that the true philosophy was handed by the Greeks "from Plato and Aristotle only". They did not said only what philosophy is but also ...
[68]
From Themistius to al-Farabi: Platonic Political Philosophy ... - jstor
Behind al-Farabi's interest in Aristotle's Rhetoric lay his adoption of Plato's doctrine of the philosopher-king, v^fhich had an éloquent exponent in late ...
[69]
[PDF] Politics, Religion, and Philosophy in Al-Farabi's Book of Religion ...
I argue that the discussions of religion, philosophy, and political science found in the text constitute a single teaching, through which Farabi addresses some.Missing: integration | Show results with:integration
[70]
Avicenna (Ibn Sina) | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Avicenna wrote his two earliest works in Bukhara under the influence of al-Farabi. The first, a Compendium on the Soul (Maqala fi'l-nafs), is a short ...
[71]
Al-Farabi and Ibn Sina on the Relationship between Philosophy and ...
Al-Farabi prioritizes philosophy, placing jurisprudence and theology under practical wisdom, which is subordinate to theoretical wisdom. In contrast, Ibn Sina ...
[72]
https://www.thecollector.com/al-farabi-philosophy/
[73]
(PDF) The Practical Philosophy of Al-Fārābī and Avicenna
Aug 7, 2025 · This article compares the approaches to practical philosophy of the two most significant Muslim philosophers of the classical period, al-Fārābī (d. 950) and ...
[74]
[PDF] Philosophical Education during the Almohad Rule/Ibn Rushd
Al-Farabi and Ibn Sina‟s respective work provided an essential basis for all subsequent Muslim philosophers be it in the East or in the West. In Northern ...
[75]
Arabic and Islamic Psychology and Philosophy of Mind (Stanford ...
Apr 18, 2008 · This development owes a great deal to the work of Abu Nasr Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Tarkhan al-Fârâbî (c. ... potential intellect both the ...
[76]
Muslim Contributions to Philosophy - Ibn Sina, Farabi, Beyruni
Jan 14, 2005 · As we mentioned above, Al-Fârâbî and Ibn Sînâ anticipated some important views that now we find in the works of the major contemporary ...
[77]
influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West
Sep 19, 2008 · Al-Fārābī, Avicenna and Averroes identify the active intellect with ... potential intellect knows axioms such as “The whole is bigger ...
[78]
(PDF) Philosophy and Religion in the Political Thought of Alfarabi
Jul 6, 2023 · As Alfarabi gives equally significant roles to philosophy and religion, his philosophical thought does not correspond to any of the three ...
[79]
Al-Ghazālī | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
The charge of unbelief or apostasy against al-Farabi and Avicenna has severe implications, in particular, it allows for them to be killed. As Frank Griffel ...
[80]
Neoplatonism in Islamic philosophy
The two principal philosophers whose views al-Ghazali attacked were al-Farabi and Ibn Sina. As al-Ghazali himself put it: However, the most faithful - as ...
[81]
Al-Ghazali's Compatibility with the Philosophers and the Influence of ...
In his The Incoherence of the Philosophers, al-Ghazali attacks the philosophers including Ibn Sina and al-Farabi, but these two men laid the groundwork for ...
[82]
[PDF] Al-Ghazali's Compatibility with the Philosophers and the Influence of ...
In his The Incoherence of the Philosophers, al-Ghazali attacks the philosophers including Ibn Sina and al-Farabi, but these two men laid the groundwork for ...
[83]
(PDF) RETHINKING THE BOOK OF TAHAFUT AL-FALASIFAH
Aug 4, 2025 · This study explains al-Ghazali's argumentative criticism in Tahafut al-Falasifah. It aims to analyze the intentions of al-Ghazali's argumentative refutation of ...
[84]
Philosophy versus theology in medieval Islamic thought | Ali
Nov 30, 2023 · Rather, for Alfarabi, philosophy and religion are merely two different ways of knowing the same things. According to Alfarabi (1985:279–285), ...
[85]
Contextualizing al-Ghazali - The Nation
Dec 31, 2024 · First, al-Ghazali criticized Muslim peripatetic philosophers, particularly Ibn Sina and al-Farabi, for failing to meet the rigorous standards of ...
[86]
The Influence of Islamic Thought on Maimonides
Jun 30, 2005 · ... esoteric writing strategies rooted in socio-political ... Al-Farabi on The Perfect State, Abū Nasr al-Fārābī's Mabādi' Arā ...
[87]
[PDF] The Role of Religion in al-Fārābī's Virtuous City
This article aims to show the interaction between philosophy, religion and politics by revealing the role and rank of religion within the hierarchical ...
[88]
The Rise of Falsafah: The Philosophical Tradition | Encyclopedia.com
Like al-Farabi, Ibn Sina tried to reconcile the conflicting claims of religion and philosophy, and like al-Farabi as well, he was often accused of heresy.
[89]
Islamic Philosophy – Al Farabi - Eric Gerlach
Many Islamic philosophers argued, following Farabi, that philosophy and science are perfectly in accord with Islam to defend against charges of heresy, much as ...
[90]
Kalām in the crossfire: A historical survey of the legitimacy of the ...
Nov 8, 2021 · Some Sunni thinkers have condemned the pursuit of theology as an act of heresy and denounced its practitioners as apostates. Other Sunni ...<|separator|>
[91]
(PDF) Language and Its Philosophy in the Views of Al-Farabi
Jun 4, 2024 · In this article, we focus on the concepts of Al-Farabi in education, and it's implications in learning Arabic. We use a descriptive approach ...
[92]
Causation in Arabic and Islamic Thought
Oct 26, 2015 · Avicenna adapts his account of emanation from al-Fārābī (870–950), known among the philosophers as the “Second Teacher”, though his version of ...
[93]
AL-FARABI, AL-GHAZALI, IBN RUSH'D - jstor
In sum, religious tolerance comes at the price of the subordination of religion to philosophy. Religious faith, for Al-Farabi, does not reach. God but only an ...
[94]
[PDF] The philosopher-prophet in Avicenna's political philosophy
cation of al-Farabi's comprehensive political perspective. In contrast, the ... least in certain Islamic intellectual traditions, of the political.
[95]
(PDF) The role of Al-Farabi in the Transmission and Interpretation of ...
Jul 22, 2025 · This research explores the role of Al-Farabi in the preservation, interpretation, and transmission of Plato's political thought during the ...
[96]
[PDF] AL-FĀRĀBĪ'S TRADITION VIS-À-VIS PHILOSOPHICAL PLURALISM
He was helped by Islamic theoretical and theological doctrines about the unity of truth and through this, he proved that philosophical truth must be single. II.
[97]
Alfarabi and the Foundation of Islamic Political Philosophy, Mahdi
The book Alfarabi and the Foundation of Islamic Political Philosophy, Muhsin S. Mahdi is published by University of Chicago Press.Missing: catalogue | Show results with:catalogue
[98]
[PDF] Alfarabi's Philosophy of Plato and Aristotle - Traditional Hikma
The Agora Editions welcomes the addition of Dr. Mahdi's translation of Alfarabi to its list. The Philosophy of Plato and. Aristotle is one of the most ...
[99]
The Political Writings by Alfarabi,Translated by Charles E. Butterworth
Feb 15, 2020 · In this second volume of political writings, Charles E. Butterworth presents translations of Alfarabi's Political Regime and Summary of Plato's Laws.
[100]
An Islamic Philosophy of Virtuous Religions - SUNY Press
Joshua Parens is Professor of Philosophy at the University of Dallas and author of Metaphysics as Rhetoric: Alfarabi's Summary of Plato's "Laws," also published ...
[101]
Introducing Al-Farabi's Political Philosophy to the Modern Politics
Dec 2, 2022 · This study aims to correlate Al-Farabi ideal concept and modern politics. The methodology of this research is qualitative conceptual analysis.
[102]
Al-Ghazali And Decline Of Sciences In Islamic World – Analysis
Oct 10, 2019 · His critique against Al-Farabi, Avicenna, Aristotle, Plato and various other philosophers was theology-driven and was intended at reviving the ...
[103]
Why the Arabic World Turned Away from Science - The New Atlantis
Perhaps the most oft-repeated claim about the Golden Age is that Muslims invented algebra. This claim is largely true: initially inspired by Greek and Indian ...