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Bluegill

The bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) is a species of North American freshwater fish belonging to the sunfish family Centrarchidae, characterized by its deep, slab-sided body, small mouth, and distinctive dark spot at the base of the dorsal fin, with vertical bars along its sides and a flexible blue or black flap on the rear of the operculum.^[1]^[2]^[3] Typically measuring 4 to 8 inches (10 to 20 cm) in length and weighing around 0.25 to 0.5 pounds (0.11 to 0.23 kg), bluegills can occasionally reach up to 16 inches (41 cm) and 4.5 pounds (2 kg), though such sizes are rare in most populations.^[1]^[4]^[5] Native to the eastern and central United States, southeastern Canada, and northeastern Mexico east of the Rocky Mountains, bluegills have been widely introduced across much of the United States, as well as in parts of Eurasia and Africa, often for sport fishing and as forage for larger predatory fish.^[1]^[2]^[6] They thrive in warm, shallow freshwater environments such as lakes, ponds, reservoirs, swamps, sloughs, and the slow-flowing pools of rivers and streams, preferentially inhabiting areas with abundant aquatic vegetation like rooted weeds, which provide cover and foraging opportunities.^[7]^[8]^[9] As an important component of freshwater ecosystems, bluegills are omnivorous opportunists with a diet consisting primarily of zooplankton, aquatic insects, small crustaceans, algae, and occasionally small fish, making them avid feeders that contribute to nutrient cycling and serve as prey for species like bass and walleye.^[7]^[10] They exhibit colonial nesting behavior during reproduction, with males constructing and guarding saucer-shaped nests in shallow, gravelly areas from late spring to summer, often producing multiple broods per season and supporting high population densities in suitable habitats.^[11]^[12] Valued as a popular panfish for recreational angling due to their abundance, fighting spirit, and mild flavor, bluegills also play a key role in managed fisheries and aquaculture, though overpopulation in some waters can lead to stunted growth.^[2]^[6]^[4]

Taxonomy

Classification

The bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) is classified within the kingdom Animalia, phylum Chordata, class Actinopterygii, order Centrarchiformes, family Centrarchidae, genus Lepomis, and species L. macrochirus.^[13]^[14] The order Centrarchiformes was established through molecular phylogenetic analyses that resolved sunfishes as a distinct clade separate from the broader Perciformes, reflecting evolutionary relationships among percomorph fishes.^[15] This species was first described by Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in 1819, who established the genus Lepomis to encompass true sunfishes, distinguishing them from other North American freshwater fishes based on early morphological observations.^[16] In the 19th century, L. macrochirus and related sunfishes were initially grouped within the order Perciformes, a broad assemblage of spiny-rayed fishes; subsequent taxonomic revisions in the 20th century refined family-level distinctions within Centrarchidae, emphasizing shared traits like compressed bodies and nesting behaviors.^[14] The bluegill differs from closely related Lepomis species, such as the pumpkinseed (L. gibbosus) and green sunfish (L. cyanellus), through a combination of morphological and genetic characteristics. Morphologically, it features a solid black opercular flap without an orange border (unlike the pumpkinseed) and a less elongate body with shorter pectoral fins compared to the green sunfish, along with a prominent dark blotch at the dorsal fin base.^[17] Genetically, bluegills maintain distinct gene pools from these congeners, with low interspecific similarity in allozyme loci, supporting their separation despite occasional hybridization in sympatric populations.^[18] No subspecies of L. macrochirus are currently recognized, as extensive stocking and hybridization have obscured proposed variants; earlier suggestions of up to three subspecies (e.g., L. m. purpurascens in southern populations) are now viewed as clinal variations in traits like opercular coloration rather than discrete taxa.^[13]

Etymology and nomenclature

The scientific name Lepomis macrochirus for the bluegill was established by the naturalist Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in 1819. The genus name Lepomis originates from the Greek words lepis, meaning "scale," and poma, meaning "gill cover" or "operculum," describing the scaled structure of the gill cover characteristic of the species.^[19] The species epithet macrochirus derives from Greek makros, meaning "large," and cheir, meaning "hand," likely alluding to the elongated pectoral fins that resemble large hands. The common name "bluegill" refers to the vivid blue coloration on the gill cover, particularly prominent in breeding males.^[1] This descriptive term emerged in American ichthyological literature during the 19th century, reflecting early observations of the fish's distinctive markings by naturalists documenting North American freshwater species.^[2] Regionally in North America, bluegill is known by several alternative common names, including "bream," "brim," "sun perch," and "sunny," with "copper nose" used in parts of Texas to denote a variant with reddish-brown snout coloration.^[1] In the southern United States, "bream" is a prevalent term applied broadly to panfish like bluegill, while "sun perch" or simply "perch" appears in Midwestern and some southern contexts, though it is not a true perch species. These names highlight the fish's widespread familiarity in recreational fishing and its superficial resemblance to other sunfish family members.^[5]

Description

Physical characteristics

The bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) exhibits a distinctly deep and laterally compressed oval body shape, providing a rounded profile that aids in its maneuverability among aquatic vegetation. This compressed form is characteristic of the Centrarchidae family, with the body depth often exceeding one-third of its standard length in adults. The dorsal fin is notably spiny in its anterior portion, featuring 10–12 rigid spines followed by 10–12 soft rays, while the anal fin is primarily soft-rayed with 3 short spines and 11–12 rays.^[3] The head of the bluegill is equipped with a small mouth positioned terminally, extending to just below the anterior margin of the eye, and lacks teeth on the tongue or palate. Each side of the head bears a single nostril, typical of teleost fishes, and the operculum covers the gills and features a short, dark flap (ear flap), while a prominent dark spot is present at the base of the dorsal fin, particularly noticeable in juveniles. The pectoral fins are long and pointed, extending beyond the origin of the anal fin when adpressed, consisting of 13–14 rays without spines; the pelvic fins insert near the pectoral base and include one spine and 5 rays; and the caudal fin is forked with 17 principal rays.^[20]^[21]^[3] The skin is covered in ctenoid scales, which are rough to the touch due to their comb-like edges, and a complete lateral line runs along the flanks, containing 40–45 pored scales that detect vibrations and pressure changes in the water. Internally, the bluegill possesses a swim bladder (air bladder) that regulates buoyancy by adjusting gas volume, enabling neutral buoyancy at various depths. Its digestive system features a relatively simple, coiled intestine suited to omnivory, facilitating the breakdown of both plant and animal matter without specialized chambers for extended fermentation.^[3]^[22]^[23]

Size, coloration, and variations

Bluegills typically reach lengths of 4 to 10 inches (10 to 25 cm) and weigh 0.25 to 1 pound (0.11 to 0.45 kg), with most adults around 6 to 8 inches (15 to 20 cm) and 0.5 pounds (0.23 kg), though most individuals fall in the smaller end of this range.^[24]^[25] The maximum recorded length is 16 inches (41 cm), with weights up to 4.5 pounds (2 kg) documented in state records.^[1]^[8] The body coloration of bluegills features an olive to blue-green back and upper sides, often accented with 6 to 9 dark vertical bars along the flanks, while the lower sides transition to yellow and the belly displays a red-orange hue.^[26]^[27] The gill cover, or operculum, includes a distinctive short, dark ear flap edged in red, and the chin is typically orange-red.^[26] During the breeding season, males exhibit intensified colors, including turquoise-blue markings on the gill cover and throat, along with bright blue wavy bars on the cheeks, making them more vibrant than non-breeding individuals.^[28] Females remain duller overall, with subdued olive tones and less pronounced bars, while juveniles start with a more silvery appearance that darkens and develops adult patterns as they mature.^[28]^[29] Geographic variations in coloration occur, particularly in southern populations where individuals may show coppery tones, as seen in the coppernose form characterized by a copper-colored band across the head and more purplish hues in breeding males.^[30] Although no formal subspecies are universally recognized beyond clinal differences—such as subtle variations in fin ray counts from northern to southern ranges—these regional morphs reflect adaptations to local environments without distinct genetic boundaries.^[31]

Distribution and habitat

Native range

The bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) is native to the freshwater ecosystems of eastern and central North America, with its core distribution encompassing the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River basins from Quebec and New York westward to Minnesota, the Mississippi River basin extending south to the Gulf of Mexico, and the Atlantic and Gulf Slope drainages from the Cape Fear River in North Carolina to Texas and northeastern Mexico (e.g., Rio Grande drainage).^[21]^[6]^[2] This range excludes the extreme northeastern United States, such as Maine, and the arid southwestern regions.^[2] Within this native area, bluegills inhabit shallow, vegetated freshwater bodies including lakes, ponds, reservoirs, river pools, and slow-moving streams or rivers, favoring areas with sandy or muddy bottoms that support aquatic vegetation.^[32]^[25] They tolerate a broad range of temperatures from 5°C to 33.5°C but thrive in waters between 15°C and 27°C (60–80°F), and they adapt to pH levels from 4.0 to 10.3, with optimal conditions around 6.5–8.5.^[21]^[32] Excessive turbidity or dense vegetation can limit their abundance by hindering foraging or promoting stunting through reduced predation.^[6] Bluegills exhibit specific microhabitat preferences, often schooling in open water in groups of 5 to 20 individuals (though larger schools form seasonally) for foraging and predator avoidance, while retreating to weed beds, submerged structures, or shoreline cover during resting or threat periods.^[33] They generally avoid habitats with fast currents, preferring lentic or low-velocity lotic environments that align with their body morphology and energy conservation needs.^[25]^[32] Fossil records from the Pleistocene epoch, including centrarchid assemblages in cave deposits and lacustrine sediments across the eastern and central United States, indicate that ancestral sunfishes occupied similar habitats to the modern range of bluegills prior to European colonization, suggesting relative stability with possible natural expansions tied to post-glacial drainage patterns.^[34]

Introduced populations and invasiveness

The bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) has been widely introduced outside its native range in eastern North America, primarily by the U.S. Fish Commission and state agencies starting in the late 19th century to serve as forage for sport fishes like largemouth bass.^[21] These efforts included stocking small ponds and river systems across the western United States, with significant introductions in California during two main periods: 1871–1891 and from 1960 onward.^[35] As a result, bluegills are now established in all 50 U.S. states and northern Mexico, where they have become a common component of freshwater ecosystems.^[2] Globally, bluegills were introduced to Europe, including Italy in 1957, often for angling but later regarded as a pest due to dense populations of stunted individuals.^[36] In Asia, the species originated from just 15 individuals stocked in Japan in 1960, from which populations spread to Korea.^[37] Introductions to Africa occurred in South Africa in 1938, initially for recreational fishing and as prey for stocked largemouth bass.^[21] The species has also been established in parts of South America through similar human-mediated translocations.^[25] While bluegills are frequently beneficial as prey for introduced predatory fishes, they can exhibit invasive traits by competing with native species for resources, such as reducing foraging efficiency in species like western mosquitofish.^[38] In Japan, their populations are expanding rapidly due to a scarcity of native brood predators, leading to concerns over ecosystem alterations.^[39] In southern Africa, bluegills pose threats to native freshwater biodiversity through competition and habitat overlap, though major disruptions are uncommon outside specific contexts like oligotrophic systems where they may exacerbate nutrient imbalances.^[40] Overall, their invasiveness is context-dependent, with overabundant populations occasionally impacting smaller natives like darters in U.S. waters, but they rarely cause widespread ecosystem collapse.^[41]

Ecology

Diet and foraging

The bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) is an omnivorous fish with a diet that varies by life stage, habitat, and season. Juveniles primarily consume zooplankton, such as Daphnia and other cladocerans, along with small crustaceans and insect larvae, which provide high nutritional value for rapid growth.^[42] As they mature into adults, bluegills shift toward benthic invertebrates, including chironomid larvae, mayflies (Ephemeroptera), snails, crayfish, and small fish, while also incorporating algae and aquatic vegetation to supplement their intake.^[25]^[43] This dietary transition reflects ontogenetic niche changes, where larger individuals exploit a broader range of prey to meet increased energy demands.^[44] Bluegills employ visual foraging strategies, actively hunting in shallow, vegetated areas during dawn and dusk when prey visibility is optimal.^[42] Their feeding mechanism involves ram-suction feeding, facilitated by highly protrusible jaws that extend forward to generate accelerated water flow toward the prey, enhancing capture efficiency for evasive items like insects and small fish.^[45] Seasonal variations influence prey selection; in spring, chironomid larvae dominate, shifting to zooplankton like Daphnia in summer, with increased consumption of small fish during warmer months when activity levels peak.^[43] These adaptations allow bluegills to optimize energy intake according to prey availability and environmental conditions.^[46] As mid-level consumers with a trophic level of approximately 3, bluegills play a key role in freshwater food webs by transferring energy from primary producers and invertebrates to higher predators, with typical efficiency around 10% per trophic step.^[47] Recent studies highlight emerging dietary concerns, such as microplastic ingestion; bluegills in the Mississippi River exhibit consistent microplastic loads across sites, often mistaking fragments for prey like algae or small invertebrates, potentially disrupting natural foraging patterns.^[48] In eutrophic systems, nutrient enrichment can alter prey abundance, prompting shifts toward more algae and detritus, though specific post-2020 data on bluegill responses remain limited.^[44]

Predators and symbiotic relationships

Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) face predation from a variety of larger aquatic and terrestrial organisms, which exert significant pressure on their populations, particularly during vulnerable life stages. Primary fish predators include largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), which aggressively target smaller bluegill, and northern pike (Esox lucius), known to consume bluegill up to several inches in length. Avian predators such as great blue herons (Ardea herodias) and belted kingfishers (Megaceryle alcyon) frequently forage on bluegill near shorelines and shallow waters, while river otters (Lontra canadensis) opportunistically prey on them in streams and lakes, with bluegill comprising a notable portion of their fish diet alongside species like redear sunfish.^[21]^[49]^[50] Predation on bluegill is often size-selective, with juveniles experiencing higher mortality rates due to their smaller size making them easier targets for gape-limited predators like bass and herons; for instance, young-of-year bluegill under 50 mm total length suffer disproportionate losses, influencing population structure and recruitment success. This selective pressure can limit bluegill abundance in systems with high predator densities, as evidenced in managed ponds where bass stocking reduces juvenile bluegill survival by up to 50%.^[51]^[52] Parasitic infections represent another key biotic interaction for bluegill, with trematodes being among the most prevalent. The digenean trematode Posthodiplostomum minimum causes black-spot disease, forming metacercarial cysts under the skin and fins that impair osmoregulation, reduce foraging efficiency, and increase vulnerability to bacterial infections, ultimately affecting host growth and survival in heavily infected populations.^[53] Copepod parasites, such as Lernaea cyprinacea (anchor worm), attach to the gills, fins, and body surface, inducing inflammation and secondary infections that stunt growth and elevate mortality, particularly in stressed or crowded conditions like aquaculture settings. These parasites can weaken bluegill condition, with prevalence often exceeding 50% in eutrophic lakes.^[54] Bluegill also participate in mutualistic symbiotic relationships within aquatic ecosystems, notably as a foundational prey base that sustains predator populations and maintains food web stability. Their abundance supports biodiversity by providing a reliable energy transfer from primary producers to higher trophic levels, with bluegill biomass often comprising 20-40% of the diet for sportfish like bass in balanced lakes.^[26] Additionally, bluegills act as facultative cleaners, removing ectoparasites from other fish species in some systems.^[55] Current knowledge on bluegill parasites remains limited by outdated surveys, with many trematode and copepod inventories dating to the 1980s and lacking updates on emerging strains or climate-influenced shifts in prevalence. Furthermore, as of 2025, research gaps persist regarding the ecological repercussions of avian predator declines—driven by habitat loss and contaminants—potentially leading to reduced top-down control and bluegill overpopulation in some systems, though targeted studies are needed to quantify these dynamics. Recent 2025 research indicates declining lengths in bluegill and other fishes over decades, possibly linked to ecological pressures, and highlights invasive species like snakeheads preying on bluegill, affecting population dynamics.^[56]^[57]^[58]^[59]

Behavior and adaptations

Locomotion and swimming

Bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus) employ a combination of fin-based and body undulation mechanisms for forward locomotion, adapting to their preferred habitats of vegetated shallows and open water. At low speeds, typically below 1.5 body lengths per second (BL/s), they utilize a labriform swimming mode, where the pectoral fins generate thrust through oscillatory or rowing motions, allowing precise sculling for maneuverability amid aquatic weeds and structures.^[60]^[61] As speeds increase beyond this threshold, bluegills transition to subcarangiform undulatory propulsion, bending the caudal peduncle and tail to produce thrust via lateral waves, while pectoral fins shift to stabilization roles.^[25]^[62] This dual-mode system enables efficient cruising at routine velocities of 0.5–2 BL/s in lentic environments like lakes and ponds.^[63] A distinctive feature of bluegill locomotion is their ability to swim backward, facilitated by coordinated reversal of pectoral fin kinematics for fine-scale positioning. During backward swimming, the pectoral fins alternate beats synchronously, flaring broadly on the outstroke to generate reverse thrust and feathering on the instroke to minimize drag, with bilateral muscle activation ensuring stability.^[64] The dorsal and anal fins contribute by producing reverse momentum jets, while a ventral-to-dorsal undulatory wave in the caudal fin controls pitch and yaw.^[64] This multifin coordination is particularly useful for precise maneuvers, such as aligning during nest construction or extracting food from tight crevices.^[64] Bluegills exhibit schooling behavior that varies ontogenetically, influencing their collective locomotion. Juveniles form tight, polarized schools for protection, swimming in synchronized bursts at speeds up to 2–3 BL/s to evade threats, while adults adopt looser aggregations for foraging, maintaining lower velocities around 1–1.5 BL/s.^[63]^[65] In groups, individuals enhance energy efficiency by drafting behind leaders, increasing gliding phases and reducing tail-beat frequency.^[65] These adaptations suit lentic habitats, where bluegills exploit stationary water and mild currents for low-cost gliding between intermittent bursts, minimizing metabolic costs during prolonged activity.^[66]

Sensory and escape mechanisms

Bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus) possess a suite of sensory systems adapted for detecting environmental cues in aquatic habitats, particularly those relevant to predator avoidance and foraging. The lateral line system, consisting of mechanoreceptive neuromasts along the body, enables detection of hydrodynamic disturbances such as vibrations from approaching predators or nearby prey movements, even in low-visibility conditions.^[61] This system is crucial for spatial orientation and rheotaxis, allowing bluegills to sense water flow gradients with high sensitivity.^[67] Vision plays a prominent role in bluegill sensory ecology, with dichromatic color vision that discriminates green and red wavelengths, facilitating prey identification and habitat navigation.^[68] Their retinas contain cone cells tuned to peaks at approximately 536 nm (green) and 620 nm (red), alongside rhodopsin for enhanced low-light sensitivity, enabling effective visual processing during crepuscular periods when predation risk is elevated.^[68] Chemosensory capabilities, primarily through olfaction via the nares and gustatory organs in the oral cavity, allow bluegills to detect chemical cues from food sources, such as dissolved amino acids from planktonic prey, complementing other senses in turbid waters. A key escape mechanism in bluegills is the C-start response, a rapid startle maneuver initiated by the Mauthner cells—large reticulospinal neurons in the hindbrain that coordinate bilateral muscle contractions for instantaneous evasion.^[69] This response involves two stages: stage 1, a C-shaped bend of the body within 10-20 ms latency to reorient away from the threat, followed by stage 2, a powerful tail flip propelling the fish at speeds up to approximately 12 body lengths per second.^[69] The neural circuit, conserved across teleosts, ensures near-simultaneous activation of contralateral musculature, minimizing reaction time to stimuli like sudden visual or hydrodynamic cues.^[70] Hydrodynamic analyses reveal that the C-start generates complex vortex ring structures and orthogonal jet flows, optimizing thrust while reducing drag, as demonstrated in three-dimensional simulations of bluegill maneuvers.^[71] Recent kinematic models (2024-2025) further quantify how turn speed modulates body curvature and propulsive efficiency during these bursts, highlighting adaptive flexibility beyond routine swimming.^[72] In addition to individual escapes, bluegills employ schooling behavior as a collective anti-predator strategy, where tight aggregations dilute individual risk through the confusion effect—overwhelming predators with multiple similar targets that obscure attack focus.^[73] This tactic reduces per capita predation rates in shoals, as coordinated movements enhance predator detection and disrupt targeting accuracy.^[73]^[74]

Reproduction

Breeding biology

Bluegills (Lepomis macrochirus) typically reach sexual maturity at 1 to 2 years of age, when individuals measure approximately 3 to 4 inches in length, though this can vary based on environmental factors such as water temperature and food availability.^[75]^[76] The species exhibits a polygynous mating system, in which mature males construct shallow nests in large colonies to attract multiple females during the breeding period.^[77]^[52] Spawning occurs primarily during late spring and early summer, from April through July, in temperate regions of North America.^[6] This reproductive activity is triggered by rising water temperatures exceeding 65°F (18°C), often peaking between 70°F and 80°F (21–27°C).^[1]^[78] Females are capable of producing multiple clutches per season, allowing for protracted reproduction over several weeks or months depending on conditions.^[77] During courtship, territorial males excavate saucer-shaped nests in shallow waters, typically 1 to 2 feet deep, using their mouths and fins to clear gravel or sand substrates.^[79] To attract receptive females, males perform displays including opercular flares, gill extensions, and zigzag or circling swims around the nest perimeter, intensifying their coloration to signal readiness.^[80]^[81] Once a female enters the nest, the pair engages in a spawning embrace where she releases eggs and he simultaneously fertilizes them with milt. A single female can deposit 10,000 to 60,000 eggs per spawning event, with the total output over the season potentially reaching higher numbers across multiple nests.^[25] These eggs are demersal and adhesive, sinking to and attaching to the nest substrate for protection during incubation.^[6]

Parental care and development

In bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus), males provide exclusive parental care following spawning, which encompasses both the egg and fry phases lasting a total of 7–10 days until the young disperse from the nest. During the initial egg phase, approximately 3 days long, males vigorously fan the eggs with their fins to ensure oxygenation and remove debris, with fanning intensity increasing in proportion to brood size to prevent hypoxia.^[82] Concurrently, males aggressively defend the nest against intruders, including predators and conspecifics, through displays and chases, forgoing foraging and incurring significant energy costs such as an 11% loss in body mass.^[82] In the subsequent fry phase, lasting 4–7 days, males continue guarding the hatched young, herding them within the nest boundaries until they become independently mobile and scatter.^[82]^[83] Bluegill eggs typically hatch in 2–5 days at water temperatures between 18–36°C, emerging as yolk-sac larvae measuring about 0.15 inches (3.8 mm) in length.^[84]^[85] These sac fry remain attached to the nest substrate, absorbing their yolk reserves over 5–10 days without active swimming or feeding, while still under male protection.^[84] Upon yolk depletion, they transition to free-swimming larvae approximately 0.25 inches (6 mm) long, capable of foraging on plankton and dispersing from the nest.^[84] Early life stages experience exceptionally high mortality, exceeding 90%, primarily due to predation, starvation, and environmental stressors.^[86] Juvenile bluegills exhibit rapid growth in their first year, attaining lengths of 2–3 inches (5–7.6 cm) under favorable conditions with abundant forage, though rates vary by latitude and habitat productivity.^[87] During this phase, they form schools of 10–20 individuals of similar size, enhancing predator avoidance through collective vigilance and synchronized movements.^[25] Growth slows after the first few years as energy is redirected toward reproduction, with bluegills reaching sexual maturity around age 2 at 3–4 inches.^[87] Maximum longevity is 10–11 years, though average lifespan in natural populations is 5–8 years due to ongoing predation and angling pressures.^[1]^[25] Hatching success and larval development are strongly influenced by temperature, with optimal rates occurring at 22–24°C where nearly all eggs viable; extremes below 18°C or above 34°C reduce hatch percentages and increase deformities.^[85]^[88] Recent physiologically guided models predict increased bluegill abundance with climate warming as temperatures approach optima, though empirical data from regions like the Great Lakes show decreased growth rates in ages 1–4 bluegills, suggesting complex impacts on recruitment as of 2025.^[89]^[90]^[91]

Hybridization

Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) readily hybridize with other sunfish species in the genus Lepomis, particularly in regions where their ranges overlap, such as much of North America. The most common hybrids involve green sunfish (L. cyanellus), pumpkinseed (L. gibbosus), and redear sunfish (L. microlophus). These interspecific crosses occur both naturally in shared habitats and intentionally in aquaculture settings to produce fish with desirable traits like enhanced growth rates.^[92]^[93] The bluegill-green sunfish hybrid, often termed "hybrid bluegill" or "hybrid sunfish," is produced by crossing male bluegill with female green sunfish, resulting in offspring that exhibit hybrid vigor, including faster growth and larger adult sizes compared to pure bluegill. These hybrids are typically sterile or nearly sterile, especially females, which limits overpopulation in managed waters; however, males may retain partial fertility, allowing limited backcrossing. Bluegill-pumpkinseed hybrids, known as "pumpkingills," display intermediate body shapes and coloration patterns blending the bluegill's compact form with the pumpkinseed's vibrant orange spots and wavy gill cover edges. Similarly, bluegill-redear sunfish hybrids show blended traits, such as a partially red-tipped ear flap and elongated body proportions, and are also used in stocking programs for their growth potential.^[94]^[95] Genetically, first-generation (F1) hybrids between bluegill and these congeners generally maintain viability, with most exhibiting reduced fitness in subsequent generations due to chromosomal incompatibilities and diminished reproductive capacity. Bluegill and its close relatives possess a diploid chromosome number of 2n=48, and hybrids inherit this complement without apparent structural aberrations in F1 individuals, though sex chromosomes remain cytologically indistinguishable from autosomes. Natural hybridization arises in overlapping distributions, such as eastern North American lakes and rivers, where spawning sites coincide, but F1 hybrids often show lower survival and fertility rates than parental species, contributing to their rarity in wild populations.^[93]^[96]^[97] Identification of bluegill hybrids relies on intermediate morphological traits, including fin ray counts (e.g., 13-14 pectoral rays in bluegill-redear crosses versus 12-13 in pure pumpkinseed), body coloration blending parental patterns, and gill cover shapes that mix species-specific features like the bluegill's black ear spot with the redear's red margin. Chromosomal studies confirm the 2n=48 base number across hybrids, aiding genetic verification through karyotyping or molecular markers. In aquaculture and pond management, these hybrids are intentionally stocked to enhance sport fishing by promoting faster growth and reducing reproductive output, thereby balancing bluegill populations; however, unintentional hybridization poses risks of genetic dilution to pure bluegill strains in natural waters, potentially reducing local adaptability.^[98]^[99]^[100]

Interactions with humans

Angling and recreational use

The bluegill is one of the most popular sport fish in the United States, prized for its abundance, aggressive bites, and accessibility, which make it an ideal species for novice anglers and family outings. Classified as a panfish, it is frequently stocked in lakes and ponds to bolster recreational fishing opportunities, with populations supporting high catch rates year-round. The International Game Fish Association recognizes the all-tackle world record bluegill at 2.15 kilograms (4 pounds 12 ounces), caught on April 9, 1950, from Ketona Lake in Alabama by angler T. Hudson.^[101] Anglers commonly target bluegill using light or ultralight tackle to enhance the fight, with effective baits including small pieces of nightcrawlers, crickets, waxworms, or mealworms threaded onto size 6 to 10 hooks. Fly fishing with poppers or wet flies, as well as casting tiny jigs or spinners, also yields success, particularly in weedy shallows where bluegill congregate. The prime fishing window occurs during the spring spawning period in May, when males guard nests in shallow, gravelly areas, leading to fast action and larger catches.^[102]^[103]^[104] Bluegill provide excellent table fare, featuring mild, sweet-flavored white meat with a firm texture that suits simple preparations like deep-frying whole (after filleting and removing the lateral line for smaller fish) or grilling with herbs and lemon. Recreational harvest of bluegill occurs in substantial numbers across U.S. waters, with creel surveys in managed lakes and ponds documenting thousands of fish taken annually per site, contributing to the overall panfish catch.^[105]^[106]^[107] Culturally, the bluegill symbolizes the democratic spirit of American angling, evoking nostalgia as the "first fish" for many young anglers and embodying traditions of pond and stream fishing. Designated as the state fish of Illinois in 1986 following a vote by schoolchildren, it underscores the species' role in regional heritage and education. In the 2020s, recreational fishing for bluegill and similar panfish bolsters a broader sportfishing industry valued at over $230 billion annually to the U.S. economy, supporting jobs in tackle manufacturing, boating, and tourism.^[108]^[109]^[110]

Management, aquaculture, and conservation

Management of bluegill populations in the United States primarily involves regulated stocking to establish and maintain balanced pond and lake fisheries, with typical recommendations of 500 to 1,000 bluegill fingerlings per acre alongside largemouth bass at a ratio of 1:5 to 1:10 to promote predation and prevent overcrowding.^[111]^[112] State wildlife agencies oversee stocking permits to avoid disease transmission and genetic dilution, emphasizing certified hatchery sources for new or renovated waters.^[113] Harvest regulations often include no minimum size limits or creel restrictions in many states to encourage removal of smaller individuals and curb stunting, though select waters impose 6-inch minimum lengths under panfish enhancement programs to protect larger breeding stock.^[114]^[115] Habitat enhancement strategies focus on introducing native aquatic plants such as coontail or water lilies to provide essential cover for juvenile bluegill, which rely on vegetation for predator avoidance and foraging, thereby improving recruitment and overall population health.^[116]^[117] Aquaculture of bluegill occurs mainly in pond-based systems across the southern and midwestern United States, where they are cultured for forage, bait, and limited food markets, with production centered on extensive or semi-intensive methods rather than intensive tank systems.^[118] Hybrid strains, such as bluegill crossed with green sunfish, are preferred for their faster growth rates—reaching harvestable size in 1-2 years versus 3+ for pure strains—and predominantly male populations (up to 90%) that limit unwanted reproduction in stocking scenarios.^[119]^[118] The 2023 USDA Census reported 169 U.S. farms producing sunfish including bluegill, primarily fingerlings and stockers, with yields around 500-800 pounds per acre in hybrid trials, though commercial food-fish output remains niche and below 1,000 tons annually due to slow growth and market challenges.^[118]^[120] The bluegill holds a Least Concern status on the IUCN Red List (assessed 2018), reflecting its wide native range and adaptability, with no global threats warranting higher risk classification.^[121] Conservation efforts monitor local overharvest, particularly of large females, which can skew size distributions and reduce reproductive potential; selective harvest guidelines promote releasing trophy individuals (>8 inches) to sustain quality fisheries.^[122]^[123] In non-native regions like parts of Japan and Africa, bluegill invasiveness prompts targeted management such as nest-guarding male removal to curb establishment, with 2024 studies highlighting colony spawning behaviors that enhance brood protection and complicate control.^[124] Emerging concerns from climate change include potential stress on populations in warming waters, where 2024 bioenergetics modeling predicts increased metabolic demands and growth under elevated temperatures, yet empirical data show discrepancies that may limit observed benefits and heighten vulnerability to oxygen limitations.^[90]^[125]

References

[1]
Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) | U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
Geography. Characteristics. Range. Bluegill range in North America extends from Canada to northern Mexico.Missing: distribution | Show results with:distribution
[2]
Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) - Texas Parks and Wildlife
Three subspecies are present: Lepomis macrochirus macrochirus which is native to the northeastern half of the state, Lepomis macrochirus speciosus which is ...Missing: scientific habitat
[3]
Bluegill - California Fish Species - California Fish Website - UC Davis
Deep, compressed body; Flexible blue or black flap on the rear of each operculum; Long pointed pectoral fins; Black spot on the rear of the dorsal fin ...
[4]
Species Profile - Bluegill - Minnesota DNR
True bluegills are the largest of the Minnesota sunfish, growing to 4 to 8 inches in length and a half pound in weight on average.
[5]
Bluegill | Washington Department of Fish & Wildlife
Description and Range Average 4-8 inches. Bluegill can grow to 6-11 inches in quality populations.
[6]
[PDF] Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus)
Introduced over most of U.S., also Eurasia and Africa. Habitat Description. Vegetated lakes, ponds, reservoirs, swamps, pools of creeks and small to large ...
[7]
Bluegill - Montana Field Guide
Preferred habitat is comparatively warm lakes and ponds with abundant vegetation; also, in the quiet pools of streams. Food Habits. Avid feeder. Eats mostly ...
[8]
[PDF] Bluegill - NC Wildlife
They prefer warm slow-moving or still water, usually close to aquatic vegetation, but flourish in Pied- mont farm ponds and in ponds and slow moving rivers in ...
[9]
Bluegill - Kentucky Department of Fish & Wildlife
Preferred habitat includes clear, quiet waters near the shorelines of ponds, reservoirs, oxbow lakes, and pools of rivers and streams.
[10]
[PDF] Reduced Growth of Bluegill Sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus
However, the magnitude of these effects is less severe when seasonal reproduction by gizzard shad and bluegills is temporally aligned (Garvey & Stein, 1998).
[11]
Bluegill | State of New Hampshire Fish and Game - NH.gov
Habitat: Bluegills inhabit ponds, lake shores, or slow flowing rivers with aquatic vegetation. Life History: Bluegills thrive among thick aquatic vegetation ...
[12]
[PDF] Age, Reproduction, Growth, Condition and Diet of the Introduced ...
Certain life history characteristics of the yellow bass such as reproductive cycles, food consumption, and population structure may impact the aquatic ecosystem ...
[13]
Lepomis macrochirus | NatureServe Explorer
Classification. Scientific Name: Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque, 1819. Other Common Names: Crapet arlequin (FR). Kingdom: Animalia. Phylum: Craniata. Class:.
[14]
Lepomis macrochirus, Bluegill - FishBase
Active mainly during dusk and dawn. They feed upon snails, small crayfish, insects, worms and small minnows.
[15]
Phylogenetic classification of bony fishes | BMC Ecology and Evolution
Jul 6, 2017 · The updated classification presented here is based on phylogenies inferred using molecular and genomic data for nearly 2000 fishes.
[16]
Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque, 1819 - GBIF
Rafinesque, C. S. (1819). Prodrome. De 70 nouveaux genres d'animaux découverts dans l'intérieur des Etats-Unis d'Amérique, durant l'année 1818.
[17]
Sunfish biology and identification | Minnesota DNR
The pumpkinseed can be distinguished from the bluegill by the bright orange spot at the tip of the ear flap and the lack of a dark blotch on the soft portion of ...
[18]
Biochemical Genetics of Sunfish. II. Genic Similarity between ...
Lepomis species have very different gene pools. Close genic similarity is not a necessary corollary of hybridizing propensity.Missing: distinctions | Show results with:distinctions
[19]
https://www.fishbase.se/summary/Lepomis-macrochirus.html
[20]
Bluegill – Discover Fishes - Florida Museum of Natural History
Jul 28, 2023 · The bluegill is a member of the sunfish family. It has dark bars, thin and chainlike on small individuals, on a light olive to silver-blue, deep and compressed ...
[21]
Lepomis macrochirus - Marine Invasions research at SERC
The Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) is a medium sized freshwater ray-finned fish from the family Centrarchidae, also know as sunfishes and black basses, ...Missing: classification | Show results with:classification
[22]
[PDF] Learn About Texas Freshwater Fishes
Along the back is the dorsal fin (often divided into two parts, one behind the other). The tail fin is called the caudal fin. The anal fin is located on the ...
[23]
[PDF] Characterization of the gut and skin microbiomes of wild-caught ...
Aug 6, 2016 · The highest diversity in the gut microbiome was observed in bluegill; however, the bacterial communities of spotted gar were the most variable ...
[24]
[PDF] RAINBOW TROUT - Wisconsin DNR
LUEGILL- (Lepomis macrochirus) uegill, gills, bluegill sunfish, northern ... distinguishing characteristic of the bluegill is a prominent dusky round ...Missing: anatomy | Show results with:anatomy<|control11|><|separator|>
[25]
[PDF] Biology of Bluegill - Maryland DNR
Scientific name: Lepomis macrochirus; Lepomis means “scaled gill cover”; macrochirus means. “large hand” (perhaps because of the large pectoral fin or ...
[26]
Bluegill - Missouri Department of Conservation
The back and sides are dark olive-green with an emerald and brassy shine; the breast and belly are yellow or reddish orange. The chin and lower part of the gill ...Missing: variations | Show results with:variations
[27]
Bluegill - NC Wildlife
Scientific Name: Lepomis macrochirusClassification: Game Fish. ... Lepomis macrochirus. Classification: Game Fish. Abundance: Common throughout ...Missing: taxonomic | Show results with:taxonomic
[28]
Sunfish biology and identification | Minnesota DNR
Most bluegill are light to dark olive, though older fish may have a purplish tinge. Cheeks and gill covers are often bluish and the ear flap is black.Missing: coloration variations
[29]
Bluegill Sunfish | Ohio Department of Natural Resources
They have 5-9 dark bars on their side and an overall dark green body color. When caught in muddy water, they can appear more silver in overall coloration. The ...Missing: variations | Show results with:variations
[30]
[PDF] 1 4-H MEMBER GUIDE Unit 2 Grade 6 Name Club PB 1700
One subspecies, the coppernose bluegill, occurs in some areas of the. South. It has a characteristic copper-colored blotch on the nose and mouth area. Green ...
[31]
[PDF] SPORT FISH MANAGEMENT IN PONDS - CAES Field Report
The coppernose bluegill has a distinct copper colored band across the front of its head and 12 anal fin rays. Coppernose bluegill should not be confused with ...Missing: variations | Show results with:variations
[32]
[PDF] Habitat suitability index models: Bluegill - GovInfo
The bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) is native from the Lake Champlain and southern Ontario region through the Great Lakes to Minnesota, and south to ...
[33]
Bluegill - Aquaculture, Fisheries, & Pond Management
Biology and Life History: Bluegill generally school in small groups of 5 to 20 fish, although larger congregations do occur.Missing: behavior | Show results with:behavior
[34]
[PDF] an analysis of a late Pleistocene freshwater fish fauna from Bell Cave
Feb 2, 2016 · Interestingly, the most common Centrarchidae in recent mainstem collections are Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) and Largemouth Bass (Micropterus ...
[35]
[PDF] An Early Pliocene Fish Assemblage from the Southern Appalachians
Table 1 Pre-Pleistocene fossil records of freshwater fish from the eastern U.S. outside of Florida ... Lepomis macrochirus. Bluegill. CUMV 71493, 71507; UF ...
[36]
[PDF] FISH INTRODUCTIONS IN CALIFORNIA: HISTORY AND IMPACT ...
California has experienced two major eras of successful fish introductions: 1871-91 and 1960-present (Fig. 2). The first resulted from the completion of the ...
[37]
REGISTER OF INTERNATIONAL INTRODUCTIONS OF INLAND ...
In Italy the species is considered a pest due to its forming dense populations of stunted fish. Europe. To: Italy. From: U.S.A.. Year: 1957. Reason: Unknown.
[38]
Origin and dispersal of bluegill sunfish, Lepomis macrochirus, in ...
Our results suggest that all L. macrochirus in Japan and Korea have originated from the 15 fish first introduced in 1960.Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
[39]
Native bluegill influence the foraging and aggressive behavior of ...
Jan 10, 2019 · ... America and have been introduced widely west of the Rocky Mountains (Berra, 2001). The broad distribution of bluegill (and other lepomids) ...
[40]
Male guarding behavior and brood predators of invasive Bluegill in ...
Impact statementBluegill, an invasive species in Japan, were found to have very few native brood predators in a lake where they are thought to be increasing ...
[41]
[PDF] Bluegills as Invasive Species - Maryland DNR
Major threats to freshwater species in southern Africa. Loss and degradation of habitat is the leading threat followed by water pollution and alien invasive ...
[42]
An Undetected Fish Invasion | IFW Blogs - Maine.gov
May 19, 2020 · Unlike a highly publicized and/or tangible pike or crappie infiltration, invasive bluegill have quietly impacted indigenous fishes in the ...
[43]
Lepomis macrochirus, Bluegill : fisheries, aquaculture ... - FishBase
Adults are found frequently in lakes, ponds, reservoirs and sluggish streams (Ref. 5723, 10294); occur primarily in reservoirs in Hawaii; preferably live in ...
[44]
THE IMPACT OF SUBMERGED MACROPHYTES ON ...
Bluegills larger than 120 mm shifted feeding from chironomid larvae in spring to Daphnia and then plant matter in summer. Bluegills appeared to use vegetation ...
[45]
Insights into Ontogenetic Niche Changes in Bluegill, Lepomis ...
Oct 5, 2023 · Bluegill shift from zooplankton to benthic macroinvertebrates with growth, becoming generalist feeders, and their diet is affected by habitat.
[46]
Jaw protrusion enhances forces exerted on prey by suction feeding ...
We show that rapid protrusion of the jaws towards the prey, coupled with the spatial pattern of the flow in front of the mouth, accelerates the water around ...Missing: protrusible | Show results with:protrusible
[47]
Optimal Foraging and the Size Selection of Prey by the Bluegill ...
Aug 1, 1974 · We present evidence that this size selection is related to the optimal allocation of time spent searching for, and handling prey.
[48]
Examination of the effects of largemouth bass (Micropterus ...
We examine the ecological effects of largemouth bass and bluegill in Lake Kawahara. Their invasion has induced a range of changes at multiple trophic levels.Missing: invasiveness | Show results with:invasiveness
[49]
Microplastics in mainstem Mississippi River fishes
2023. By Gad, Ahmed ; Toner, Kerrin ; Benfield, Mark ... Bluegill were all found to have similar microplastic loads along the mainstem Mississippi River.
[50]
[PDF] A Field Guide to Fairfax County's Plants and Wildlife
Bluegill predators include Great Blue Herons, Belted. Kingfishers, Raccoons ... Predators include birds of prey, snakes, Raccoons, cats and sometimes humans.
[51]
[PDF] Diet of the North American river otter (Lontra canadensis) in North ...
Oct 12, 2023 · Fish most commonly consumed included largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus), and redear sunfish (Lepomis ...
[52]
[PDF] Overwinter Mortality of Sympatric Juvenile Bluegill and Yellow Perch ...
Age- and size-selective predation on larval fishes: the bigger-is-better hypothesis revisited. Mar Ecol. Prog Ser 1992; 81: 13-24. [58]. Post JR, Prankevicius ...
[53]
[PDF] Bluegill Literature Review - Wisconsin DNR
Water temperature strongly influences the onset, peak period, and duration of spawning for bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus). Bluegills may begin spawning when ...
[54]
[PDF] Assessment of the Immune Response to Posthodiplostomum ...
protective strategy has been found in black spot disease, which is the cause of the peppered appearance on infected fish skin (Lemly & Esch, 1984). Some ...
[55]
First report of Posthodiplostomum minimum metacercariae and ... - NIH
The metacercariae of Posthodiplostomum cuticola causing “neascus” or “black spot” disease in fish (Karimian et al. 2013) and Posthodiplostomum minimum ...
[56]
Farm Pond Management-Troubleshooting Common Pond Problems
Parasitic copepods attach to the gills, body, and fins of fish. Lernaea (anchor worm) and Argulus (fish lice) often penetrate the skin of fish and feed on ...
[57]
[PDF] Centrarchid identification and natural history
The most diverse genus, Lepomis, the bream (or pnnfish) of anglers, is comprised of 13 extant species, but at least 8 of these show evidence of poly- typy (e.g. ...Missing: distinctions | Show results with:distinctions
[58]
[PDF] Brief Note: Intestinal Parasites of the Bluegill, Lepomis Macrochirus ...
A summary of the parasites found in Ohio bluegills (table 2) shows a total of 21 and includes: 8 trematodes, 2 cestodes, 2 acanthocephalans, 7 nematodes, and 2 ...
[59]
[PDF] Aquatic Nuisance Species Task Force Report to Congress 2018-2019
The project includes non-structural and structural measures to prevent species movement through swimming, floating, or hitchhiking upstream from the Mississippi ...
[60]
The effects of acute temperature change on swimming performance ...
May 1, 2008 · Bluegill sunfish swim in the labriform mode at low speeds and switch to undulatory swimming as their swimming speed increases.Missing: schooling | Show results with:schooling
[61]
Pectoral fins aid in navigation of a complex environment by bluegill ...
Numerous studies have shown that the pectoral fins of fishes are typically used in a propulsive role, especially during swimming at slow speeds (Drucker and ...
[62]
Muscle power production during intermittent swimming in bluegill ...
Sep 3, 2023 · Differences in the fatigue resistance of red versus white muscle will impact how intermittent swimming benefits fish locomotory performance.
[63]
Field swimming performance of bluegill sunfish, Lepomis ...
Sep 30, 2017 · We have used 3-D underwater videography to quantify the swimming trajectories and propulsive modes of bluegills sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus, Rafinesque) in ...<|separator|>
[64]
Functional morphology and hydrodynamics of backward swimming ...
The pectoral fins alternate beats, each fin broadly flaring on the outstroke and feathered on the instroke. The dorsal fin and dorsal portion of the caudal fin ...
[65]
Group swimming behaviour and energetics in bluegill Lepomis ...
When reaching their maximum sustained swimming speed, fish swimming in schools had a 44% higher maximum aerobic performance and used 65% less non-aerobic ...
[66]
Energy conservation by collective movement in schooling fish - eLife
Feb 20, 2024 · Fish within a school are known to increase gliding time and decrease burst time by 19% when they are trailing the leading fish (Fish et al., ...Missing: lentic | Show results with:lentic
[67]
Field kinematics of intermittent swimming in bluegill sunfish ...
Sep 16, 2024 · Radio telemetry studies demonstrated that bluegill moved regularly between the pelagic and the littoral. Conclusion. In both zones, intermittent ...
[68]
Science Reveals Bluegill Secrets - In-Fisherman
Jan 21, 2014 · Researchers have postulated the lateral-line sense of bluegills is sensitive enough to detect swimming insect larvae, even in complete darkness.
[69]
[PDF] Pectoral fins aid in navigation of a complex environment by bluegill ...
Bluegill sunfish have color vision and can discriminate between green (536nm) and red (620nm) peak absorption frequencies, as well as rhodopsin for low-light ...
[70]
Hydrodynamics of the escape response in bluegill sunfish, Lepomis ...
In this paper we present an experimental hydrodynamic analysis of the C-start escape response in bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus).
[71]
Flexible body dynamics of the goldfish C-start: implications for ...
Aug 1, 1988 · Our findings indicate that the Mauthner cell initiates the first of a series of motor commands that establish the initial left-right decision of ...
[72]
Hydrodynamics of the bluegill sunfish C-start escape response
Feb 15, 2012 · In this work we study the hydrodynamics of a bluegill sunfish performing a C-start maneuver in unprecedented detail using 3-D numerical ...
[73]
[PDF] How bluegill sunfish change their kinematics with turn speed - bioRxiv
Jan 25, 2025 · Using this device, we compare the swimming kinematics of bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus) during fast and slow turns through 180 degrees.<|separator|>
[74]
In Situ Observations of Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus Raf.) Foraging ...
predicted advantages of shoaling. Shoaling reduces predation by increasing the detection of predators by prey (Pitcher and Ma- gurran, 1983; ...
[75]
Marginal predation: do encounter or confusion effects explain the ...
Jul 27, 2017 · We find that while confusion does affect predatory behaviors (whether or not predators make an attack), it does not affect marginal predation.
[76]
Lepomis macrochirus (Bluegill) - Animal Diversity Web
Bluegill prefer to live in lakes and slow-moving, rocky streams. They can often be found in deep beds of weeds. In Hawaii they primarily inhabit reservoirs.Missing: distribution | Show results with:distribution
[77]
Bluegill Maturity | MonsterFishKeepers.com
Oct 9, 2007 · Bluegills are generally sexually mature in the second year. They can breed at as small as just over 3" in high population waters.
[78]
Bluegill Sunfish Production in Missouri | MU Extension
Fingerlings (2 to 4 inches) for initial pond stocking and for remedial stocking; Sub-adults (4 to 7 inches) for remedial or advanced pond stocking or for ...Missing: average | Show results with:average
[79]
3 Strategies for Catching Bluegills - Mossy Oak
May 11, 2023 · Many anglers believe the peak of the bream spawn is 3 days before the full moon and then again three days after, but since they spawn nearly all ...
[80]
The Bluegill Spawn | North Dakota Game and Fish
Large territorial males build nests in aggregations called colonies. Nesting colonies are generally found in shallow water (0.4 m to 1.4 m deep). Males make ...Missing: display zigzag
[81]
Courting Bluegills | Nebraskaland Magazine
May 15, 2024 · Bauer said males will make a clicking sound, and if you watch closely enough, you might see them flare their gills and pop their head to do so.Missing: display zigzag
[82]
I Speak for the Fish: Courting Sunfish | Great Lakes Now
Feb 27, 2023 · They do this by swimming around their nests, flaring their fins and deepening their color. When a female enters the nest, she and the ...Missing: display zigzag
[83]
None
### Summary of Bluegill Parental Care Duration and Behaviors
[84]
Temporal variation in cuckoldry and paternity in two sunfish species ...
Parental care can last up to 10 days and involves actively fanning eggs and defending eggs and fry (newly hatched larvae) from predators. The care can be ...
[85]
[PDF] Drawings of Fish Development - Maryland DNR
Depending on the temperature, they will hatch in 2 to 5 days. During this time, the male guards the nest from predators. Bluegill sac fry do not look anything ...Missing: free- mortality
[86]
Thermal Effects on Eggs, Larvae and Juveniles of Bluegill Sunfish
2. Juvenile bluegills have a greater thermal tolerance range than eggs. The upper 96 hr. TL50's were 2'7i5C and 37.3C for juveniles acclimated at 12; ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[87]
[PDF] Chapter 9 Collecting, Processing, and Identification of Fish Eggs ...
Fishes are relatively fecund vertebrates, but most populations exhibit high egg and larval mortality (>90%) and significant year-to-year variation in early life ...
[88]
Bluegill Sunfish | A Comprehensive Species Guide - Wired2Fish
Feb 23, 2023 · The subspecies include northern bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus macrochirus), coppernose bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus mystacalis ...
[89]
[PDF] Sunfish Culture Guide - OSU South Centers
Growth and body composition of juvenile hybrid bluegill Lepomis Cyanellus x Lepomis macrochirus fed practical diets containing various percentages of protein.
[90]
Predicting climate change impacts on poikilotherms using ... - PNAS
Apr 3, 2023 · We develop an approach to predicting climate change effects on poikilotherm abundance and distributions by combining laboratory-derived information about ...
[91]
Hybrid Sunfish | Colorado Parks and Wildlife
Hybrid Sunfish. Bluegill, green sunfish, pumpkinseed and redear sunfish can all hybridize, so the identifying characteristics of a hybrid sunfish can vary ...
[92]
hybridization of fishes in north america (family centrarchidae)
Roberts (1964) found that red-ear, bluegill, and warmouth sunfishes each have 24 pairs of chromosomes; green sunfish from North Carolina had 24 pairs; but green ...
[93]
[PDF] Establishing Hybrid Sunfish in Ponds for Recreation - MU Extension
These hybrids are exceptionally hardy fish. Bluegill and green sunfish usually inhabit, feed and spawn in shallow areas of the pond. Bluegill and green sunfish.
[94]
Hybrid Sunfish - CT.gov
The most common hybrid is the bluegill x pumpkinseed cross, probably because these are the most common species. Hybrid sunfish are marginally fertile and will ...
[95]
Reduced Reproductive Capacity in Diploid and Triploid Hybrid Sunfish
These results demonstrate that the production of haploid gametes did not occur in triploid hybrids and was diminished in diploid hybrids.
[96]
A reference genome for Bluegill (Centrarchidae: Lepomis ... - NIH
Here, we describe a chromosome-scale genome assembly representing Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus), one of the most widespread centrarchid species.<|separator|>
[97]
Sunfish Hybrid ID Walk-Through - Koaw Nature
I'll show you the steps taken to identify this hybrid lepomid, or common sunfish. This is a bluegill x redear sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus x Lepomis ...
[98]
[PDF] Two-Year Growth of Sunfish Hybrids in Missouri | Lincoln University
Dec 28, 2012 · The common green sunfish × bluegill hybrid results in populations dominated by fast-growing males, often as high as 90 to 97 percent of the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[99]
[PDF] Aquaguide: Hybrid Sunfish in Ponds
Hybrid sunfish sold commercially are reared in hatcheries. Most commonly, male bluegill are crossed with female green sunfish, and physical characteristics.
[100]
world record bluegill - IGFA Member Services
The world record bluegill weight is 2.15 kg (4 lb 12 oz) from Ketona Lake, Alabama, USA, caught on 09-Apr-1950 by T. Hudson. The length record is 30 cm from ...
[101]
Sunfish: Tips For Bluegill Fishing | Missouri Department of ...
The key is to use only a piece of a worm—just enough to cover the hook. Other productive baits include crickets, grasshoppers, red wrigglers and meal worms.
[102]
Bluegills Three Ways | Virginia DWR
May 12, 2022 · No, our quarry that day on a pond in central Virginia was the humble bluegill—the most popular gamefish in America and a favorite of many Old ...Missing: US | Show results with:US
[103]
May is the Month for Bluegill | Missouri Department of Conservation
May 6, 2010 · In May, during the spring spawn, bluegill fishing is at its best. Action is fast, and you're more likely to catch large, mature bluegill at this time.
[104]
Bluegill - WVDNR
Aug 9, 2021 · Bluegill are also regarded as good table fare with mild tasting meat. Small lures, wet flies and small live bait such as mealworms and ...Missing: culinary flavor
[105]
Panfish: How to catch, prepare, and cook - Mass.gov
Get tips and recipes to help you enjoy the freshwater fish you catch. Panfish include fish like black crappie, white perch, yellow perch, bluegill, and
[106]
[PDF] Bass Lake and Duck Lake angler creel Survey - IN.gov
In 2008, the total harvest was 899 fish that weighed an estimated 358 lbs. Bluegill was the most sought-after species making up 41% of the angler preference.<|separator|>
[107]
Bluegill the backbone of strong fishing culture | Outdoors
Jun 10, 2009 · This enthusiastic fish is an ingredient in American culture revered the same as apple pie, hamburgers, Twinkies and Fourth of July parades.
[108]
State Symbol: Illinois State Fish — Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus)
The Illinois state fish is the Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus), selected by school children in 1986. It has stripy olive to yellow colors and a black spot ...Missing: cultural significance angling
[109]
New Report Highlights Sportfishing Industry's Expanding Economic ...
Mar 12, 2025 · The new Sportfishing in America report shows that industry contributions continue to grow, now generating more than $230.5 billion annually for the US economy.Missing: bluegill | Show results with:bluegill
[110]
Farm Pond Fish Management - NYSDEC
A standard stocking rate is 100 bass fingerlings per surface acre along with 500 bluegill fingerlings or 200 adult golden shiners. Fathead minnows may be ...
[111]
Stocking Guide: For Stocking Fish in Ponds and Streams
Bass and bluegill are typically recommended to be stocked between a 1:5 and 1:20 ratio with bluegill. A pond with a closer ratio will have fewer and larger ...
[112]
Pond Stocking & Management | Department of Natural Resources
Bluegill harvest can begin the second year after stocking. No limits are necessary for bluegill in private ponds because they are plentiful.
[113]
[PDF] Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) Management and Fishing in ...
Bluegills typically occupy reservoir and lake (lentic) habitats, as well as slow moving river and stream (lotic) habitats within these drainages. Bluegill ...Missing: preferences | Show results with:preferences
[114]
Pond Management: Managing Fish Populations | Virginia DWR
In a balanced pond, 40-60% of the bass should be 12 inches or longer, while 20-40% of the bluegill should be 6 inches or longer. A good rule of thumb for ...Missing: regulations enhancement
[115]
Aquatic plants provide shelter for young fish - MSU Extension
Jul 9, 2015 · A single acre of aquatic vegetation can hold hundreds of thousands of small fish. Young bluegill don't venture far from the safety provided by aquatic plants.
[116]
Habitat Placement for Bluegill Production - Pond King Blog
Strategic placement of habitat in your fishery can have a dramatic impact on your Bluegill production, which also improve your Largemouth Bass production.
[117]
Bluegill and Sunfish - Agricultural Marketing Resource Center
Bluegills prefer clear warm pools in streams and thrive in lakes and ponds, usually inhabiting shallow, weedy waters. Bluegills and related “sunfish” are common ...Missing: strains tons
[118]
https://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/aquaculture/aquaculture-fin-fish-species/bluegill-and-sunfish
[119]
[PDF] A WHITE PAPER ON THE STATUS AND NEEDS OF SUNFISH ...
Net production for BG × GS hybrids was 554.5 and 841.3 lb/acre (621.6 and 943.2 kg/ha) in the 3,238 and 5,666 fish/acre (8,000 and 14,000 fish/ha) ponds, ...Missing: strains global tons
[120]
[PDF] Freshwater Fish - Lake Ontario - Seafood Watch
Pumpkinseed (IUCN red list “Least Concern”), bluegill (IUCN ... regarding invasive species and pollution (Environment and Climate Change Canada and the U.S..<|control11|><|separator|>
[121]
A Case for Selective Bluegill Harvest - In-Fisherman
Feb 28, 2017 · Individual growth rates vary, based on latitude, water temperature, and forage. In Minnesota, it can take 10 years or more to grow a 9-inch ...
[122]
Panfish Week: Bluegill Management Strategies - In-Fisherman
Jacobson found that average length at maturity of male bluegill increased from 6 inches before the 10-fish regulation to 6½ to 7 inches four years after the ...
[123]
Male guarding behavior and brood predators of invasive Bluegill in ...
Jan 12, 2024 · The removal of guarding males, a common management technique in Japan, is thought to be effective in controlling Bluegill. However, the colony ...
[124]
Mismatch between climate-based bioenergetics model of fish growth ...
Bioenergetics models showed bluegill growth and consumption both increase under climate warming. In contrast, linear regression revealed that bluegill ages 1–4 ...
[125]
Science on Tap: Fisheries and climate change - WXPR
Apr 3, 2024 · The state is projected to warm an additional 2 to 8 degrees in the next 25 years. As our climate changes, it's expected that there will be ...