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Cyclonic separation

Cyclonic separation is a process that removes solid particles or liquid droplets from a gas, , or multiphase by exploiting centrifugal forces generated within a high-speed vortex, without relying on filters or other media. The fundamental principle involves introducing the particle-laden tangentially into a cylindrical or conical chamber, where it spirals downward in a vortex, forcing denser particles outward against the walls to collect at the bottom while the clarified exits from the top. This inertial separation mechanism, first formalized in cyclone designs by researchers like and Lapple in , relies on the differential response of particles to the rotational forces, with typically highest for particles larger than 5–10 micrometers. Cyclonic separators come in various configurations, including reverse-flow cyclones for gas streams in industries like cement production and oil refining, and for liquid-solid separation in and . Applications span collection in , desliming and in operations—where a single 600 mm can process up to 200 tons per hour—and environmental emission control, such as reducing (PM2.5) in combustion processes like milling. Key advantages include low capital and operating costs, absence of for minimal maintenance, and high throughput capacities, though limitations arise with submicron particles, where drops below 50%, and increased drops in smaller units.

Fundamentals

Definition and

Cyclonic separation is a that employs vortex-induced centrifugal forces to separate or particles from gases or liquids within a high-speed rotating flow. This method is widely applied in industrial settings for particulate removal, such as in control and streams, without the use of filters or beyond the themselves. The basic principle relies on inertial separation, where the -particle mixture enters a conical or cylindrical chamber tangentially, generating a swirling vortex. Particles denser than the surrounding experience greater centrifugal and migrate radially outward toward the chamber walls, while the clarified spirals inward and exits through a central outlet. This vortex motion creates an outer downward flow carrying collected particles to a discharge point and an inner upward flow of cleaner , achieving separation based on differences in and . Key introductory metrics include inlet velocity, which drives the vortex strength and typically ranges from 12 to 16 m/s for optimal performance in standard designs; the cut-point (d50), defined as the collected with 50% , often around 3-5 μm for fine particulate applications; and , a measure of loss across the device that correlates directly with inlet velocity and influences overall . A simple of particle in a would depict the tangential entry, radial migration of particles to the wall, and axial exit paths of both the and streams to illustrate these dynamics.

Historical Development

The roots of cyclonic separation technology trace back to 19th-century advancements in centrifugal separators for liquids, most notably Gustaf de Laval's invention of the continuous centrifugal cream separator in 1878, which utilized rotational forces to separate milk components efficiently. This principle laid the groundwork for applying centrifugal action to gaseous streams. The first practical adaptation for dust collection came in 1885 with John M. Finch's U.S. Patent No. 325,521, which described a dust collector for industrial air purification at the Company, marking the transition to gas-solid separation. In the , key milestones advanced the technology for broader industrial use. During the and early , empirical designs evolved, culminating in C.E. Lapple's classical cyclone design () model, published in 1951, which standardized dimensions and performance predictions based on inlet velocity and geometry for reliable engineering applications. Concurrently, wet cyclones emerged in the for in , with Jan D. Visman's development of the compound cyclone around 1952 enabling efficient dense-medium separation of fine and ores through water-based centrifugal action. Post-World War II environmental regulations significantly propelled cyclonic separators' adoption. The U.S. Clean Air Act of , along with its precursors in the , mandated pollution controls, leading to widespread integration of cyclones in power plants, factories, and chemical industries to capture particulate emissions cost-effectively. Lapple's contributions, including his theoretical framework for collection efficiency, became foundational, influencing designs that balanced and separation rates. By the 1990s and 2000s, the field shifted from purely empirical approaches to computational modeling, with (CFD) simulations enabling precise optimization of flow patterns and efficiency without extensive physical prototyping. This integration of CFD software, such as and Fluent, allowed for tailored cyclone geometries in diverse applications, enhancing predictive accuracy and reducing development time.

Design and Operation

Key Components

A cyclone separator consists of several essential structural elements designed to facilitate the through geometric configuration. The primary components include the cylindrical body, which serves as the main chamber; the conical section at the bottom, which narrows to collected particles; the tangential , positioned on the side of the cylindrical body to introduce the stream; the central vortex finder, a protruding at the top for the exit of the cleaned ; and the underflow at the base for discharging separated solids. Geometric parameters are critical to the and are typically expressed as dimensionless ratios relative to the cyclone's (D). Standard configurations, such as the Stairmand high-efficiency , employ ratios including height to (a/D = 0.5), width to (b/D = 0.2), vortex finder to (De/D = 0.5), cylindrical height to (h/D = 1.5), total length to (H/D = 4), and -outlet distance to (S/D = 0.5). These ratios influence the overall shape and capacity without altering the fundamental build. Materials for construction are selected based on operational demands, with commonly used for its strength in high-pressure environments, while abrasion-resistant alloys or linings such as or rubber are applied in handling erosive particles. Design variations primarily involve configurations, with the reverse-flow cyclone—featuring a downward spiral in the body and upward exit through the vortex finder—being the most prevalent due to its compact geometry that enhances . Straight-through designs, by contrast, allow axial with minimal reversal, resulting in a longer, more linear profile. Safety features are integrated to mitigate risks, particularly in settings; these include pressure relief valves to prevent over-pressurization and specialized venting systems or suppression devices for environments handling combustible dusts, ensuring compliance with hazard prevention standards.

Separation Process

In the phase of cyclonic separation, the particle-laden enters the cyclone tangentially at the upper cylindrical section, imparting rotational motion to the and initiating the formation of a swirling vortex. This tangential entry generates centrifugal forces that can reach up to 2,500 times the force of in high-efficiency designs, driving denser particles outward toward the cyclone walls. The swirling motion establishes a high-velocity rotational , with the descending spirally along the inner surface of the cyclone body. As the vortex develops, a dual-vortex structure emerges: an outer vortex carries the particle-laden fluid downward in a helical path, while an inner vortex forms near the center, directing cleaner fluid upward. Within the outer vortex, particles experience radial migration toward the walls due to the dominant centrifugal forces overcoming drag, with boundary layer effects near the wall creating a thin region of reduced velocity that influences particle deposition by acting as a barrier to very fine particles. This separation relies on the interplay of turbulent diffusion and inertial forces, where larger particles more readily penetrate the boundary layer and adhere to the surface. Upon reaching the conical section, separated particles lose and slide down the sloped walls into the collection at the bottom, while the clean fluid in the inner vortex reverses direction and spirals upward through the central vortex finder to exit the . The overall for the fluid and particles within the typically ranges from 1 to 5 seconds, allowing sufficient opportunity for separation based on the flow path length and velocity. Separation efficiency is significantly influenced by inlet velocity, with optimal performance achieved at 10-30 m/s, where higher velocities enhance centrifugal action but may increase beyond practical limits. Particle loading also affects outcomes, as higher concentrations can improve overall efficiency through enhanced momentum transfer but may lead to re-entrainment if excessive. Qualitatively, grade efficiency curves exhibit an S-shaped profile, starting low for submicron particles due to insufficient inertial separation, rising sharply for mid-sized particles (around 5-10 μm), and approaching 100% for larger ones, reflecting the probabilistic nature of capture based on size and flow conditions.

Types of Cyclones

Single-Cyclone Separators

Single-cyclone separators consist of a basic standalone unit characterized by a cylindrical upper that narrows into a conical lower section, featuring a single tangential for the particle-laden gas stream and two axial outlets: one central for the cleaned gas and one at the bottom for the collected solids. This design induces centrifugal forces to separate particles without internal divisions or multiple units, making it suitable for low-to-medium throughput applications ranging from 0.1 to 10 m³/s. Performance of single-cyclone separators typically achieves collection efficiencies of 70-99% for particles larger than 5-10 μm, depending on inlet velocity and , though decreases sharply for finer particles below this range. Pressure drops across these units generally fall between 500 and 1500 , higher than in multi-unit systems due to the concentrated flow through a single path, which balances separation effectiveness against energy costs. Common configurations include the high-efficiency Stairmand design, which optimizes dimensions for maximum particle capture in compact setups (e.g., inlet width to body diameter ratio of 0.5), and the high-throughput Swift design, prioritizing larger inlets and shorter cones for handling higher flow rates with slightly reduced . These are widely used in small-scale dust collection systems, such as in shops or , where outweighs the need for . Maintenance for single-cyclone separators is relatively straightforward, involving periodic hopper emptying and surface cleaning to prevent buildup, but units are susceptible to particle re-entrainment if discharge seals fail or airflow imbalances occur during operation. Proper optimization, such as ensuring airtight , mitigates this issue and sustains performance over time.

Multiple-Cyclone Separators

Multiple-cyclone separators, also known as multiclones, consist of numerous small-diameter cyclones arranged in parallel within a single housing, typically ranging from 10 to 1,000 units, to achieve high-volume gas-solid separation. This parallel bundle design allows for a shared inlet that distributes the gas stream evenly among the individual cyclones, followed by a common outlet manifold for the cleaned gas, minimizing overall space requirements and facilitating into existing systems. Such configurations are particularly suited for handling or high-temperature gases, as the smaller individual cyclones experience less per unit while collectively processing large flows. The primary advantage of multiple-cyclone setups lies in their scalability for applications requiring high throughput, often exceeding 30 m³/s in configurations like those used in power plants for fly ash removal, with individual efficiencies surpassing 95% for particles larger than 5 microns. By employing smaller in , these systems maintain reasonable drops—typically 500-1,500 —while achieving better separation than a single large of equivalent total capacity, as the reduced diameter enhances centrifugal forces and . Series arrangements, where are staged sequentially, further improve overall by allowing coarser particles to be captured in initial units and finer ones in subsequent stages, enabling total throughputs up to 100 m³/s in demanding environments like coal-fired boilers. Examples include multiclone collectors in power plants, where they serve as primary separators before secondary filters, handling loads of 230-2,300 mg/m³. Fabrication of multiple-cyclone separators emphasizes modular construction with a robust common housing to contain the array, often using materials resistant to and high temperatures, such as alloys. The shared reduces installation footprint and complexity, making them ideal for retrofits in space-constrained facilities. However, a key drawback is the increased operational complexity in ensuring uniform flow distribution across all units; uneven loading can lead to reduced efficiency in some cyclones and potential re-entrainment of particles, necessitating careful of diffusers and periodic to balance performance.

Specialized Variants

Wet cyclones, also known as , are specialized variants designed for liquid-solid separation, particularly in and processing applications where they efficiently remove fine solid particles from liquid streams. These devices operate under centrifugal forces generated by high-velocity flow, achieving separation efficiencies for particles larger than 5–40 μm, depending on and operating conditions. Unlike cyclones, hydrocyclones feature denser construction to withstand elevated pressures, typically 0.5-2 (50-200 kPa) for , with smaller designs capable of higher pressures in specialized applications. Secondary-air-flow separators represent an enhancement to conventional cyclone designs, incorporating the injection of clean secondary air to stabilize the internal vortex and minimize particle re-entrainment, especially in processes handling high concentrations of fine dust. This variant introduces the secondary air stream tangentially or axially to create a protective downward spiral that shields the cyclone walls from abrasion while maintaining high centrifugal action, thereby improving overall collection efficiency and reducing re-entrainment for fine particles. In high-fines environments such as cement production, these separators reduce dust recirculation and enhance separation rates, making them suitable for closed-circuit grinding systems. Other notable variants include axial-flow cyclones, which direct the inlet flow parallel to the cyclone axis for more compact configurations ideal for space-constrained applications like HVAC systems. These designs achieve effective gas-solid or gas-liquid separation with lower pressure drops compared to tangential-entry cyclones, facilitating integration into air handling units for filtration. Desander cyclones, tailored for oil and gas drilling, focus on removing sand and silt from wellhead streams using hydrocyclone principles under high-pressure multiphase flows. Enhancements in these variants often distinguish static configurations, which rely solely on fluid dynamics for separation, from dynamic ones that incorporate active elements like secondary flows or rotating internals to boost performance in challenging conditions. Recent developments (as of 2023-2025) include integration of sensors for real-time monitoring of flow and efficiency in specialized variants, as well as advanced composite materials for liners to improve wear resistance in abrasive environments. Unique adaptations of cyclonic separators include -resistant linings for handling acidic fluids and high-temperature coatings for extreme thermal environments. () linings provide superior resistance to chemical and in acidic slurries, extending equipment life in corrosive processes. High-temperature ceramics, such as alumina-based materials, enable operation in environments exceeding 1000°C while maintaining structural integrity and separation efficiency against oxidative and erosive wear.

Theoretical Foundations

Core Cyclone Theory

Cyclonic separation relies on the balance between acting on particles and the drag force exerted by the swirling gas flow. The centrifugal force F_c on a particle of m moving with tangential v at radius r is given by F_c = m v^2 / r, while the opposing Stokes drag force F_d for a spherical particle of d_p is F_d = 3 \pi \mu d_p v_r, where \mu is the gas and v_r is the . This force balance determines particle trajectories, with larger particles migrating outward to the cyclone wall more readily. The particle response to flow changes is characterized by the \text{Stk} = \rho_p d_p^2 V / (18 \mu D_c), where \rho_p is particle , V is the characteristic inlet , and D_c is the cyclone body ; values of Stk > 1 indicate particles that do not closely follow gas streamlines, aiding separation. A seminal empirical model for cyclone performance is the Lapple model, which predicts fractional efficiency and cut size based on simplified assumptions of particle travel within the vortex. The fractional efficiency \eta for particles of diameter d_p is \eta = 1 / (1 + (d_{50}/d_p)^2), where d_{50} is the cut diameter at 50% efficiency. The cut diameter is calculated as d_{50} = \sqrt{9 \mu D_c^2 / (2 \pi N V_i \rho_p)}, with N as the effective number of vortex turns, V_i as the inlet velocity, approximating the radial migration distance over the particle's residence time in the outer vortex. Pressure drop \Delta P across the cyclone is \Delta P = (\rho v_i^2 / 2) (16 a b / D_e^2), where \rho is gas , a and b are inlet height and width, and D_e is the exit , reflecting energy losses due to inlet and vortex . Cyclone flow exhibits distinct regimes characterized by velocity profiles that govern particle separation. In the outer vortex, the tangential velocity v_\theta follows a quasi-free vortex profile v_\theta \propto 1/r, while the axial velocity v_a varies linearly with axial position z, decreasing toward the bottom due to gas contraction. The inner vortex features a quasi-forced vortex profile where v_\theta \propto r. The natural length concept defines the vortex end position, where the axial momentum balances the centrifugal effects, typically at z \approx 2 D_c for standard designs, preventing short-circuiting of particles to the outlet. These profiles ensure particles experience maximum centrifugal acceleration in the outer region before potential re-entrainment near the wall. Theoretical predictions from these models align well with experimental cut-size measurements for particles in the 5–50 μm range, where Lapple's d_{50} estimates match observed efficiencies within 10–20% for conventional cyclones under standard conditions. However, limitations arise for very fine particles below 1 μm, as the models assume Stokes drag and neglect Brownian diffusion and turbulent dispersion, leading to overprediction of d_{50} and underestimation of collection efficiency by up to 50% in such cases. Validation studies confirm the models' utility for design but recommend corrections for non-ideal flows in high-efficiency variants.

Advanced Models

Advanced models in cyclonic separation extend beyond classical analytical approaches by leveraging (CFD) to simulate complex turbulent flows and particle interactions more accurately. These models primarily utilize Models (RSM) and (LES) for turbulence prediction, integrated with the Discrete Phase Model (DPM) for Lagrangian particle tracking. RSM accounts for anisotropic Reynolds stresses through individual transport equations, capturing the swirling and highly sheared nature of cyclone flows where isotropic assumptions fail. LES resolves large-scale eddies directly while modeling subgrid-scale effects, providing detailed insights into unsteady phenomena like vortex . When coupled with DPM, these enable precise of particle trajectories and separation efficiency in poly-disperse systems, as demonstrated in industrial dust cyclone studies where RSM-DPM predicted pressure drops and collection rates with errors below 10% compared to experiments. Empirical refinements complement CFD by offering computationally efficient alternatives for , particularly for velocity profiles and s. The Muschelknautz method predicts tangential velocity distributions using a control surface analysis that incorporates roughness, particle loading, and secondary flows, improving accuracy over simpler models by up to 15% in applications. It addresses frictional losses in the and vortex core, making it suitable for varying conditions. Similarly, the Barth model estimates via semi-empirical summation of , , and vortex finder losses, emphasizing inner effects. In multi- configurations, Barth-based adaptations reveal that 80–90% of total arises from individual units, aiding high-pressure system scaling while accounting for roughness-induced enhancements in separation. Post-2000 advancements incorporate simulations and (AI) for enhanced predictive power and design. Eulerian-Lagrangian models treat the gas phase Eulerianly with RSM or while tracking particles Lagrangianly via DPM, augmented by coarse-grained two-fluid models to handle dense poly-disperse flows efficiently; this reduces computational demands by 50–70% relative to full multi-fluid approaches in large-scale cyclones. Validation against high-speed (PIV) data confirms their fidelity in resolving inner vortex structures. AI-optimized designs apply surrogates and genetic algorithms to geometrical parameters, using models like Muschelknautz as objective functions; recent implementations boosted efficiency from 76% to 88% and cut pressure drops by 20–40% in optimized prototypes. These models mitigate limitations of classical theories, such as underprediction of short-circuit and mishandling of anisotropic . Short-circuit —bypassing particles near the vortex finder—is better quantified by LES and RSM, which resolve secondary axial velocities and reduce overestimations by 5–15% in 2010s simulations of Stairmand cyclones. For anisotropic , RSM and hybrid RSM-LES outperform k-ε by capturing stress tensor variations in the anisotropic core region, as evidenced in studies validating against PIV-measured profiles with improved correlation coefficients above 0.9. Examples from mid-2010s research highlight how these address back-mixing in high-loading scenarios, enhancing reliability for fine-particle separation.

Applications

Industrial Uses

In power generation, cyclonic separators play a crucial role in fly ash removal from flue gases in coal-fired plants, where they serve as primary collectors for coarse particles. These devices achieve efficiencies of up to 99% for particles larger than 10 μm by leveraging centrifugal forces to separate ash from the gas stream, thereby reducing the load on downstream equipment. Often integrated with electrostatic precipitators (ESPs), cyclones act as precleaners to enhance overall system performance, capturing larger ash fractions before finer particles are handled by ESPs, which improves energy efficiency and extends ESP lifespan in high-volume operations. In chemical processing, cyclonic separation is essential for catalyst recovery in fluidized bed reactors and fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) units within refineries. In FCC processes, reactor cyclones separate hydrocarbon vapors and stripping steam from catalyst particles, enabling the recycling of valuable catalyst back into the reaction zone while minimizing losses, which is critical for maintaining process yields in heavy oil conversion to gasoline and other products. Similarly, in fluidized bed reactors, cyclones efficiently recover fine catalyst powders from effluent gases, supporting continuous operation in petrochemical synthesis. In pharmaceutical manufacturing, cyclones facilitate powder handling by separating active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and excipients from air streams, ensuring product purity and reducing airborne contamination in sterile environments. For material handling applications, cyclonic separators provide effective dust control in industries such as woodworking, metal grinding, and cement production. In woodworking shops, they capture wood dust and chips generated during sawing and sanding, preventing accumulation that could lead to fire hazards or equipment wear. In metal grinding operations, cyclones remove abrasive metal fines from process air, safeguarding worker health and maintaining machinery integrity. In cement kilns, these separators collect kiln dust from hot gases, recycling fine particles back into the process to optimize raw material use and reduce waste. Their low-maintenance design contributes to cost savings, with typical lifespans of 10-20 years under regular upkeep, as they lack disposable filter media that require frequent replacement. Economically, cyclonic separators offer favorable ranging from $500 to $5,000 per m³/s of capacity, making them accessible for large-scale integration compared to more complex systems. Operational savings arise from minimal use and the absence of recurring expenses for filter media or chemical additives, allowing for payback periods as short as 1-2 years in high-dust environments like power plants and refineries. These factors, combined with robust for handling materials, position cyclones as a reliable choice for enhancing process efficiency and reducing long-term expenditures in .

Environmental and Other Applications

Cyclonic separation plays a crucial role in control by removing from exhaust gases in various sources. In waste facilities, cyclones effectively capture coarse from gases, reducing to comply with regulatory standards such as those set by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). In engines, retrofit cyclone separators provide a non-contact method to trap and fine , including PM2.5, with minimal backpressure impact on performance, supporting adherence to EPA guidelines for heavy-duty vehicles. Hydrocyclones are widely applied in for efficient solid-liquid separation. In plants, they remove —such as and —from streams, achieving approximately 17% efficiency for fixed solids and preventing downstream equipment . For from hydraulic fracturing operations, de-oiling s separate emulsified oil droplets from water using centrifugal forces, enabling water reuse or safe discharge while meeting environmental discharge limits. Emerging applications of cyclonic separation extend to food processing and biomedical fields. In starch production, hydrocyclones wash and concentrate starch slurries from or , removing proteins and fibers to yield high-purity products with minimal usage. In biomedical processes, hydrocyclones facilitate harvesting, such as separating Chinese hamster (CHO) cells from culture media in perfusion bioreactors, offering a fouling-resistant alternative to traditional with up to 90% retention. Similarly, they enable continuous harvesting of for production, achieving high throughput without cell damage. As of 2025, recent advancements include innovative designs achieving 30% improved capture of PM2.5 particles and transverse cyclones optimized for underground ventilation systems. Cyclonic separation contributes to by supporting principles through material recovery from waste streams. In , dense medium separation () cyclones sort polymers by density, reducing landfill disposal of sortable plastics by up to 50% and enabling high-value . For , cyclones recover active materials like from spent lithium-ion batteries, promoting resource conservation and minimizing environmental impacts from e-waste. Additionally, in systems, cyclone integration aids in capturing while facilitating , aligning with broader goals of reducing emissions and enhancing .

Performance and Limitations

Advantages

Cyclone separators provide substantial economic benefits through their low capital and operating costs compared to alternative particulate control devices such as baghouses or electrostatic precipitators. Their simple , consisting of few parts that are easy to assemble, minimizes initial requirements. Unlike filter-based systems that rely on consumables like bags or media, cyclones incur no such recurring expenses, resulting in significantly reduced long-term operational expenditures. Additionally, they exhibit short periods in industrial settings due to these cost efficiencies and high throughput capabilities. From an operational standpoint, cyclone separators demonstrate high reliability owing to their lack of , which eliminates mechanical wear and supports mean times between failures often exceeding several years in demanding environments. They facilitate continuous operation without interruptions for cleaning or maintenance, as there are no components that require periodic replacement or . Capable of handling elevated temperatures up to °C or higher and without structural , they are well-suited for harsh process conditions. Their scalability allows deployment from laboratory-scale units to large industrial systems processing gas flows from 1 to over 100,000 scfm. The versatility of cyclone separators extends to their effectiveness across diverse media, including dry and wet gases, as well as liquid-solid separations in variants, without the need for chemical additives that could introduce secondary . This mechanical separation principle ensures adaptability to various particle types, from dust and abrasives to droplets. In comparison to other technologies, cyclone separators offer simpler design and operation than baghouses, particularly for coarse particle removal (>10 μm), where they achieve efficiencies exceeding 98% without the complexity of fabric filtration. They also surpass chambers in efficiency for finer particles greater than 5 μm, providing more reliable capture through centrifugal forces rather than alone.

Challenges and Enhancements

Cyclonic separation faces significant limitations in handling fine particles, particularly those in the submicron range. For particles smaller than 1 μm, collection typically drops below 50% due to insufficient centrifugal forces relative to drag and effects, rendering cyclones ineffective for ultrafine control in many settings. Additionally, cyclones incur high pressure drops, often ranging from 500 to 2000 , which translate to of approximately 0.3-1.0 kWh per 1000 m³ of processed gas and elevate operational costs in energy-sensitive processes. Re-entrainment of collected particles in the represents another key issue, frequently caused by solids bridging or overflow, which allows settled material to become resuspended in the outlet stream and reduces overall separation performance. Operational challenges further complicate deployment. Cyclones are highly sensitive to inlet flow variations, where deviations in velocity or volume can disrupt vortex stability and degrade efficiency by up to 20-30% in unstable conditions. Buildup of sticky or cohesive materials on internal surfaces leads to obstructions and uneven flow distribution, necessitating frequent cleaning. In corrosive environments, such as those involving acidic gases or saline aerosols, material degradation accelerates, demanding robust linings like or ceramics to mitigate maintenance demands and extend . To overcome these drawbacks, several enhancements have been implemented. Hybrid systems integrating cyclones with downstream fabric filters address fine particle inefficiencies by capturing submicron fractions that escape the cyclone, achieving overall efficiencies exceeding 99% in combined operation while distributing across components. Vortex stabilizers, installed near the dust outlet, prevent vortex precession and end-wall short-circuiting, enhancing particle retention by stabilizing the inner vortex . Adjustable inlet designs, such as variable-width slots or vanes, enable adaptation to flow changes, optimizing separation under varying loads without major redesigns. Looking ahead, advancements include using and to analyze parameters like flow and pressure, potentially improving in industrial applications as of 2025.