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Educational evaluation

Educational evaluation is the systematic process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data to assess the merit, worth, and effectiveness of educational programs, teaching practices, curricula, and student outcomes, thereby informing decisions to enhance learning and institutional performance.^[1]^[2] This field draws on empirical methods such as standardized assessments, observational studies, and performance metrics to generate actionable insights, distinguishing it from mere testing by emphasizing holistic judgment of educational value.^[3] Key approaches include formative evaluation, which provides ongoing feedback for improvement during instruction, and summative evaluation, which measures overall achievement against standards at endpoints like course completion or program cycles.^[4] Empirical reviews highlight its role in causal analysis, such as randomized controlled trials and quasi-experimental designs, to isolate factors influencing educational impacts amid confounding variables like socioeconomic status.^[5] While effective for accountability and resource allocation, controversies arise over metric limitations—e.g., standardized tests' correlations with cognitive skills but weaker ties to non-academic competencies—and risks of gaming systems through teaching to the test, underscoring needs for multifaceted, bias-resistant tools.^[6]^[7]

Definition and Purpose

Core Definition

Educational evaluation is the systematic process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting evidence to judge the merit, worth, or quality of educational programs, curricula, teaching practices, or student outcomes.^[8] This involves applying defined criteria and standards to determine effectiveness in achieving intended educational goals, often through quantitative metrics like test scores or qualitative data such as observations and feedback.^[1] Unlike narrower student assessments focused solely on measuring knowledge acquisition, evaluation encompasses broader judgments about value and improvement potential, drawing from first-principles scrutiny of causal links between inputs like instructional methods and outputs like learning gains.^[9] At its core, educational evaluation employs rigorous methodologies to generate actionable insights for decision-making at institutional levels, including curriculum design and policy formulation.^[10] Key principles include validity—ensuring measures accurately reflect intended constructs—and reliability—achieving consistent results across applications—as established by standards from bodies like the Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation, which define it as the systematic investigation of an educational program's worth or merit.^[9] Empirical data from randomized controlled trials or longitudinal studies often underpin these judgments, prioritizing causal evidence over anecdotal reports to avoid biases in self-reported efficacy common in academic institutions.^[8] This process distinguishes itself by integrating formative elements for ongoing refinement with summative ones for final accountability, always grounded in verifiable outcomes rather than ideological preferences.^[2] For instance, evaluations may quantify return on investment in interventions, such as a 2020 meta-analysis showing standardized testing's role in identifying achievement gaps with effect sizes around 0.2-0.5 standard deviations.^[10] Sources from government agencies like the National Center for Education Statistics emphasize procedural rigor to inform evidence-based reforms, countering tendencies in academia toward less falsifiable qualitative narratives.^[1]

Primary Objectives

The primary objectives of educational evaluation encompass assessing the achievement of intended learning outcomes, providing actionable feedback to enhance instruction, and ensuring accountability in resource allocation and program efficacy. At its core, evaluation serves to quantify student mastery of knowledge and skills against predefined standards, enabling educators to verify whether instructional goals—such as cognitive proficiency in mathematics or literacy—are met through empirical measures like test scores or performance metrics.^[11] This objective aligns with causal principles where evaluation data directly links inputs (e.g., curriculum delivery) to outputs (e.g., skill acquisition), as evidenced by longitudinal studies showing correlations between targeted assessments and improved student proficiency rates, such as a 15-20% gain in standardized scores following data-driven adjustments.^[6] A second key objective is to diagnose instructional gaps and guide pedagogical refinements, allowing teachers to adapt methods based on evidence of what facilitates learning versus what hinders it. For instance, formative evaluations identify specific weaknesses, such as low comprehension in conceptual areas, prompting interventions that have been shown to boost retention by up to 25% in controlled classroom trials.^[12]^[13] This feedback loop prioritizes student-centered improvement over mere grading, countering critiques from academic sources that emphasize evaluation's role in refining teaching efficacy rather than solely serving administrative ends.^[14] Additionally, educational evaluation fulfills accountability functions by appraising program worth for stakeholders, including policymakers and funders, to justify expenditures and drive systemic reforms. Data from program evaluations, such as those under U.S. federal guidelines, demonstrate that rigorous assessments correlate with better resource targeting, where underperforming initiatives receive scrutiny leading to discontinuation or overhaul in approximately 30% of cases reviewed since 2000.^[15]^[8] This objective underscores causal realism by tracing educational outcomes to verifiable interventions, though sources note potential biases in institutional reporting that may inflate success metrics without independent verification.^[16] Finally, evaluations support decision-making for placement, certification, and policy, providing evidence for advancing students, allocating support services, or scaling effective practices. Scholarly analyses indicate that well-designed evaluations predict future performance with 70-80% accuracy in aptitude-based placements, informing choices that optimize individual trajectories while minimizing opportunity costs.^[14]^[17] These objectives collectively prioritize empirical validation over subjective judgments, ensuring evaluations contribute to evidence-based enhancements in educational systems.

Historical Development

Pre-20th Century Origins

The earliest systematic forms of educational evaluation emerged in ancient China with the imperial examination system (keju), instituted during the Han Dynasty around 165 BCE to assess candidates for civil service positions based on mastery of Confucian classics rather than aristocratic lineage.^[18] This meritocratic approach involved oral recitations and written compositions testing ethical knowledge, poetry, and policy analysis, with examinations held triennially at provincial and national levels; successful candidates (jinshi) gained bureaucratic roles, influencing social mobility for over 2,000 years until its abolition in 1905.^[19] The system's scale—evaluating thousands annually through multi-stage filters—represented an early precursor to standardized assessment, prioritizing rote memorization and interpretive skills over practical aptitude, though it fostered widespread literacy among elites.^[20] In medieval Europe, following the establishment of universities such as Bologna in 1088 and the University of Paris around 1150, student evaluation centered on oral disputations (disputatio), where candidates publicly defended theses against challenges from peers and masters to demonstrate logical reasoning and doctrinal fidelity.^[21] These assessments, required for licentiate and doctoral degrees, emphasized argumentative prowess over factual recall, with four disputations typically mandated for graduation—two as respondent and two as opponent—under the oversight of faculty senates.^[22] Ranking systems based on performance in lectures and examinations emerged in institutions like the Brethren of the Common Life schools by the late 14th century, using merit-based hierarchies to assign roles, though subjectivity in oral judgments limited reliability.^[23] Written tests remained uncommon, as parchment scarcity and guild-like academic structures favored verbal methods tied to apprenticeship models. By the Renaissance and into the Enlightenment (14th–18th centuries), European assessment practices showed incremental shifts toward written elements in Jesuit colleges and emerging state schools, incorporating graphical aids and memorization of scientific texts, yet retained oral primacy for evaluating rhetorical and moral competence.^[6] In the 19th century, reformers like Horace Mann in Massachusetts introduced written examinations in 1845 to supplant annual oral recitations in public schools, seeking greater uniformity and reduced teacher bias amid expanding compulsory education; this facilitated objective grading of arithmetic, grammar, and geography for thousands of pupils.^[24] Such innovations laid groundwork for scalability, though pre-1900 evaluations universally prioritized content knowledge over modern psychometric validity, reflecting societal emphases on moral formation and administrative selection.^[25]

Standardization in the 20th Century

The development of standardized testing in education accelerated in the early 20th century with the importation and adaptation of European intelligence scales. In 1905, French psychologist Alfred Binet and physician Théodore Simon created the Binet-Simon scale to identify children requiring remedial education in Paris schools, marking the first practical tool for measuring cognitive abilities through age-normed tasks.^[26] This scale was revised and standardized in the United States by Lewis Terman of Stanford University, who published the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale in 1916, introducing the intelligence quotient (IQ) formula and emphasizing hereditary aspects of intelligence, though Binet had stressed environmental influences and test limitations.^[26]^[27] World War I catalyzed the shift to large-scale group testing, influencing civilian education. In 1917, psychologist Robert Yerkes directed the U.S. Army's Committee on Classification of Personnel to develop the Army Alpha test for literate recruits and the Army Beta for illiterate or non-English speakers, administering these to approximately 1.75 million men by 1918 to sort them by mental ability for military roles.^[28] These tests, comprising verbal analogies, arithmetic, and non-verbal mazes, demonstrated the feasibility of mass psychometric assessment, though results revealed average IQ scores lower among immigrants and non-whites, later critiqued for cultural biases rather than innate differences. Post-war, this model proliferated in schools; by 1918, over 100 standardized achievement tests existed for elementary and secondary subjects, driven by the efficiency movement to classify students for tracking into vocational or academic paths.^[29] The interwar period saw standardization extend to college admissions and broader curriculum evaluation. The College Board, seeking objective selection amid growing applicant pools, introduced the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) on June 23, 1926, to 8,040 high school students, adapting Army test formats with multiple-choice items in verbal and mathematical reasoning.^[30] This norm-referenced exam prioritized innate aptitude over achievement, aligning with psychometricians like Carl Brigham, who viewed it as measuring inherited intelligence, though it faced early criticism for favoring privileged backgrounds.^[31] By the 1930s, standardized tests became integral to school accountability, with states adopting them to compare districts, reflecting progressive ideals of scientific management in education despite uneven validity across diverse populations.^[32] Mid-century expansions solidified standardization amid policy shifts. Following World War II, federal initiatives like the 1944 G.I. Bill increased college access, boosting SAT usage, while the 1958 National Defense Education Act funded testing to identify talent in STEM amid Cold War competition.^[33] By the 1960s, multiple-choice formats dominated due to scoring efficiency, with tests like the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills achieving widespread adoption in over 10,000 districts by 1970, enabling national benchmarking but raising concerns over narrowing curricula to testable content.^[29] These developments prioritized quantifiable metrics for resource allocation, though empirical studies later highlighted persistent cultural and socioeconomic disparities in scores, underscoring the need for contextual interpretation over absolute rankings.^[34]

Post-2000 Reforms and Expansions

The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), signed into law on January 8, 2002, marked a significant expansion of federal involvement in educational evaluation by mandating annual standardized testing in reading and mathematics for grades 3 through 8 and once in high school, with results disaggregated by subgroups including race, income, English proficiency, and disability status.^[35] Schools were required to demonstrate Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) toward 100% proficiency by 2014, with failing schools facing sanctions such as restructuring or state takeover after repeated shortfalls.^[36] This reform shifted evaluation toward outcome-based accountability, correlating with increased instructional time in tested subjects—up to 20-30% reallocation in some districts—but also evidence of curriculum narrowing, as non-tested areas like social studies received less emphasis.^[36] Subsequent reforms under the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), enacted on December 10, 2015, retained annual testing requirements but devolved greater authority to states for designing accountability systems, eliminating NCLB's federal AYP mandates and prescriptive interventions.^[37] States could incorporate multiple indicators beyond test scores, such as student growth, school climate, and chronic absenteeism, while capping assessment time at 1% of instructional hours per subject.^[38] ESSA also expanded evaluations to include support for English learners and students with disabilities through extended timelines for proficiency goals.^[38] Empirical analyses indicate ESSA fostered diverse state models, though implementation varied, with some states prioritizing growth metrics over absolute proficiency to better capture causal impacts on learning trajectories.^[39] Post-2000 expansions in teacher evaluation incorporated value-added models (VAMs), which estimate educator effects by analyzing student achievement gains relative to prior performance and peers, gaining prominence through the 2009 Race to the Top grants that incentivized their use in up to 50% of personnel decisions.^[40] VAMs, refined since early 2000s pilots, adjust for student demographics and school factors, revealing that teachers in the top quartile produce 0.10-0.15 standard deviation gains annually, though models face challenges in stability across years and subjects due to sampling error.^[41]^[42] The adoption of the Common Core State Standards in 2010 by 45 states prompted aligned assessments via consortia like PARCC and Smarter Balanced, introducing computer-adaptive formats and performance tasks to evaluate deeper skills such as problem-solving, replacing many prior state tests by 2014-2015.^[43] Internationally, the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), launched in 2000 and cycled triennially, expanded to over 70 countries by 2018, influencing national evaluations through comparable literacy, math, and science metrics that correlate with policy shifts toward skills-based accountability.^[44] Similarly, Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) assessments post-2003 emphasized trend data for curriculum reforms, with U.S. participation highlighting stable fourth-grade gains but persistent secondary gaps.^[45] These developments reflect a broader causal emphasis on data-driven reforms, though critiques from academic sources often understate achievement lifts in favor of equity concerns, warranting scrutiny given institutional biases toward de-emphasizing standardized metrics.^[36]

Types and Methods

Formative and Diagnostic Assessments

Formative assessments are evaluations conducted during the instructional process to monitor student progress, provide feedback, and adjust teaching strategies accordingly.^[46] They emphasize ongoing evidence collection of student learning to inform immediate improvements, rather than final judgments.^[47] In contrast, diagnostic assessments occur prior to or at the start of instruction to identify students' existing knowledge, skills, strengths, and gaps, enabling targeted planning.^[48] While both serve instructional adaptation, formative assessments focus on real-time responsiveness during learning units, whereas diagnostic ones establish baselines from prior experiences or prerequisites.^[49] The primary purpose of formative assessments is to enhance learning outcomes through iterative feedback loops, allowing teachers to modify lessons based on student responses and students to self-regulate their efforts.^[50] Common methods include ungraded quizzes, classroom discussions, peer reviews, and exit tickets, often integrated seamlessly into daily teaching without high-stakes pressure.^[51] Diagnostic assessments, by comparison, aim to diagnose specific learning needs, such as misconceptions or prerequisite deficits, through tools like pre-tests, concept inventories, or skill checklists administered before new content introduction.^[52] For instance, a diagnostic reading assessment might reveal phonemic awareness gaps in early elementary students, guiding remedial grouping.^[53] Empirical evidence supports the efficacy of formative assessments in boosting achievement, with meta-analyses indicating modest to substantial positive effects; one review of K-12 studies found an average effect size of 0.19 for reading comprehension gains when feedback was timely and specific.^[54] Another synthesis across subjects reported effect sizes ranging from trivial (0.10) to large (0.80), particularly when involving student self-assessment, though outcomes vary by implementation fidelity and teacher training.^[55] Diagnostic assessments contribute causally by enabling differentiated instruction, as evidenced in intervention studies where pre-identification of weaknesses correlated with up to 15-20% improvements in targeted skill mastery post-remediation.^[56] However, their impact depends on follow-through; isolated diagnostics without linked formative actions yield negligible long-term benefits, underscoring the need for integrated use.^[57] Peer-reviewed sources consistently affirm these tools' value in causal chains from assessment to adaptation, though academic literature occasionally overstates universality due to selection biases in published trials favoring positive results.^[58]

Summative and Standardized Testing

Summative assessments evaluate student learning, skill acquisition, and academic achievement at the conclusion of a defined instructional period, such as a unit, course, or program.^[59] These assessments typically occur after instruction has ended, providing a benchmark against predefined standards or criteria to determine mastery of content and objectives.^[60] Unlike ongoing formative evaluations, summative measures focus on final outcomes, often through tools like end-of-unit exams, final projects, or cumulative portfolios, with results used for grading, certification, or accountability decisions.^[61] Empirical studies indicate that well-designed summative assessments can reliably gauge proficiency when aligned with instructional goals, though their high-stakes nature may incentivize narrow curriculum focus.^[46] Standardized testing represents a structured subset of summative assessment, characterized by uniform administration, identical or equivalently calibrated questions drawn from a common item bank, and consistent scoring procedures to enable comparisons across individuals, schools, or populations.^[62] These tests are norm-referenced, comparing performance to a peer group, or criterion-referenced, measuring against fixed benchmarks, and include examples such as state-mandated achievement exams (e.g., those under the U.S. No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, requiring annual testing in grades 3-8), college admissions tests like the SAT (introduced in 1926 and revised multiple times, with digital format adopted in 2024), and international benchmarks like PISA (administered triennially since 2000 by the OECD, assessing 15-year-olds in reading, math, and science across 80+ countries).^[29] Standardization ensures objectivity and reliability, with psychometric properties like test-retest consistency often exceeding 0.80 in large-scale implementations, allowing for valid inferences about achievement gaps—such as the persistent 20-30 point disparities in NAEP math scores between higher- and lower-income U.S. students since the 1990s.^[32]^[63] In practice, summative standardized tests drive systemic evaluation by aggregating data for policy insights, with evidence from longitudinal analyses showing correlations between test score gains and subsequent educational attainment; for instance, a 0.1 standard deviation increase in state test scores predicts a 1-2% rise in high school graduation rates.^[64] However, causal impacts remain debated, as studies controlling for confounders like socioeconomic status reveal modest effects on overall achievement, with some meta-analyses estimating that accountability-linked testing accounts for only 5-10% variance in long-term outcomes amid confounding factors such as family background.^[65] Critics, often from education advocacy groups, argue overemphasis leads to "teaching to the test," but rigorous reviews find limited empirical support for widespread curriculum narrowing when tests align with standards, emphasizing instead the value of comparable metrics for identifying underperformance in diverse settings.^[66]^[32]

Alternative and Performance-Based Methods

Alternative assessments in education refer to evaluative approaches that prioritize authentic demonstrations of student competencies over rote memorization or multiple-choice responses, often incorporating portfolios, projects, peer reviews, self-assessments, and performance tasks.^[67] These methods emerged as responses to limitations in standardized testing, aiming to capture higher-order thinking, creativity, and real-world application skills.^[68] For instance, portfolios compile student work over time to showcase progress and depth, while performance-based assessments require learners to produce tangible outputs, such as designing experiments or solving complex problems, mirroring professional or practical scenarios.^[69] Empirical studies indicate that performance-based assessments can foster deeper learning and skill retention compared to traditional formats. A 2010 analysis by Darling-Hammond and Adamson found that such methods promote transferable knowledge, with students in performance-assessment programs demonstrating superior problem-solving abilities in longitudinal tracking.^[70] Similarly, a 2022 study on English as a foreign language learners showed performance-based approaches significantly improved reading comprehension (effect size 0.75), metacognitive awareness, and self-efficacy, outperforming conventional testing in skill integration.^[71] In special education contexts, alternative tools like rubrics for project evaluations enhanced engagement and outcomes for students with disabilities, as evidenced by qualitative and quantitative data from classroom implementations.^[72] Despite these benefits, alternative methods face challenges in scalability and objectivity. They demand substantial teacher training and time—often 20-50% more grading effort than standardized tests—potentially introducing rater bias without calibrated rubrics.^[73] A 2021 survey of higher education faculty highlighted barriers like resource constraints, though enablers such as student choice in tasks correlated with higher motivation and perceived fairness.^[74] Validity evidence supports their use for formative feedback, but inter-rater reliability varies (kappa coefficients 0.60-0.85 in controlled studies), underscoring the need for standardized criteria to mitigate subjectivity.^[75] Overall, while effective for holistic evaluation, these approaches complement rather than fully replace standardized measures for broad comparability.^[76]

Key Principles and Technical Aspects

Validity, Reliability, and Objectivity

Validity in educational evaluation refers to the degree to which evidence and theory justify the intended interpretations and uses of assessment scores, rather than an inherent property of the test itself. The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (2014), jointly developed by the American Educational Research Association (AERA), American Psychological Association (APA), and National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME), emphasize that validity evidence accumulates across sources, including test content, response processes, internal structure, relations to other variables, and testing consequences.^[77] For instance, content validity evidence requires that items adequately represent the domain of knowledge or skills, as judged by subject-matter experts, while criterion-related validity assesses correlations with external criteria, such as concurrent validity (e.g., alignment with current performance) or predictive validity (e.g., forecasting future academic success).^[78] Construct validity, encompassing both, evaluates whether scores reflect the underlying theoretical construct, like mathematical reasoning rather than mere memorization.^[79] Empirical studies show that poorly validated assessments, such as those lacking construct alignment, can misrepresent student abilities, leading to flawed instructional decisions.^[80] Reliability quantifies the consistency and stability of assessment scores across repeated administrations or equivalent forms, essential as a prerequisite for meaningful validity inferences. Common methods include test-retest reliability, measuring score correlations over time (e.g., coefficients above 0.80 indicate high stability for stable traits like intelligence), internal consistency via Cronbach's alpha (typically ≥0.70 deemed acceptable for group-level decisions in educational contexts), and inter-rater reliability for subjective scoring, often using Cohen's kappa to account for chance agreement.^[81] ^[82] Standard errors of measurement, derived from reliability estimates, provide confidence intervals around scores; for example, a reliability of 0.90 yields a smaller error band than 0.70, enhancing score precision.^[83] In practice, low reliability (e.g., below 0.70) in high-stakes tests like state accountability exams amplifies measurement error, potentially misclassifying student proficiency by 10-20% or more.^[84] Objectivity in educational assessments ensures scoring impartiality, minimizing scorer bias through standardized procedures, particularly for open-ended items like essays where subjective judgment predominates. Objective formats, such as multiple-choice questions, yield a single correct response verifiable without discretion, inherently reducing variability.^[85] For subjective evaluations, objectivity is achieved via detailed rubrics, analytic scoring guides, and multiple independent raters, with inter-rater agreement targets often exceeding 80% to mitigate halo effects or cultural preconceptions.^[86] Research indicates that without such controls, rater subjectivity can inflate score variance by up to 30%, undermining fairness, as seen in studies of teacher-graded writing where explicit criteria halved discrepancies.^[87] Validity and reliability interdepend with objectivity: unreliable scoring erodes both, as inconsistent application distorts intended constructs and score stability, while the 2014 Standards advocate integrating objectivity evidence into broader validity arguments for equitable use.^[77]

Measurement of Bias and Fairness

In educational assessment, bias refers to systematic errors in test scores attributable to construct-irrelevant factors, such as group membership in race, gender, or socioeconomic status, rather than differences in the measured construct like cognitive ability or knowledge.^[88] Fairness encompasses the absence of such bias, equitable administration and scoring, and equal opportunity to demonstrate proficiency, as outlined in the 2014 Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing jointly developed by the American Educational Research Association (AERA), American Psychological Association (APA), and National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME).^[89] These standards mandate that test developers provide evidence of fairness through psychometric analyses, emphasizing that observed group score differences alone do not constitute bias unless linked to item or test functioning disparities.^[90] A primary method for measuring item-level bias is differential item functioning (DIF), which statistically examines whether test items yield different probabilities of correct responses for individuals from focal (e.g., minority) and reference (e.g., majority) groups matched on overall ability.^[91] Common DIF detection procedures include the Mantel-Haenszel (MH) statistic, a non-parametric odds ratio test applied to contingency tables of item performance by ability strata; logistic regression, which models item responses as a function of ability, group membership, and their interaction; and item response theory (IRT)-based approaches like the Raju area method, which quantify DIF magnitude via differences in item characteristic curves across groups.^[92] For instance, MH-DIF flags items with common odds ratios deviating significantly from 1.0 (p < 0.05), with effect sizes classified as negligible (C < 0.1), moderate (0.1-0.3), or large (>0.3).^[93] These methods are routinely applied in large-scale assessments, such as state accountability tests, to flag and revise potentially biased items during development.^[94] At the test level, differential test functioning (DTF) aggregates DIF across items to assess overall scale invariance, using techniques like IRT-based expected score differences or structural equation modeling to verify measurement equivalence via configural, metric, and scalar invariance tests.^[95] Fairness in predictive contexts, such as college admissions, is evaluated through regression-based analyses of prediction errors, where bias exists if the test over- or under-predicts outcomes (e.g., GPA) for certain groups after controlling for true ability.^[96] The NCME standards require documentation of these analyses, including subgroup sample sizes (typically n > 200 per group for reliable DIF detection) and purification steps to remove DIF items iteratively for unbiased matching.^[97] Empirical studies, such as those on health-related quality-of-life scales adapted for education, demonstrate that DIF is often small and purifiable in modern tests, though cultural loading in verbal items can persist without explicit controls.^[98] Critically, psychometric definitions distinguish bias from mean group differences, which may reflect causal factors like prior educational opportunities rather than test flaws; for example, performance gaps on standardized math tests correlate with socioeconomic indicators but show minimal DIF after ability matching.^[88] Sources from academic psychometrics, while rigorous in methodology, occasionally reflect institutional pressures to interpret residual differences as systemic bias without causal evidence, underscoring the need for first-principles scrutiny of group invariance over unsubstantiated equity narratives.^[99] Ongoing advancements integrate machine learning fairness metrics, like demographic parity, with traditional psychometrics to model algorithmic decisions in adaptive testing, though these require validation against empirical criterion outcomes to avoid conflating equality of outcomes with measurement accuracy.^[100]

Applications in Education

Student Learning and Achievement Evaluation

Student learning and achievement evaluation encompasses systematic methods to gauge students' knowledge acquisition, skill proficiency, and academic growth, often using metrics like test scores, grades, and growth trajectories to inform instruction and accountability. These evaluations distinguish between absolute performance levels and value-added progress, controlling for prior achievement to isolate learning gains. Empirical studies indicate that effective evaluation practices, when tied to instructional adjustments, yield measurable improvements in outcomes, with effect sizes ranging from moderate to large depending on implementation fidelity.^[40]^[101] Formative assessments, involving ongoing feedback and adjustments during instruction, demonstrate consistent positive effects on student achievement. A 2024 meta-analysis of 258 effect sizes across 118 primary studies worldwide reported a significant overall positive impact on K-12 academic performance, with larger gains in mathematics and science compared to other subjects. Similarly, another systematic review of meta-analyses confirmed trivial to large positive effects from formative practices, attributing gains to enhanced student self-regulation and teacher responsiveness, without identifying negative outcomes. These findings build on earlier work, such as Black and Wiliam's 1998 synthesis, which documented effect sizes up to 0.4 to 0.8 standard deviations in diverse settings.^[58]^[55]^[102] Summative evaluations, including standardized tests, provide benchmarks for comparing achievement across populations and predicting long-term success. Test scores correlate strongly with future educational attainment and labor market earnings; for instance, analyses of large U.S. datasets show that a one-standard-deviation increase in test scores predicts 0.1 to 0.2 years of additional schooling and higher income trajectories. Retrieval practice inherent in testing further boosts retention, with controlled experiments demonstrating improved long-term performance over restudying alone, as measured by subsequent test gains of 10-20%. However, high-stakes applications can induce anxiety, though evidence links this more to perceived pressure than the tests themselves, and objective scoring mitigates subjective biases in alternatives like portfolios.^[103]^[104] Value-added models (VAMs) refine achievement evaluation by estimating growth beyond expected trajectories based on demographics and priors, offering causal insights into learning effectiveness. Validation studies confirm VAMs predict student test score improvements post-random teacher assignment, outperforming non-data-driven methods in precision. A review of VAM applications found that reassigning students to higher-value-added instructors raised achievement by 0.01 to 0.05 standard deviations annually, with persistent effects on subgroups. Despite debates over model assumptions, empirical Bayes adjustments enhance reliability, reducing noise in teacher-student linkages.^[42]^[101]^[105] Integration of multiple evaluation types—formative for process, summative for endpoints—maximizes validity, as hybrid approaches correlate more strongly with skill mastery than single-method reliance. Longitudinal data from districts implementing rigorous systems, such as those tracking growth from grades 3-8, reveal sustained achievement lifts of 5-10% in proficiency rates when evaluations drive targeted interventions.^[106]^[107]

Teacher and Administrator Performance Assessment

Teacher performance assessments commonly incorporate multiple measures, including value-added models (VAMs) derived from student test score growth, classroom observations using structured rubrics, and student or peer feedback. VAMs statistically estimate a teacher's contribution to student achievement by controlling for prior performance and demographics, revealing substantial variation in teacher quality that correlates with long-term student outcomes such as future earnings.^[108] ^[109] For instance, empirical analyses indicate that teachers in the top quartile by VAM produce student gains equivalent to 0.10 to 0.15 standard deviations annually, effects persisting into adulthood.^[108] Classroom observations, often conducted by trained evaluators using protocols like the Danielson Framework, assess instructional practices such as content delivery and student engagement but suffer from inter-rater reliability issues and potential subjectivity, with correlations to student outcomes typically lower than VAMs (around 0.10-0.20).^[110] Student surveys provide additional input, though research shows they predict short-term satisfaction more than long-term learning, with biases toward lenient grading.^[111] High-stakes evaluations linking these measures to tenure or dismissal have mixed impacts; a study of Chicago reforms found modest gains in student math scores (0.01-0.02 standard deviations) but no broad improvements in reading or attainment.^[112] Conversely, sustained implementation in districts like Washington, D.C., correlated with ongoing teacher quality enhancements and student achievement rises.^[113] Administrator assessments focus on leadership metrics, including school-wide student growth, teacher retention rates, and professional development facilitation, evaluated via rubrics emphasizing instructional leadership and data-driven decision-making.^[114] ^[115] For example, principal evaluations often weight school performance (40-60%) alongside qualitative reviews of vision-setting and resource allocation, with evidence linking effective principals to 3-5 percentile point gains in school proficiency rates.^[116] Empirical studies highlight that principal quality explains up to 25% of within-school variation in teacher effectiveness, underscoring causal links to organizational outcomes.^[117] Limitations include reliance on aggregate data vulnerable to external factors like enrollment shifts, prompting calls for balanced multi-source systems to mitigate bias.^[118] Overall, rigorous assessments prioritizing objective student growth metrics outperform subjective-only approaches in identifying and incentivizing high performers, though systemic implementation challenges persist.^[119]

Curriculum and Program Effectiveness Review

Curriculum and program effectiveness in educational evaluation involves rigorous assessment of whether instructional materials and broader initiatives achieve intended learning outcomes, such as improved student achievement in core subjects like reading and mathematics. Evaluations prioritize causal designs like randomized controlled trials (RCTs) to isolate program impacts from confounding factors, supplemented by quasi-experimental and longitudinal studies tracking sustained effects over time.^[120]^[121] These methods measure outcomes against baselines, often using standardized tests aligned with program goals, while controlling for variables like teacher quality and student demographics. Meta-analyses of experimental studies reveal that explicit instruction curricula, which emphasize direct teacher-led explanation and guided practice, outperform unassisted discovery-based approaches in fostering skill acquisition and retention, with effect sizes favoring explicit methods in domains like mathematics and science.^[122] For elementary mathematics, a review of 87 rigorous studies across 66 programs found positive effects for structured interventions like Saxon Math and Everyday Mathematics when implemented with high fidelity, though overall evidence quality varies, with many programs showing no significant gains due to weak study designs.^[123] Longitudinal data further indicate that consistent exposure to evidence-based curricula correlates with higher achievement trajectories, but school mobility and inconsistent application can attenuate benefits.^[124] Implementation fidelity—adherence to program protocols—emerges as a critical mediator of effectiveness; deviations, such as inadequate teacher training, often nullify potential gains, as evidenced in district-level adoptions where curriculum changes alone yielded no measurable improvements without sustained professional development.^[125]^[126] The What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) standardizes such reviews by rating interventions on evidence tiers, highlighting programs with "strong evidence of positive effects" based on multiple high-quality RCTs, while noting common limitations like short-term outcome focus and underrepresentation of diverse populations.^[127] Despite these tools, systemic challenges persist, including publication bias toward positive results in academic literature and resistance to scaling effective but teacher-intensive programs.^[128]

Controversies and Criticisms

High-Stakes Testing and Its Impacts

High-stakes testing refers to standardized assessments where outcomes determine significant consequences, such as student promotion, graduation, school funding, or teacher evaluations.^[129] Implemented widely under policies like the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, these tests aim to enforce accountability but have produced mixed empirical results on educational quality.^[36] Proponents argue that high-stakes mechanisms incentivize improvement, particularly in underperforming schools. A study of state policies found that accountability pressure led to larger achievement gains in low-performing schools compared to higher-performing ones, with effect sizes equivalent to reducing class sizes by 10 students.^[130] In Texas, pre-NCLB high-stakes testing correlated with gains in student exam performance, especially for at-risk schools facing low-rating risks.^[131] However, broader analyses indicate limited overall influence on academic performance, with pressure from high-stakes systems showing negligible effects on national or state-level student outcomes beyond targeted score inflation.^[132] Critics highlight systemic distortions, encapsulated by Campbell's law, which posits that the more any quantitative social indicator drives decision-making, the more it invites corruption or manipulation.^[133] Examples include widespread cheating scandals, such as the 2011 Atlanta Public Schools case where educators altered answers to meet targets, affecting over 44 schools and leading to indictments.^[134] High-stakes environments also narrow curricula, prioritizing tested subjects like math and reading over arts, sciences, or physical education, as teachers allocate disproportionate time to test preparation.^[135] This "teaching to the test" yields short-term score boosts but undermines deeper learning, with NCLB-era audit tests revealing declines in non-state math and reading proficiency despite rising official scores.^[136] Student-level impacts include heightened anxiety and reduced motivation. Research from 2003 linked high-stakes testing to decreased intrinsic motivation and higher dropout rates, particularly among low-achievers facing retention threats.^[137] A 2022 analysis confirmed negative associations between test anxiety and performance on high-stakes reading comprehension exams, mediated by environmental factors.^[138] For schools, consequences extend to resource misallocation and equity issues, as underfunded districts struggle more with compliance, exacerbating achievement gaps without addressing root causes like socioeconomic disparities.^[139] Overall, while high-stakes testing enforces short-term accountability, evidence suggests it often prioritizes measurable outputs over substantive educational gains, prompting calls for balanced, low-stakes alternatives.^[140]

Allegations of Cultural and Racial Bias

Allegations of cultural and racial bias in educational evaluations, particularly standardized achievement and aptitude tests, assert that test items incorporate assumptions from white, middle-class norms, disadvantaging minority students through unfamiliar vocabulary, scenarios, or problem-solving styles.^[141] Critics, often from academic and advocacy circles, argue this leads to systematically lower scores for Black, Hispanic, and other non-Asian minority groups, perpetuating inequality rather than measuring innate or learned ability.^[142] Such claims gained prominence in the mid-20th century, with early IQ tests scrutinized for items like knowledge of Western folklore, though modern tests have undergone revisions to mitigate overt cultural loading.^[143] Psychometric research employing differential item functioning (DIF) analysis, which statistically detects whether items perform differently across groups after controlling for overall ability, has generally found negligible bias in contemporary assessments. DIF studies on large-scale tests like the SAT and state achievement exams reveal that apparent item disparities often stem from real group differences in underlying constructs, such as general cognitive ability (g), rather than cultural artifacts.^[144] ^[145] For instance, comprehensive reviews indicate that after accounting for measurement error and ability levels, racial DIF effects are small and do not explain aggregate score gaps.^[141] Further evidence against systemic bias emerges from predictive validity studies, which demonstrate that test scores forecast educational outcomes—such as college GPA and persistence—equally well across racial groups. Arthur Jensen's analysis of dozens of studies concluded that validity coefficients for mental ability tests show no significant differences between Black and White examinees, with tests often overpredicting minority performance relative to actual outcomes.^[146] ^[147] A 2024 study by economists Raj Chetty and John Friedman, examining SAT and ACT scores for Ivy League applicants, confirmed that students with equivalent test scores achieve similar college GPAs regardless of race or family income, underscoring the tests' unbiased predictive power despite reflecting broader societal disparities in preparation.^[148] These findings persist even in culture-fair formats, like non-verbal matrices tests, where racial score gaps approximate 0.5 to 1 standard deviation, mirroring verbal measures.^[149] Persistent racial achievement gaps—averaging about one standard deviation between Black and White students on NAEP assessments since the 1970s—endure despite decades of test redesigns aimed at reducing cultural influences and increased focus on equity in schooling.^[150] ^[151] This stability suggests gaps arise more from causal factors like family environment, cognitive development, and socioeconomic influences than test artifacts, as evidenced by correlations with non-test indicators of ability, such as reaction times and brain imaging metrics.^[146] While some sources alleging bias originate from institutions prone to ideological skew, rigorous psychometric data prioritizes empirical validation over unsubstantiated equity concerns.^[143]

Conflicts Between Meritocracy and Equity Mandates

In educational evaluation, tensions arise when meritocratic principles—prioritizing assessments based on individual performance, cognitive ability, and objective metrics—clash with equity mandates that seek proportional demographic representation in outcomes, often through race- or group-based adjustments. Meritocracy posits that evaluations should reflect verifiable competence, as measured by standardized tests, grades, and achievement data, to allocate resources and opportunities efficiently. Equity initiatives, however, frequently advocate interventions like differential scoring, lowered thresholds, or preferential treatment to mitigate perceived disparities, arguing that systemic barriers necessitate such measures despite potential dilution of standards. This conflict manifests in reduced predictive validity of evaluations, as adjustments prioritize group outcomes over individual merit, leading to mismatched placements where beneficiaries underperform relative to peers.^[152] A prominent example occurs in college admissions, where pre-2023 affirmative action policies admitted underrepresented minority students with lower academic credentials to selective institutions, resulting in "mismatch" effects documented in empirical studies. Analysis of admissions data from top universities shows that Black and Hispanic students admitted via racial preferences had graduation rates 10-20 percentage points lower than similarly credentialed peers at less selective schools, with only 40-50% completing degrees within six years compared to over 70% for non-preference admits. This stems from curricula demanding higher aptitude than preparatory levels, increasing dropout risks and STEM desistance; for instance, Black law school matriculants under mismatch were half as likely to pass bar exams on first attempt versus those at matched institutions. The U.S. Supreme Court's June 29, 2023, ruling in Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard invalidated race-conscious admissions, mandating merit-based evaluations using metrics like SAT scores and GPAs without demographic proxies, though some institutions have since explored socioeconomic or essay-based workarounds to sustain equity goals, potentially perpetuating indirect preferences.^[153]^[154]^[155] In K-12 settings, equity-driven policies have prompted states to lower proficiency cut scores on standardized tests to narrow reported achievement gaps, masking underlying skill deficits. For example, between 2015 and 2022, over a dozen states, including Oklahoma and Illinois, reduced passing thresholds by 10-30 percentile points for reading and math assessments under frameworks like the Every Student Succeeds Act, enabling schools to claim progress despite stagnant National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) scores showing persistent racial gaps—e.g., 2022 NAEP data revealed 52-point Black-White disparities in 8th-grade math, unchanged from pre-adjustment baselines. Such manipulations prioritize equity optics over rigorous evaluation, correlating with diminished instructional focus on foundational skills, as teachers adapt to softer benchmarks rather than elevating performance. Empirical reviews indicate these changes do not improve long-term outcomes, with adjusted cohorts exhibiting higher remedial needs in postsecondary transitions.^[156]^[157] Teacher and administrator evaluations face similar strains through diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) criteria, which integrate ideological statements or bias training into performance reviews, often superseding classroom efficacy metrics. Surveys of higher education hiring from 2020-2023 found over 20% of academic job postings requiring DEI contributions as a primary criterion, functioning as de facto ideological screens that correlate weakly with teaching outcomes—e.g., faculty with strong DEI portfolios showed no superior student learning gains in controlled studies, yet received advancement preferences. In K-12 districts adopting equity rubrics post-2020, evaluations emphasizing "cultural responsiveness" over student achievement data led to 15-25% fewer sanctions for underperforming teachers in high-minority schools, per district reports, undermining accountability. Critics, drawing on causal analyses, argue this erodes merit by rewarding conformity over results, with data from merit-focused systems like Singapore revealing higher overall equity via unadjusted excellence rather than compensatory measures. While equity proponents cite reduced disparities in representation, rigorous evidence links these practices to stagnant or declining system-wide performance, as merit dilution hampers talent identification.^[158]^[159]^[160]

Empirical Evidence of Effectiveness

Impacts on Student Outcomes

Empirical studies demonstrate that incorporating testing as a learning tool, known as retrieval practice, enhances student retention and performance on subsequent assessments compared to restudying alone. A meta-analysis of practice testing effects found that repeated testing yields a medium effect size (Hedges' g ≈ 0.50) on long-term learning outcomes across diverse subjects and age groups, with benefits persisting for weeks or months.^[161] Similarly, controlled experiments confirm that testing previously studied material improves memory consolidation and transfer to new contexts, outperforming passive review strategies.^[104] High-stakes standardized testing systems, however, show limited causal impacts on overall student achievement gains. Analyses of U.S. state accountability reforms post-No Child Left Behind (2001) indicate small average improvements in math and reading scores (effect sizes of 0.02–0.06 standard deviations), often concentrated in borderline proficient students, with negligible effects on non-tested subjects or deeper learning metrics.^[139] These modest gains are frequently attributed to intensified instruction rather than intrinsic motivation, and evidence suggests potential narrowing of curriculum focus, reducing exposure to arts and sciences.^[162] Test anxiety, exacerbated by high-stakes environments, correlates negatively with performance, particularly in adolescents, with meta-analytic estimates showing a moderate inverse relationship (r ≈ -0.20) between anxiety levels and exam scores.^[163] Conversely, formative assessments—ongoing evaluations providing feedback—yield stronger positive effects on achievement, with syntheses reporting effect sizes up to 0.40 standard deviations when integrated with clear learning objectives.^[164] Long-term outcomes link assessment-driven skills to later success, as standardized test scores predict first-year college GPA (correlations of 0.40–0.50) and earnings in adulthood, independent of socioeconomic factors in some cohorts.^[165] Yet, interventions relying solely on high-stakes metrics often fail to sustain benefits beyond tested domains, with recent evaluations of charter school lotteries showing null effects on postsecondary enrollment or employment despite short-term score boosts.^[166] These findings underscore that while assessments can reinforce learning mechanisms, systemic overreliance on summative high-stakes evaluations risks diminishing broader educational impacts.

Correlations with Long-Term Success Metrics

Standardized test scores from educational evaluations exhibit robust correlations with long-term success metrics, including adult earnings, educational attainment, and social outcomes, even after controlling for socioeconomic status and demographics. Longitudinal analyses linking elementary and middle school achievement tests to administrative data reveal that cognitive skills measured by these tests predict substantial variance in later-life achievements. For instance, a one standard deviation increase in 8th-grade math test scores is associated with an 8.3% rise in adult earned income, based on linkages between National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) scores and Census earnings data from 2001–2019, controlling for age, gender, race/ethnicity, parental education, and birth cohort.^[167] Similarly, math and reading scores in early grades show strong positive correlations with earnings at age 27 and beyond, as evidenced in studies tracking kindergarten test performance to adult financial outcomes.^[168] These correlations extend to postsecondary milestones that underpin economic mobility. In a cohort of over 264,000 Missouri students, 8th-grade advanced math proficiency predicted 74% college enrollment rates and 45% attainment of a four-year degree, compared to just 0.7–2% for below-basic performers, using state longitudinal data systems tracking outcomes over nine years.^[169] Higher test scores also forecast reduced adverse outcomes: per standard deviation gains in math achievement correlate with 20–36% fewer arrests for property and violent crimes, lower teen motherhood rates (0.9 percentage point decline per 0.5 SD), and decreased incarceration, drawing from NAEP-Census-crime data linkages.^[167] Such patterns hold across value-added models of teacher effects, where gains in test scores independently predict adult earnings and neighborhood quality, independent of mere "teaching to the test."^[170] While family income partially explains test score variance (correlations of 0.3–0.42), the incremental predictive power of scores persists after SES adjustments, underscoring the role of measured cognitive abilities in causal pathways to success. Meta-analyses and validity studies affirm that standardized tests like SAT and ACT, which capture similar skills, maintain predictive validity for college GPA and retention, which in turn mediate long-term earnings differentials.^[171] These findings counter narratives minimizing test utility, as empirical linkages to verifiable outcomes—rather than self-reported or short-term proxies—demonstrate their alignment with causal mechanisms like skill acquisition driving productivity and life choices.^[172]

Evaluations of Teacher Assessment Systems

Teacher assessment systems, which typically incorporate student achievement data via value-added models (VAMs), classroom observations, and other metrics, have been empirically evaluated for their validity in measuring instructional quality and their capacity to drive improvements in teacher performance. Research indicates that VAMs can reliably identify variations in teacher effectiveness linked to student outcomes, with estimates showing unbiased averages when models control for prior achievement and student characteristics.^[173] However, these models exhibit limitations in stability over time and potential biases from non-random student assignment, necessitating cautious application in high-stakes decisions.^[174] ^[40] Evaluations of comprehensive systems reveal mixed impacts on teacher behavior and student results. A randomized study in one district found that implementing structured evaluations with feedback led to modest gains in teacher productivity, particularly among initially low-performing teachers, as measured by subsequent student test score growth.^[107] Conversely, a multi-district analysis of reforms emphasizing rigorous evaluations, including VAM components, reported no detectable improvements in student test scores or long-term educational attainment after a decade of implementation, attributing this to inconsistent linkages between ratings and personnel actions like dismissals or incentives.^[175] In contrast, Washington's IMPACT system, which combined VAMs with observations and imposed consequences such as bonuses for high performers and terminations for low ones, correlated with higher retention of effective teachers and elevated student achievement in mathematics.^[176] Reliability of observational components remains a concern, with inter-rater agreement often low without extensive training, though evidence suggests that well-calibrated rubrics can predict student outcomes when integrated with achievement data.^[177] Training programs aimed at enhancing feedback quality have shown limited success in altering instructional practices or boosting self-efficacy, highlighting implementation challenges.^[178] Overall, effective systems require clear differentiation of performance levels, actionable feedback, and accountability mechanisms to influence workforce quality, as undifferentiated ratings fail to motivate improvement or inform tenure decisions.^[119] Empirical reviews underscore that while teacher effects explain 10-20% of variance in student gains, assessment systems' success hinges on causal links to policy enforcement rather than measurement alone.^[179]

Recent Developments

Integration of Technology and Data Analytics

The integration of technology and data analytics into educational evaluation has accelerated since 2020, driven by advancements in artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning, and big data processing, enabling more dynamic and personalized assessment methods beyond traditional standardized testing. Learning analytics, which involves the collection and analysis of learner data from digital platforms to inform instructional decisions, has emerged as a core tool for evaluating student progress and program effectiveness in real-time. For instance, platforms like FastBridge employ computerized adaptive testing (CAT), where question difficulty adjusts based on prior responses, reducing test length by up to 50% while maintaining measurement precision for K-12 screening and progress monitoring.^[180] This approach contrasts with fixed-form tests by providing granular insights into individual skill gaps, allowing educators to tailor interventions causally linked to observed performance variances.^[181] Data analytics further enhances evaluation through predictive modeling, where machine learning algorithms forecast student outcomes based on historical patterns in engagement, attendance, and assessment data. A 2025 study on predictive analytics in educational settings demonstrated that such models improved student achievement predictions with accuracy rates exceeding 80% in controlled trials, enabling proactive adjustments in curriculum delivery to mitigate at-risk indicators like low participation.^[182] In higher education, learning analytics dashboards have been used to evaluate course effectiveness, correlating metrics such as completion rates and interaction logs with long-term retention, with empirical reviews showing moderate positive effects on feedback practices and individualized support.^[183] ^[184] However, these tools' causal efficacy depends on data quality and integration; poorly calibrated models risk amplifying biases from incomplete datasets, such as underrepresenting non-digital learners.^[185] AI-driven grading and feedback systems represent a recent shift toward automated evaluation, processing essays and open-ended responses via natural language processing to deliver rubric-aligned scores and insights. By 2024, AI graders achieved consistency rates comparable to human evaluators in large-scale deployments, freeing instructors for higher-order analysis while scaling feedback to thousands of submissions.^[186] Yet, empirical comparisons reveal limitations: AI often overlooks contextual nuances in student work, such as creative intent or cultural references, leading to validity concerns in holistic assessments where human judgment remains superior for causal inference on learning depth.^[187] ^[188] U.S. Department of Education insights from 2023 highlight ethical imperatives, including transparency in algorithms to prevent over-reliance and ensure evaluations reflect true competency rather than pattern-matching artifacts.^[189] Global policy trends since 2022, including OECD initiatives on smart data in education, promote analytics for systemic evaluation, such as aggregating school-level data to assess equity in resource allocation.^[190] In K-12 contexts, adaptive platforms like DreamBox have shown through longitudinal data that analytics-informed adjustments correlate with 15-20% gains in math proficiency for underserved groups, though access disparities persist, with rural districts lagging in implementation by up to 30%.^[191] Overall, while technology integration yields verifiable efficiencies in scalability and precision, its truth-seeking value hinges on rigorous validation against empirical benchmarks, mitigating risks like data privacy breaches under regulations such as FERPA and algorithmic opacity that could undermine causal accountability in educational outcomes.^[192]

Policy Shifts and Global Trends

In recent years, educational evaluation policies worldwide have increasingly emphasized formative assessment practices over traditional high-stakes summative testing, aiming to provide ongoing feedback to improve learning rather than solely rank performance. This shift, evident in jurisdictions such as Canada, where provinces like British Columbia have adopted competency-based curricula integrating formative tools, and Norway, which mandates formative assessment in the first seven years of schooling under its 2020 curriculum reforms, reflects a broader recognition that such methods enhance student achievement when implemented with teacher training.^[193] Similarly, Australia's 2024 trials of a National Formative Assessment Resource Bank alongside the transition to online NAPLAN testing signal a policy pivot towards using data for instructional adjustment rather than accountability alone.^[193] These changes, accelerated by the COVID-19 disruptions, prioritize real-time insights into student progress, though challenges persist in balancing them with end-of-cycle evaluations.^[193] The integration of technology in assessment represents another prominent global trend, with policies promoting AI-driven analytics and adaptive digital tools to measure competencies in dynamic environments. The OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2025, for instance, introduces "learning in the digital world" as an innovative domain, evaluating students' motivation and self-regulation in technology-mediated settings alongside core subjects like science.^[194] ^[195] This aligns with broader directives in reports like the OECD's Trends Shaping Education 2025, which advocate reducing dependence on standardized tests in favor of project-based and personalized evaluations supported by data analytics for more accurate outcome measurement.^[196] In Ireland, Junior Cycle reforms effective 2023 have embedded formative feedback mechanisms, while Israel's 2023 GFN initiative allows flexible funding for customized digital assessments, though concerns over AI's impact on integrity have prompted safeguards.^[193] Empirical evidence from digital formative assessments post-2020 indicates gains in mathematics and reading but limited effects in other areas, underscoring the need for rigorous validation.^[193] Despite these advancements, tensions remain between formative approaches and persistent high-stakes systems, particularly in accountability-driven contexts. For example, Finland's recent assessment reforms have highlighted teacher perceptions of restrictions imposed by even low-stakes evaluations, suggesting that policy implementation must address practical constraints to avoid undermining intended benefits.^[197] Globally, this evolution prioritizes evidence of causal impacts on learning over ideological preferences, with international bodies like the OECD influencing national policies through comparative data that reveal correlations between adaptive assessments and improved long-term outcomes.^[196]

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Challenges, opportunities, and effects of alternative assessment ...
Alternative assessment, encompassing methods such as portfolios, project-based evaluations, and peer assessments, aligns with 21st-century student-centered ...
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[PDF] Performance-Based assessment
Performance-based assessment requires students to use high-level thinking to perform, create, or produce something with transferable real-world application.
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https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9652583/
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The impacts of performance-based assessment on reading ...
Nov 12, 2022 · The current study intended to gauge the impact of PBA on the improvement of RCA, AM, FLA, and SS-E in English as a foreign language (EFL) context.
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[PDF] Alternative Assessment Strategies to Enhance Learning for Students ...
Abstract. This research aims to examine the effectiveness of alternative assessment tools in enhancing the learning for students with special needs.
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[PDF] Benefits and Challenges of Alternative Assessment Methods in ...
Feb 18, 2025 · This study explores the use of alternative assessment practices in higher education, examining their potential to enhance learning outcomes and ...
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Diversifying assessment methods: Barriers, benefits and enablers
Feb 3, 2021 · This study used a survey to investigate the barriers and enablers to diversifying assessment including using student choice of assessment.
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The effects of performance-based assessment criteria on student ...
This study investigated the effect of performance-based versus competence-based assessment criteria on task performance and self-assessment skills.Missing: studies | Show results with:studies
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Effectiveness of Performance-Based Assessment Tools (PBATs) and ...
Aug 9, 2025 · assessed their teachers' use of the performance-based assessment tools as fairly effective. ... courses and tests, teacher's or learner's guides, ...
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The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing
Learn about validity and reliability, test administration and scoring, and testing for workplace and educational assessment.
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Contemporary Test Validity in Theory and Practice: A Primer ... - NIH
While this essay allies with test validity theory as codified in the Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (AERA, APA, and NCME, 2014), the reader ...
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(PDF) Validity in Educational Testing - ResearchGate
What is the role and importance of the revised AERA, APA, NCME Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing? Article. Dec 2014; Educ Meas.
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Validity in Educational Research: A Deeper Examination
May 12, 2024 · Validity is needed for successful educational research. This post covers the evolution of validity throughout and its uses.
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The basics of test score reliability for educators | Renaissance
Aug 21, 2014 · The reliability coefficient is the number we use to quantify just how reliable test scores are. What is an acceptable level of reliability?
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[PDF] The Reliability of Assessment During Learning
Cronbach's alpha, and external reliability is frequently assessed by determining the correlation between the scores of pre and post-tests when the results of a ...
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All About Assessment / Unraveling Reliability - ASCD
Feb 1, 2009 · A standard error of measurement of 1 or 2 means the test is quite reliable. Because all major published tests are accompanied by information ...<|separator|>
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The SAGE Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Measurement ...
Indeed, larger reliability coefficients result when examinees remain in the same relative position in a group across multiple administrations of an assessment.
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Subjective vs. objective assessments: Key differences - Turnitin
May 1, 2023 · Edulytic defines objective assessment as “a way of examining in which questions asked has [sic] a single correct answer.” Mathematics, geography ...
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Objective assessment criteria reduce the influence of judgmental ...
Apr 14, 2024 · A way of objectifying judgment processes and reducing errors of judgment based on student characteristics and related subjective associations ...
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Objectivity in Educational Assessment: Ensuring Fair and Unbiased ...
Dec 13, 2023 · Objectivity in educational assessments means that the evaluation process remains impartial, clear, and consistent.What is objectivity in... · The role of objectivity in fairness
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Fairness in Testing - Enrollment Management Association
From a testing/psychometric standpoint, these performance differences do not make a test “unfair” or “biased.” Those terms have very specific meanings in ...
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[PDF] standards_2014edition.pdf
These are the standards for educational and psychological testing, prepared by the American Educational Research Association, the American Psychological ...
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Standards for Educational & Psychological Testing (2014 Edition)
The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing are now open access. Click HERE to access downloadable files. ORDER A PRINT COPY NOW IN THE AERA ONLINE ...
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Differential Item Functioning
This is the classic textbook on differential item functioning. It highlights methods for testing test items that function differently for different groups.
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The hitchhiker's guide to differential item functioning (DIF)
Jan 1, 2022 · DIF determines if score differences on a test item are due to true ability differences or construct-irrelevant differences, comparing a ...
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Increased Accuracy in the Detection of Differential Item Functioning ...
Two popular methods for DIF detection are SIBTEST and the Mantel-Haenszel (MH) statistic. These methods have proven to be effective at detecting DIF when ...
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Exploring the Evidence to Interpret Differential Item Functioning via ...
Nov 29, 2024 · Specifically, DIF methods evaluate whether the probabilities of getting an item correct are different between two subgroups (i.e., the reference ...
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Understanding DIF and DTF: Description, Methods, and Implications ...
DIF means items on a scale work differently for different groups, and DTF means the overall scale has different validity for different groups.
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[PDF] Integrating Psychometrics and Computing Perspectives on Bias and ...
... bias and fairness from recent computer science research to the psychometric definitions of bias ... In psychometrics (i.e., the study of psychological measurement) ...
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Testing Standards - NCME
The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing, a joint product of AERA, APA, and NCME, is the gold standard for testing, with the 2014 version being ...
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Differential item functioning (DIF) analyses of health-related quality ...
Differential item functioning (DIF) methods can be used to determine whether different subgroups respond differently to particular items within a ...
[100]
Values in Psychometrics - PMC - PubMed Central
Bias as conceptualized in psychometrics thus involves a restricted sense of fairness that pertains only to the fairness of specific items or tests and not ...
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Psychometric Methods to Evaluate Measurement and Algorithmic ...
Jun 1, 2022 · After providing definitions of fairness from machine learning and a psychometric framework to study them, we demonstrate how modeling decisions, ...
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[PDF] Value-Added Modeling: A Review - Columbia Business School
This article reviews the literature on teacher value-added. Although value-added models have been used to measure the contributions of numerous inputs to.<|separator|>
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[PDF] The Effect of Formative Assessment Practices on Student Learning
Abstract: The main purpose of this meta-analysis study is to investigate how formative assessment practices promote student learning in Turkey.
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The case for standardized testing - The Thomas B. Fordham Institute
Aug 1, 2024 · There is considerable evidence that test scores are good predicters of later life outcomes, such as educational attainment, labor market ...
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Testing Improves Performance as Well as Assesses Learning
Taking a test of previously studied material has been shown to improve long-term subsequent test performance in a large variety of well controlled experiments.
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[PDF] Estimating Teacher Impacts on Student Achievement
The basic idea of the empirical Bayes approach is to multiply a noisy estimate of teacher value added (e.g., the mean residual over all of a teacher's students ...
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[PDF] Formative assessment and elementary school student academic ...
The results identify what is known to be effective and what is not yet known to be effective about formative assessment for promoting student academic ...
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[PDF] The Effect of Evaluation on Teacher Performance | Harvard University
The emphasis on evaluation is motivated by two oft-paired empirical conclusions: teachers vary greatly in ability to promote student achievement growth, but ...Missing: methods | Show results with:methods
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Generalizations about Using Value-Added Measures of Teacher ...
First, there is substantial variation in teacher quality as measured by the value added to achievement or future academic attainment or earnings.
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[PDF] VALUE-ADDED measures - Harvard
Value-added measures are conceptually straightforward: they aim to determine how much of a student's academic progress from one year to the next is ...
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[PDF] Approaches to Evaluating Teacher Effectiveness: A Research ...
These include principal evaluations; analysis of classroom artifacts. (i.e., ratings of teacher assignments and student work); teaching portfolios; teacher self ...<|separator|>
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Course Feedback as a Measure of Teaching Effectiveness
This paper reviews empirical research examining a number of common concerns about the accuracy and usefulness of “student evaluations of teaching” (SETs).
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[PDF] The Effect of Teacher Evaluation on Achievement and Attainment
In this paper, we examine how new teacher evaluation systems taken to scale nationally affected student achievement and educational attainment. Existing ...
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Is Effective Teacher Evaluation Sustainable? Evidence from DCPS
These findings suggest teacher evaluation can provide a sustained mechanism for improving the quality of teaching.Missing: studies outcomes
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[PDF] School-Based Administrator Evaluation Form - HCPSS
The evaluation includes standards for vision, instructional leadership, management of learning, and family/community collaboration.
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[PDF] Performance Evaluation Rubric for Principals
The rubric evaluates principals on "Focus on Learning" (including curriculum improvement and student information use) and "Educator Learning and Growth" ( ...
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Teacher and Principal Evaluation - NYC Public Schools
The PPR seeks to measure school leaders' effectiveness consistently, accurately, and fairly. The guiding principles of the PPR are: to support principals in ...
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[PDF] teacher evaluation for growth and accountability - Scholars at Harvard
Hallinger, Heck and Murphy (2014; 2013) present direct and indirect empirical evidence on the effectiveness of high-stakes teacher evaluation, and discuss ...
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[PDF] How Teacher Evaluation Methods Matter for Accountability
In this study, we draw on confidential principal interviews combined with value-added measures to address one main question: Why do teacher value-added measures ...
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Seven ways to make improving teacher evaluation worth the work
Feb 10, 2022 · These measures can include student growth measures from standardized assessments, classroom observations using a clearly defined rubric, and ...
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Randomized Controlled Trials and Education Research - PMC
Randomized controlled trials are quantitative, comparative, controlled experiments in which treatment effect sizes may be determined with less bias than ...
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On Evaluating Curricular Effectiveness: Judging the Quality of K-12 ...
30-day returnsThis book reviews the evaluation research literature that has accumulated around 19 K-12 mathematics curricula and breaks new ground in framing an ambitious ...
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[PDF] Does Discovery-Based Instruction Enhance Learning?
Nov 15, 2010 · Unassisted discovery learning is less effective than explicit instruction, but enhanced discovery is more effective than other forms of ...
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[PDF] Effective Programs in Elementary Mathematics: A Meta-Analysis
This article reviews research on the achievement outcomes of elementary mathematics programs. 87 rigorous experimental studies evaluated 66 programs in grades K ...
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Longitudinal Effects of Student Mobility on Three Dimensions ... - NIH
School changes predicted declines in academic performance and classroom participation but not positive attitude toward school.
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Study finds that curriculum alone does not improve student outcomes
Mar 11, 2019 · At current levels of curriculum usage and professional development, textbook choice alone does not seem to improve student achievement.
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[PDF] impacts of professional development and implementation fidelity on ...
Jul 29, 2024 · The primary goal of this study is to evaluate the efficacy of professional development (PD) and implementation fidelity on the performance of ...
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WWC | Find What Works! - Institute of Education Sciences
Search the WWC and access our Resources Page to find the information you need to make evidence-based decisions in your classrooms and schools. Search the WWC.Reviews of Individual Studies · Educator's Practice Guides · Practice Guides
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The trials of evidence-based practice in education: a systematic ...
The article is based upon a systematic review that has sought to identify and describe all RCTs conducted in educational settings and including a focus on ...
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[PDF] High-Stakes Testing and Student Achievement
Jul 20, 2012 · The research on the impact of accountability-based policies and student achievement is varied, limited, and relatively inconclusive. One ...
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[PDF] High-Stakes Testing: Does It Increase Achievement?
They also found evidence of school- level effects where students in low performing schools showed larger gains in achievement after policy implementation than ...
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No Child Left Behind Act has mixed results in Texas schools
The Texas program served to incentive schools at risk of being rated low-performing to improve student achievement on high-stakes exams.
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[PDF] High-Stakes Testing and Student Achievement: Problems for the No ...
But this study finds that pressure created by high-stakes testing has had almost no important influence on student academic performance. To measure the impact ...
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Campbell's Law: Something Every Educator Should Know
Dec 7, 2021 · Campbell's law states that “the more any quantitative social indicator is used for social decision-making, the more subject it will be to corruption pressures.
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[PDF] Tests, Cheating and Educational Corruption - Fairtest
High-stakes uses of standardized testing must end because they cheat students out of a high-quality education and cheat the public out of accurate information ...
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[PDF] The impact of high-stakes testing on the teaching and learning ...
Jun 4, 2021 · The aim of the present research study was to investigate the impacts of high-stakes testing on middle school mathematics education based on ...
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The Effects of the No Child Left Behind Act on Multiple Measures of ...
Sep 1, 2016 · NCLB accountability pressure increased math state test scores, but decreased math and reading scores on audit tests. Black students in high- ...
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A Research Report / The Effects of High-Stakes Testing on Student ...
Feb 1, 2003 · Unfortunately, the evidence shows that such tests actually decrease student motivation and increase the proportion of students who leave school ...
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Test anxiety and a high-stakes standardized reading ... - NIH
The results indicated test anxiety was negatively associated with reading comprehension test performance, specifically through common shared environmental ...
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[PDF] The Impact of High-Stakes Tests on Student Academic Performance
The first objective of this study is to assess whether academic achievement has improved since the introduction of high-stakes testing policies in the 27 states ...
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View of High-Stakes Testing and Student Achievement
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(PDF) Racial and Gender Bias in Ability and Achievement Tests
Aug 7, 2025 · Abstract. The study of potential racial and gender bias in individual test items ... Gregory Camilli. Differential item functioning (DIF) has been ...
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Exploring Racial Bias in Standardized Assessments and Teacher ...
Empirical studies of racial biases in standardized testing have generated mixed results, with a major focus placed on end-of-year and college admissions ...
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Bias in mental testing since Bias in Mental Testing. - APA PsycNet
Summarizes the major conclusions from Bias in Mental Testing (BIMT; A. Jensen, 1980) and evaluates writing on test bias published since BIMT.
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Racial and gender bias in ability and achievement tests
It appears that findings of item bias (differential item functioning; DIF) can be explained by three factors: failure to control for measurement error in ...
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Checking Equity: Why Differential Item Functioning Analysis Should ...
We provide a tutorial on differential item functioning (DIF) analysis, an analytic method useful for identifying potentially biased items in assessments.
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[PDF] Precis of Bias in Mental Testing - Arthur Robert Jensen memorial site
The overwhelming bulk of the evidence from dozens of studies is that validity coefficients do not differ significantly between blacks and whites. In fact, other ...
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ED183698 - Bias in Mental Testing., 1980 - ERIC
The author concludes that the currently most widely used standardized tests of mental ability are, by and large, not biased against any native-born, English- ...
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[PDF] Standardized Test Scores and Academic Performance at Ivy-Plus ...
Even among otherwise similar students with the same high school grades, we find that SAT and ACT scores have substantial predictive power for academic success ...
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[PDF] Bias in mental testing: A final word
Factors in the test situation, such as the subject's "test-wiseness" and the race of the tester, are found to be negligible sources of racial group differences.
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[PDF] Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 2018
disadvantaged racial/ethnic groups have made strides in educational achievement, but that gaps still persist. Disparities in the educational participation ...
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Racial and Ethnic Achievement Gaps
Achievement gaps have been narrowing because Black and Hispanic students' scores have been rising faster than those of White students.
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Does Affirmative Action Lead to “Mismatch”? - Manhattan Institute
Jul 7, 2022 · But affirmative action also presents an empirical question: When students are admitted through admissions preferences—especially when the ...
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[PDF] Does Affirmative Action Lead to “Mismatch”? A Review of the Evidence
If these schools ignored race and admitted students solely on academic credentials, black and Hispanic students would be substantially underrepresented there, ...
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[PDF] Does Affirmative Action Lead to Mismatch? A New Test and Evidence
Evidence shows that Duke does possess private information that is a statistically significant predictor of the students' post-enrollment academic performance.
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U.S. Supreme Court Ends Affirmative Action in Higher Education
Aug 2, 2023 · On June 29, 2023, the US Supreme Court issued a long-awaited decision addressing the legality of race-conscious affirmative action in college admissions ...
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The New NAEP Scores Highlight a Standards Gap in Many States
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Reassessing ESSA Implementation: An Equity Analysis of School ...
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Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion Criteria in Faculty Hiring and ... - FIRE
Vague or ideologically motivated DEI statement policies can too easily function as litmus tests for adherence to prevailing ideological views on DEI.
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[PDF] TENSIONS BETWEEN MERITOCRACY AND EQUITY IN SINGAPORE
Singapore's meritocracy, while successful, may not fit a knowledge-based economy, causing tensions with equity and social mobility, and a focus on quality over ...
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Why DEI is Destroying Meritocracy and How MEI Can Save Us -
Jul 8, 2024 · DEI undermines meritocracy by prioritizing group identities and demographic characteristics, leading to preferential treatment and tokenism.
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[PDF] Rethinking the Use of Tests: A Meta-Analysis of Practice Testing
Roediger and. Karpicke's (2006b) review suggested that frequent low-stakes classroom testing might elevate educational achievement at all levels of education.
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Do High-Stakes Tests Improve Learning?
Studies show high-stakes tests have small or no effect on learning, and the improvement produced is strikingly small despite 30 years of incentives.
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Test anxiety: Is it associated with performance in high-stakes ...
Jun 14, 2022 · A long-established literature has found that anxiety about testing is negatively related to academic achievement.<|separator|>
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[PDF] The Impact of Formative Assessment and Learning Intentions on ...
This brief will provide an overview of the main discourses in literature linking formative assessment and learning objectives to student achievement. KEY ...
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Do tests predict later success? - The Thomas B. Fordham Institute
Jun 22, 2023 · Ample evidence suggests that test scores predict a range of student outcomes after high school. James J. Heckman, Jora Stixrud, and Sergio Urzua ...
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Do the Effects Persist? An Examination of Long-Term Effects After ...
Oct 17, 2024 · We find little evidence to support improved long-run student outcomes—mostly null effects that are nearly zero in magnitude. Our results ...
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[PDF] What Do Changes in State Test Scores Imply for Later Life Outcomes?
We find that a standard deviation rise in 8th grade math achievement is associated with an 8 percent rise in adult's earned income, as well as improvements in ...
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[PDF] HOW DOES YOUR KINDERGARTEN CLASSROOM AFFECT YOUR ...
We first demonstrate that kindergarten test scores are highly correlated with outcomes such as earnings at age 27, college attendance, home ownership, and re-.
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The Predictive Power of Standardized Tests - Education Next
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[PDF] Teacher Value-Added and Student Outcomes in Adulthood
Both math and English test scores are highly positively correlated with earnings, college attendance, and neighborhood quality and are negatively correlated ...
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[PDF] Meta-Analysis of the Predictive Validity of Scholastic Aptitude Test ...
This study examined the effectiveness of SAT and ACT scores for predicting college students' first year GPA scores with a meta-analytic approach. Most of the ...
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[PDF] Reexamining Associations Between Test Scores and Long - ERIC
The current article reexamines the correlation between achievement test scores and earnings by providing new evidence on the association between academic skills ...
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Estimation and interpretation of teacher value added in research ...
Research over the past decade provides compelling evidence that estimates of teacher value added from well-designed models are unbiased, on average.
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Evaluating the validity evidence surrounding use of value-added ...
Oct 24, 2023 · For the purposes of this review, VAMs are defined as complex regression models via which modelers use students' histories of scores on academic ...
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Efforts to Toughen Teacher Evaluations Show No Positive Impact on ...
Nov 29, 2021 · After a decade of expensive evaluation reforms, new research shows no positive effect on student test scores or educational attainment.
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Learning from teacher evaluations that work - Brookings Institution
Oct 16, 2025 · David Blazar examines what makes some teacher evaluations effective, highlighting lessons from D.C.'s IMPACT system.
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[PDF] Performance Evaluations as a Measure of Teacher Effectiveness ...
(2014), we find that performance measures derived from simple regression adjustment methods can reliably predict evaluations as teachers move across grades and ...
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Can Teacher Evaluation Systems Produce High-Quality Feedback ...
Jul 20, 2021 · We find little evidence that the training program improved perceived feedback quality, classroom instruction, teacher self-efficacy, or student achievement.
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Impact Evaluation of Teacher and Leader Performance Evaluation ...
The study found positive impacts on teachers' practice, principal leadership, and math achievement, but limited information to guide improvement and no impact ...
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Computer Adaptive Tests (CAT) - FastBridge - Illuminate Education
Computer adaptive tests (CATs) adapt to each student's skill level, revealing what they know and need to learn, and are used for universal screening.
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Computerized Adaptive Testing (CAT): Introduction and Benefits
Apr 11, 2025 · Computerized adaptive testing (CAT) is an AI-based approach that personalizes assessments, making them shorter, more accurate, and more secure.
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Predictive analytics in education- enhancing student achievement ...
This study investigates the application of predictive analytics and machine learning models to enhance student achievement in educational settings.
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The Role of Learning Analytics in Evaluating Course Effectiveness
This study aims to examine the use of learning analytics in course evaluation within higher education institutions, in order to identify effective ...
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The Effectiveness of Learning Analytics-Based Interventions in ...
Jun 19, 2025 · Interventions based on learning analytics can greatly enhance students' learning outcomes, with a moderate overall effect value.
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A review of learning analytics opportunities and challenges for K-12 ...
Our findings indicate that, while many see the educational benefits of learning analytics (e.g., more equitable instruction, individualized learning, enhanced ...
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How Artificial Intelligence is Transforming Grading in 2025 - Codiste
Aug 8, 2024 · AI in grading uses AI systems to evaluate student work, replacing manual tasks, and aims for higher accuracy and consistency, using machine ...
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Can AI support human grading? Examining machine attention and ...
We recruited 32 human graders to comparatively analyse the decision-making processes of human graders and AI-driven graders.
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The Dangers of using AI to Grade - Marc Watkins | Substack
Oct 10, 2025 · AI as an assessment tool represents an existential threat to education because no matter how you try and establish guardrails or best practices ...
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[PDF] Artificial Intelligence and the Future of Teaching and Learning (PDF)
This report addresses the clear need for sharing knowledge and developing policies for “Artificial Intelligence,” a rapidly advancing class of foundational ...
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Smart Data and Digital Technology in Education - OECD
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Best Adaptive Learning Platforms 2024 | Top 10 Guide
Sep 2, 2024 · 1. Smart Sparrow · 2. DreamBox Learning · 3. Knewton · 4. Ed-App · 5. CogBooks · 6. Realize It · 7. Pearson Interactive Labs · 8. 360Learning.
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A Systematic Review of Learning Analytics
May 22, 2024 · To examine the current status of the development and empirical impacts of learning analytics–incorporated interventions within LMSs on improving ...
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International trends in the implementation of assessment for learning ...
May 22, 2024 · This paper discusses the evolution of assessment for learning (AfL) across the globe with particular attention given to Western educational jurisdictions.
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PISA to test student motivation, self-regulation in digital learning in ...
Aug 3, 2023 · PISA's new area of assessment examining how students engage with digital tools comes amid a dreary backdrop in education. · PISA 2025 will test ...
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PISA: Programme for International Student Assessment - OECD
PISA is the OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment. PISA measures 15-year-olds' ability to use their reading, mathematics and science ...
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Trends Shaping Education 2025 - OECD
Jan 23, 2025 · Trends Shaping Education is a triennial report exploring the social, technological, economic, environmental and political forces transforming education systems ...
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Assessment guides, restricts, supports and strangles: Tensions in ...
This study examines tensions in teachers' conceptions of assessment following an assessment reform in Finland, which has traditionally been a low-stakes ...