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EndNote

EndNote is a commercial package designed to help researchers, academics, and professionals organize references, create bibliographies, and insert citations into documents efficiently. Developed by , it supports literature discovery, , , and workflows, with capabilities for word processors like and databases such as . The software is widely used in scholarly environments to streamline the time-intensive process of managing citations and ensuring compliance with various style guides, including , MLA, and . Originally launched in by Niles & Associates as a tool for handling bibliographies in academic texts, EndNote evolved from early citation management innovations of the . It was acquired in 1999 by the Institute for Scientific Information's ResearchSoft division, later becoming part of before took ownership in 2016. Over its history, EndNote has seen regular updates, with significant enhancements in versions like EndNote 20 (released around 2020) introducing improved collaboration tools and EndNote 2025 adding AI-powered features for summarizing and translating references. These developments have positioned it as a robust solution trusted by millions at universities and research institutions worldwide. Key functionalities include unlimited for up to three years, library sharing with up to 1,000 collaborators via customizable permissions, and automated formatting with over 7,000 output styles. Users can import references from online databases, attach full-text PDFs, and use tools like "Find Full Text" to locate articles, while recent integrations assist in organization and journal selection. Available in , , and formats, EndNote emphasizes and compatibility, though it requires a subscription for full access beyond basic versions.

Overview

Description and Purpose

EndNote is a commercial available as both a application and a web-based platform, designed to assist users in collecting, organizing, and citing references from various databases while facilitating the insertion of citations directly into documents. Its primary purpose is to streamline the academic and research writing process by enabling efficient handling of large volumes of references—often thousands in a single library—and automating the creation of bibliographies in diverse formats. EndNote supports over 7,000 output styles, allowing users to format citations and references according to specific , publisher, or institutional requirements, thereby reducing manual errors and enhancing productivity for researchers, students, and professionals. A typical workflow in EndNote involves importing references from online databases such as PubMed or Google Scholar using built-in connection files or direct export options, organizing them into personal libraries stored as .enl files (accompanied by a .Data folder containing the actual reference data), and exporting subsets of references to standard interchange formats like RIS or BibTeX for compatibility with other tools. Originally developed as a Macintosh-only tool in 1989 by Niles & Associates, EndNote has evolved into a cross-platform solution that integrates seamlessly with word processors to support collaborative and multi-device research environments.

Ownership and Licensing

EndNote was originally developed in 1989 by through Niles & Associates, a focused on bibliographic tools for the Apple Macintosh platform. In 1999, the Institute for Scientific Information () acquired Niles Software Inc., the creator of EndNote, and established ISI ResearchSoft as a new division to integrate it with other reference management products like ProCite and Reference Manager. This acquisition placed EndNote under Thomson Corporation's scientific publishing umbrella, which later became following the 2008 merger with . In 2016, sold its Intellectual Property and Science business, including EndNote, to a consortium led by and Baring Private Equity Asia, forming Analytics as an independent entity. , now publicly traded as Clarivate Plc, continues to own and maintain EndNote as a commercial product, emphasizing its integration within broader research and analytics platforms. EndNote operates under a commercial licensing model with no free full-featured desktop version, distinguishing it from open-source alternatives like Zotero. Individual users can purchase perpetual licenses for the desktop software, priced at approximately $275 for a full new license, $125 for upgrades from prior versions, or $150 for students with verification; these include three years of access to EndNote Web for cloud syncing and collaboration. Institutional and multi-user licenses are available through subscriptions or volume agreements, often tailored for labs or universities with pricing based on user count and negotiated directly with Clarivate sales. Updates beyond the initial term require additional purchases or subscription renewals. A notable legal event occurred in 2009 when sued the Center for History and New Media at , alleging that the open-source tool reverse-engineered EndNote's proprietary formats to enable compatibility. The lawsuit, seeking at least $10 million in damages for breach of EndNote's site license terms, was dismissed by the Fairfax , affirming principles for interoperability while reinforcing boundaries against unauthorized in .

History

Early Development

EndNote was developed in by as a Macintosh-only application designed for personal reference management, initially released under Niles & Associates as version 1.0. The software originated as a tool to assist researchers in organizing bibliographic information, addressing the need for efficient handling in an era when reference management was emerging. Niles, a , created it to streamline the process of managing references for , filling a gap in accessible software for individual users. The initial version incorporated support for early bibliographic formats common in academic literature. Core features included a basic for storing references, manual through customizable fields, and simple export capabilities to integrate citations into word processors like for Macintosh. These elements allowed users to build personal libraries of up to thousands of references without requiring advanced programming knowledge, emphasizing straightforward creation and insertion of in-text citations. The design prioritized usability for scientists handling complex publication styles, marking it as one of the first dedicated tools for automated reference formatting in academic fields. Expansion to the Windows platform occurred with version 2.1 in , enabling cross-platform compatibility between Macintosh and Windows environments and introducing initial output style templates for standardized bibliographic formatting. This release broadened , allowing references to be shared across operating systems while maintaining library integrity, and added enhanced import filters for diverse data sources. The templates supported common academic styles, facilitating easier adaptation for users transitioning from manual typing to automated generation. Before its acquisition in , EndNote experienced steady growth in academic adoption, particularly among researchers lacking robust alternatives for reference organization, as it offered an intuitive interface tailored for non-technical users. Niles Software promoted its simplicity, enabling quick setup and manipulation without steep learning curves, which contributed to its popularity in universities and labs. By 1999, the company had shipped over 200,000 copies, reflecting widespread reliance on the tool for scholarly productivity in the absence of competing options.

Acquisitions and Major Releases

In 2000, EndNote was acquired by the through its (ISI) ResearchSoft division, enabling tighter integration with the Web of Knowledge platform for seamless reference import and citation management. This acquisition positioned EndNote as a key component in Thomson's suite of research tools, supporting expanded bibliographic capabilities across academic and scientific workflows. In 2008, merged with Reuters to form , continuing development under this entity until the 2016 spin-off. In 2016, ' Intellectual Property and Science business, encompassing EndNote, was spun off and sold to private equity firms and Baring Private Equity Asia, forming Analytics. Under , EndNote benefited from enhanced analytics integrations, such as improved connectivity with for advanced citation tracking and research discovery. Major releases from this period have focused on performance, , and enhancements. EndNote X9, released in 2018 with updates through 2019, introduced a new database engine for better search efficiency and support, allowing faster querying across larger libraries. EndNote 20, launched in October 2020, shifted toward a subscription-inclusive model for ongoing updates and emphasized synchronization for automatic library backups and multi-device access. EndNote 20.2 (2021) enhanced by expanding access to up to 400 users with improved group permissions. EndNote 21, released in May 2023, added AI-assisted tools for reference organization, including automated tagging and data restoration to streamline library management. The most recent version, EndNote 2025, debuted on April 22, 2025, incorporating real-time co-editing capabilities and expanded AI-driven deduplication to handle duplicates more accurately across shared libraries. Key milestones include support for over 2,000 bibliographic output styles by 2010, enabling broader compatibility with journals and publishers worldwide. The EndNote for , first introduced by in 2013, allows users to view, edit, and sync references on the go, with continued development under marking a shift toward research accessibility. These releases have progressively addressed scalability challenges; for instance, earlier versions (8 through X4) had a hard limit of around 330,000 references, while X4.0.1 and later support up to 999,999, with recent versions maintaining performance for libraries exceeding 100,000 references without degradation. Such improvements have enabled EndNote to handle expansive collections effectively, with enhancements to core features like generation evolving alongside these updates.

Core Features

Reference Organization

EndNote libraries serve as the central repository for managing references, structured as .enl files that function as databases. Each library is accompanied by a .Data folder containing attached files such as PDFs, along with notes and other , ensuring all components remain linked for seamless access. While EndNote supports libraries with over 900,000 references theoretically, practical recommendations limit them to 100,000 to maintain optimal performance. References within a can be organized using custom groups for manual sorting into user-defined categories and smart groups for automated, rule-based filtering—such as by keywords, publication dates, or author names—that dynamically update as the library changes. Users can create up to 500 such groups in total, facilitating efficient navigation of large collections. Additionally, attached PDFs direct annotations, including highlights, , and text comments, which are stored within the library for integrated review. Importing references into EndNote libraries occurs through direct online searches via connection files for over 3,000 databases, including and , allowing users to query and retrieve records without leaving the application; alternatively, manual entry or imports from files and other formats are supported using hundreds of predefined import filters. Search functionality enables full-text queries across the entire library, including content within attached PDFs, to locate specific references quickly. Duplicate detection tools scan the library based on customizable criteria, such as matching authors and titles, presenting potential duplicates side-by-side for review and merging to maintain . Each reference comprises standardized fields for essential bibliographic details, including author, title, and , alongside notes, abstracts, and keywords, with additional support for up to ten custom fields to capture specialized information like funding sources or project tags. These fields ensure comprehensive organization tailored to diverse reference types, such as journal articles or books.

Citation and Bibliography Generation

EndNote's Cite While You Write (CWYW) system enables real-time insertion of in-text citations directly into word processing documents through dedicated plugins, such as those for and . These plugins scan the user's EndNote library to select and insert references, initially appearing as temporary field codes in the format {Author, Year #Record Number}, which maintain links to the source library. Upon compilation or manual update via the "Update Citations and Bibliography" command, these codes are automatically replaced with properly formatted citations according to the selected style, ensuring consistency without manual reformatting. The software supports over 6,000 predefined output styles, covering major formats such as , MLA, and , which dictate the structure of citations and bibliographies. Users can customize these styles using the built-in Style Editor, allowing adjustments to elements like fonts, sorting orders (e.g., by author-year or alphabetical), and numbering schemes (e.g., superscripted or sequential). This editor provides granular control over , , and field inclusions, enabling adaptation for specific journal requirements or institutional guidelines. Bibliography generation is automated and instantaneous, occurring at the end of the document when citations are updated through , drawing from the active EndNote library to compile a reference list in the chosen style. Options include creating annotated bibliographies by modifying an output style to incorporate fields like "Research Notes" for summaries or evaluations adjacent to each entry. Additionally, integration with EndNote's term lists—predefined indexes for journals, keywords, and authors—ensures standardized terminology in bibliographies, such as consistent journal abbreviations. For document editing, EndNote provides unformat and relink tools to preserve citation integrity. The "Convert to Unformatted Citations" command removes formatting while retaining the temporary field codes, allowing safe text manipulation without corrupting links to the . After edits, users can relink by reopening the document with the corresponding EndNote library active and selecting "Update Citations and Bibliography," which restores the formatted citations and . This process is particularly useful for collaborative revisions or transferring sections between documents. EndNote supports exporting formatted bibliographies and documents in multiple output formats, including RTF for rich text preservation, for web compatibility, and XML for structured data interchange. These exports facilitate sharing by allowing compression options during file saving, reducing size for email or cloud transfer while maintaining citation links where possible.

Specialized Tools

Find Full Text

EndNote's Find Full Text is a built-in tool designed to automatically locate and attach full-text articles to existing references in a user's library by searching online sources using identifiers such as DOIs, PMIDs, or article titles. The feature queries numerous providers, including DOI resolvers, PubMed LinkOut, CrossRef, publisher websites, and open access repositories like PubMed Central, to retrieve PDFs or URLs where available. It supports institutional access through configurable proxy servers and authentication, enabling users to leverage library subscriptions for restricted content. The process allows batch processing of selected references, downloading full-text files and optionally updating associated metadata. Users initiate the search via the References menu or toolbar icon, after which EndNote systematically checks eligible sources and attaches successful results directly to the reference file. Success rates vary based on the completeness of reference data, institutional entitlements, and source availability, with one comparative study reporting approximately 47% retrieval for available full texts when using university subscriptions. To maximize effectiveness, users must enable relevant preferences, such as OpenURL resolvers, which integrate with library link servers for direct access to subscribed materials. Introduced as a core feature in EndNote X2, released in June 2008, Find Full Text built upon earlier connectivity from version 7 (circa 2002) by adding automated PDF retrieval capabilities. Subsequent versions enhanced the tool with improved support for institutional logins, faster processing, and better integration with methods to handle paywalled content. For unsuccessful searches, EndNote generates detailed logs documenting attempts and reasons for failure, such as unavailable identifiers or access restrictions, and suggests manual alternatives like direct searches. The feature incorporates standards to generate resolver links for further manual pursuit when automation falls short. Privacy considerations are addressed through user-configurable options in preferences, allowing selective enabling of search services to minimize with external providers. Retrieved PDFs are automatically attached to references for subsequent management, such as .

PDF and File Management

EndNote provides robust capabilities for attaching PDF files and other documents to within a , enabling seamless integration of full-text content with bibliographic . Users can external files using relative or paths, which is preferable for maintaining portability across devices, or copy files directly into the library's internal structure for management. When attaching a PDF, EndNote supports automatic renaming based on reference , such as the format "Author_Year_Title.pdf," to ensure consistent and organized naming without manual intervention. This feature streamlines handling by aligning filenames with citation details, reducing errors in large libraries. For extracting information from PDFs, EndNote includes tools to import PDF files and automatically generate new references by pulling , particularly through the detection of Digital Object Identifiers (DOIs) embedded in the document or its first pages. In versions 20 and later, enhanced processing allows for broader citation extraction from PDFs, including author names, titles, and publication details, which populates reference fields efficiently. Additionally, EndNote can process bibliographies contained within PDF files to create linked references, facilitating the rapid incorporation of cited works into the library. The software features a built-in PDF viewer that supports annotation and highlighting directly within attached files, with changes saved alongside the reference. Users can add searchable sticky notes and highlight text passages, which are synchronized to the reference's notes or abstract fields for easy retrieval and integration into writing workflows. These annotations remain associated with the specific reference, allowing for collaborative review without altering the original PDF. EndNote's folder synchronization functionality enables automated monitoring of designated "watch" folders, where new PDFs placed in the folder are automatically imported, metadata extracted, and matched to existing references in the library based on identifiers like DOIs. This watch folder feature, configurable via preferences, supports ongoing collection management by importing and attaching files without manual steps each time. In EndNote 2025, AI-powered tools such as the enable users to summarize and translate attached PDFs, enhancing workflows. Regarding storage, EndNote desktop libraries using compressed formats can handle substantial attachments, though online components like EndNote Online impose limits of up to 2 for file attachments across references to ensure efficient syncing and access.

Web and Cloud Components

EndNote Online

EndNote Online is the web-based counterpart to the EndNote desktop software, enabling users to manage reference libraries directly through a without requiring a local . It functions as a that synchronizes with desktop libraries, allowing seamless access across devices and locations. Originally known as , it has evolved into the current EndNote Online , with a redesigned introduced alongside EndNote 21 in to enhance consistency with the desktop version. EndNote Web, exclusive to EndNote 21 and later users including EndNote 2025, includes modern design and supports AI-enhanced features for improved online reference management. Key features of EndNote Online include robust online , supporting up to 50,000 references and 2 GB of file attachments in basic configurations, though synced accounts from desktop licenses offer unlimited storage. Users can perform basic import and export of references in various formats, such as RIS or , and apply over 7,000 styles to generate bibliographies directly in the browser. The platform facilitates straightforward organization through groups and tags, making it suitable for individual researchers needing portable access to their collections. EndNote Online integrates closely with Clarivate's platform, allowing direct export and import of search results into online libraries for efficient reference collection. It also supports group , enabling users to collaborate by granting read or to specific groups of with up to 1,000 other EndNote Online users. Advanced collaboration options, such as full library , build upon this foundation but are primarily handled through desktop syncing. Access to EndNote Online is bundled with EndNote desktop licenses starting from versions around EndNote X2 (approximately 2010), providing subscribers with three years of premium access upon syncing the desktop library. Institutions can offer standalone access through site-wide subscriptions, often integrated with campus authentication systems for broader user support. This tie-in ensures that desktop purchasers receive complementary cloud functionality without additional cost during the subscription period. Despite its conveniences, EndNote Online has notable limitations compared to the desktop edition, including the absence of advanced PDF annotation tools, which require the full desktop application for highlighting, , and markup. Additionally, while it offers Cite While You Write (CWYW) support via a Word Online add-in, comprehensive CWYW integration with desktop word processors like relies on the synced desktop library for unformatted citations and real-time bibliography updates. These constraints position EndNote Online as a supportive tool rather than a complete standalone replacement for the desktop software.

Collaboration and Sharing

EndNote facilitates collaboration through mechanisms such as compressed transfers and shared groups integrated with EndNote Online. Users can an entire , including references, PDFs, and attachments, into a single compressed .enlx file for easy transfer via or services, enabling quick sharing without requiring online access. Additionally, EndNote supports exporting subsets of references in RIS or XML formats to ensure compatibility with other reference management tools during collaborative exchanges. For multi-user workflows, EndNote Online allows the creation of shared groups, where subsets of references can be shared with up to 1,000 other EndNote Online users, providing read and write access permissions to facilitate team-based reference collection and organization. Shared libraries extend this capability to entire collections, supporting read/write access for up to 1,000 members in versions 21 and later, with earlier versions like 20.2 limited to 400 users. Access controls allow library owners to manage permissions, ensuring secure collaboration for institutional teams. Enhancements in EndNote version 20 and subsequent releases include real-time synchronization across desktop, web, and mobile devices, enabling automatic updates to shared libraries and reducing manual merging efforts. This sync feature incorporates conflict resolution tools, where users can review and resolve discrepancies in edited fields via a dedicated "Sync Conflicts" group and resolution dialog, preventing data loss during simultaneous contributions. Activity logs and feeds track changes in shared libraries, providing visibility into edits and progress for team members. These features support use cases such as team research projects, where multiple researchers can contribute to a central , with automatic updates propagating via sync to maintain consistency across documents. While EndNote Online provides the foundational web access for these sharing protocols, the collaboration tools emphasize interactive group and for distributed teams.

Integration and Compatibility

Word Processor Plugins

EndNote's primary integration is provided through the Cite While You Write (CWYW) , which enables users to insert and generate directly within compatible editing software. The CWYW is installed automatically as part of the EndNote installer for supported platforms, including options to repair or reconfigure it via the "Configure EndNote.exe" tool if issues arise during setup. It supports versions 2010 and later on Windows and 2016 and later on macOS, featuring a dedicated EndNote tab in the Word ribbon that provides tools for instant citation insertion, style selection, and bibliography management. The plugin's core functionality includes drag-and-drop insertion of references from an EndNote library into the , automatic numbering or formatting of citations based on the selected style, and on-demand updates to the as citations are added, edited, or removed. Users can switch citation styles dynamically through the without reformatting the entire manually, ensuring throughout the . There is no strict limit to the number of citations that can be inserted into a single Word , though inserting large batches at once may cause performance issues, and citations are typically grouped in sets of up to 50 for efficient handling. In addition to Microsoft Word, the CWYW plugin is compatible with Windows versions of OpenOffice Writer (3.x and 4.x) and (up to version 7.x 32-bit), allowing similar citation insertion and bibliography generation in these open-source alternatives. CWYW also supports Word Online and for web-based citation insertion. For macOS users, integration extends to Apple Pages, where the plugin supports basic citation and reference management features, though with some limitations compared to Word. Common troubleshooting for CWYW issues, such as conflicts with other add-ins or the not appearing, involves disabling conflicting extensions in Word's Add-ins settings, repairing the through EndNote's tool, or reinstalling the components. These steps often resolve visibility or functionality problems without needing to recreate documents. With the release of EndNote 2025, the CWYW plugin has been enhanced with AI-powered features, including the ability to cite directly from highlighted sections of PDFs imported into the library, streamlining insertion into Word documents. The update also introduces "Find a Journal," a machine-learning tool accessible via the plugin to recommend publication venues based on manuscript content during the writing phase.

Supported Formats and Platforms

EndNote desktop software supports and operating systems, requiring a 1 GHz or faster x86 or x64 processor (including Arm64), at least 600 MB of hard disk space, and a minimum of 2 GB . For macOS, compatibility extends from version 10.14 (Mojave) through 15 (Sequoia), on both Intel-based and -based Macintosh computers, with similar hardware requirements of 700 MB disk space and 2 GB . EndNote 2025 discontinues support for and earlier versions, aligning with Microsoft's end-of-life for those systems, while providing native optimization for processors introduced in prior updates. A companion mobile application is available for devices ( and ), enabling users to view, search, edit annotations, and share references from synced EndNote libraries, requiring iOS 15.0 or later; no native app exists, though EndNote Web provides browser-based access on Android. EndNote accommodates a wide range of input formats for importing references, including RIS (Research Information Systems), , EndNote XML, and database-specific options such as 's NBIB or COPAC exports. It includes over 4,000 pre-configured connection files (.enz) for direct online searches and imports from databases like , COPAC, and thousands of others, facilitating seamless retrieval without manual file handling. support ensures proper handling of international characters and multilingual references across all modern versions since EndNote 8. For output, EndNote provides more than 7,500 predefined bibliographic styles, which are fully customizable to meet specific journal or publisher requirements, covering disciplines from and MLA to numbered or formats. Libraries can be exported in formats such as for web display, RTF for formatted documents, and for spreadsheet integration, enabling broad . Cross-tool compatibility is enhanced through RIS imports from alternatives like or , allowing users to migrate references without data loss.

Usage and Reception

Applications in Academia

EndNote is extensively utilized in environments for key writing tasks, including the management of references in theses and dissertations, the preparation of articles, and the development of grant proposals. Researchers leverage its capabilities to organize large libraries of sources, automate insertion, and ensure compliance with diverse style guides such as , MLA, and . This functionality streamlines the scholarly publishing process, from initial literature reviews to final submission. The software's adoption spans hundreds of and libraries worldwide, with institutional licenses making it a staple in many research-intensive settings, particularly within disciplines where complex, -heavy projects are common. By automating repetitive tasks, EndNote significantly reduces the time required for manual formatting, allowing academics to allocate more effort toward and . For instance, its with word processors enables instant generation, minimizing errors and enhancing in collaborative academic workflows. EndNote is employed by millions of researchers globally, reflecting its entrenched role in scholarly practice. Surveys of usage indicate EndNote's popularity across disciplines, with proprietary tools like it accounting for a substantial portion of adoption in institutionally supported environments. To facilitate onboarding, universities frequently conduct workshops on EndNote's core functions, complemented by Clarivate's official training resources, including video tutorials and live sessions tailored for academic users. Recent trends, accelerated by the shift to post-2020, have amplified EndNote's role in supporting interdisciplinary teams through enhanced sharing capabilities, with the 2025 version introducing AI-driven tools to further streamline cross-collaborative reference management.

Criticisms and Limitations

EndNote's pricing structure, with a full perpetual license costing $275 and upgrades from previous versions at $125, serves as a significant barrier for individual users and students without institutional access. This high upfront cost, coupled with the absence of a free version, often drives researchers toward no-cost alternatives like and , which offer comparable functionality without financial commitment. Usability challenges further compound these issues, as EndNote features a steep stemming from its complex , which can overwhelm and require substantial time to master. The software is prone to occasional crashes, particularly on macOS systems and when handling large libraries with tens of thousands of references, leading to slowdowns and frustrations. support is notably limited, relying on an iOS-only app with no equivalent and restricted editing capabilities, such as basic searches but no comprehensive library management on the go. In terms of broader limitations, EndNote's open-access integration lags behind competitors; for instance, it retrieves only 47% of available full texts in bulk searches, compared to Zotero's 52% success rate. The 2009 lawsuit filed by against Zotero's developers alleged of EndNote for , raising early concerns about anti-competitive tactics in the reference management market, though the case was dismissed without . EndNote's AI capabilities in the 2025 release, including the Key Takeaways tool, have drawn criticism for being underdeveloped, offering only brief, context-lacking summaries confined to full-text PDFs and requiring separate external tools for advanced checks like PaperPal Preflight. Post-2020 user feedback has increasingly targeted the model, which mandates paid updates—such as the $125 for 2025—to access new features, effectively functioning like a subscription and compelling ongoing expenditures despite core stability in older releases. Reception among users remains mixed, averaging 4.4 out of 5 on established review platforms, where praises for institutional integrations are tempered by persistent complaints over cost and reliability. Despite these drawbacks, loyalty persists in academic institutions that subsidize licenses, sustaining EndNote's role in professional workflows even as free tools gain ground.