Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

External fixation

External fixation is a surgical technique in orthopedics that stabilizes fractures, deformities, or joint disruptions by inserting pins, wires, or screws into the bone and attaching them to an external rigid frame, thereby maintaining the bone's length, alignment, and rotation to facilitate healing.^[1] This method provides relative stability, promoting secondary bone healing through callus formation, and can be used as either provisional or definitive treatment.^[1] It is particularly valuable for complex cases where internal fixation might risk further soft tissue damage or infection.^[1] The origins of external fixation trace back over 2,000 years to ancient Greece, where Hippocrates described using wooden rods and leather straps to immobilize fractures externally.^[1] Modern development began in the late 19th century, with American surgeon Clayton Parkhill introducing an early device in 1894 using screws and clamps to treat fractures without internal implants.^[2] In 1902, Belgian surgeon Albin Lambotte created the first comprehensive external fixator system, emphasizing rigidity and early patient mobilization to prevent complications like amputation in severe injuries.^[2] Key advancements followed, including Raoul Hoffmann's standardized modular set in 1934, which became widely adopted globally, and Gavriil Ilizarov's circular frame in the 1950s, revolutionizing limb lengthening and deformity correction through distraction osteogenesis.^[2]^[1] External fixators are classified into several types based on configuration, including uniplanar (single plane bars), multiplanar (multiple planes for enhanced stability), unilateral (one-sided frame), bilateral (frames on both sides), circular (ring-based systems like the Ilizarov apparatus), and hybrid (combining elements of the others).^[1]^[3] Common indications encompass open fractures, comminuted periarticular fractures (such as tibial pilon or distal femur), unstable pelvic ring injuries, limb lengthening, osteomyelitis, nonunions, and malunions.^[1] The procedure is minimally invasive, allows for soft tissue access and monitoring, reduces blood loss, and permits postoperative adjustments without additional surgery, making it suitable for polytrauma or infected cases.^[1] However, potential complications include pin-site infections (the most frequent issue), neurovascular injury, joint stiffness, malunion, and patient discomfort from the bulky device.^[1]^[4]

Fundamentals

Definition and Purpose

External fixation is a surgical orthopedic technique that involves the use of percutaneous pins, wires, or screws inserted into bone fragments and connected to an external frame to stabilize fractures or deformities without the need for internal implantation devices.^[1] This method allows for the immobilization of bone segments externally, preserving the integrity of surrounding soft tissues and enabling minimally invasive access to the injury site.^[5] By maintaining the length, alignment, and rotation of fractured bones, external fixation supports natural healing processes while avoiding the placement of hardware within the body.^[1] The primary purpose of external fixation is to provide temporary or definitive stabilization for a range of musculoskeletal conditions, including acute fractures, particularly open or comminuted ones where soft tissue damage is extensive.^[1] It is also employed for bone lengthening through distraction osteogenesis, correction of angular or rotational deformities, and management of nonunions or infections by facilitating controlled compression or distraction.^[5] In complex injuries, such as those involving contaminated wounds or polytrauma, external fixation aids in soft tissue reconstruction by allowing wound access and reducing the risk of deep infections associated with internal devices.^[6] Key concepts underlying external fixation include the provision of biomechanical stability through the external frame, which shares or bears loads to promote fracture healing without excessive rigidity that could impede callus formation.^[1] This external approach minimizes infection risks in contaminated environments by avoiding intraosseous hardware, though pin-site care remains essential to prevent superficial infections.^[5] Historically, external fixation originated as an alternative to internal fixation methods for treating open fractures, offering a less invasive option that evolved from early traction techniques to modern modular systems.^[5]

Basic Principles

External fixation relies on biomechanical principles to stabilize fractures while facilitating bone repair. Central to its efficacy is the maintenance of axial alignment, which ensures that bone fragments are positioned correctly along the limb's long axis to prevent rotational or angular deformities. Three-point bending control is achieved through strategic pin placement and frame configuration, distributing forces to counteract bending moments and enhance overall construct stability. The choice between rigid and flexible fixation depends on frame stiffness, modulated by factors such as pin diameter, number, and spread; rigid setups minimize interfragmentary motion, whereas flexible ones allow limited strain to stimulate indirect repair processes.^[1]^[7] Biologically, external fixation supports healing by preserving the periosteal blood supply, as the percutaneous pins and external frame avoid large incisions that could disrupt vascular integrity and delay recovery. This minimally invasive approach enables the formation of external callus through controlled micromotion at the fracture interface, which activates cellular responses including osteoblast proliferation and chondrocyte differentiation. In distraction osteogenesis, a specialized application, the frame gradually separates osteotomized bone segments at a rate of 1 mm per day, inducing a regenerative zone of new bone tissue formation via tension-induced osteogenesis.^[1]^[8]^[9] Healing timelines differ based on the fixation mode and procedure type. External fixation typically promotes secondary bone healing—prevalent in most applications including rigid and flexible setups or lengthening procedures—which involves callus formation and can extend to 8-16 weeks for union in simple fractures or several months in complex cases like distraction osteogenesis where consolidation follows the distraction phase.^[10]^[11]^[12] An essential prerequisite for applying external fixation is a qualitative understanding of bone's stress-strain behavior, which describes how bone responds to load: initially compliant in a toe region under low stress, followed by a linear elastic phase where deformation is reversible, a yield point marking the onset of plastic changes, and eventual failure at high strains. Effective fixation keeps interfragmentary strains below 2% for primary healing or 2-10% for secondary, avoiding the yield and failure zones to permit safe biological repair.^[13]^[10]

Historical Development

Early Innovations

The origins of external fixation trace back to ancient civilizations, where rudimentary methods of immobilization were employed to treat fractures. Around 400 BCE, Hippocrates, the Greek physician, pioneered the use of wooden splints combined with traction techniques to align and stabilize broken bones, such as those in the humerus and tibia, often incorporating materials like honey, grease, and lint to reduce irritation and promote healing.^[1] This approach marked an early recognition of the need for external support to maintain fracture reduction without invasive surgery.^[14] In the 19th century, external fixation evolved toward more mechanical devices as surgical understanding advanced. French surgeon Jean-François Malgaigne introduced a notable apparatus in the 1840s, featuring a metal screw or spike driven percutaneously into the bone—typically the tibia or femur—and secured to a splint via straps or an arch-like structure to immobilize fractures, particularly of the femur.^[15] This innovation represented one of the first attempts at skeletal traction with transcutaneous fixation elements, allowing for better alignment in compound fractures.^[16] Toward the late 19th and early 20th centuries, further refinements emerged from pioneering orthopedists. In the 1880s, British surgeon Hugh Owen Thomas developed specialized splints, including the iconic Thomas splint, which used a rigid frame with rings and crossbars to apply continuous traction for lower limb fractures, enabling patient mobility while preventing deformity.^[17] Concurrently, American surgeon Clayton Parkhill designed a metal clamp system in 1894, consisting of clamps gripping pins inserted into bone fragments and connected externally, primarily for treating nonunions and fractures in the femur and tibia.^[18] In 1902, Belgian surgeon Albin Lambotte created the first recognized prototype of a modern external fixator, employing threaded pins linked by adjustable external bars to stabilize tibial fractures, emphasizing minimal tissue disruption.^[19] Despite these innovations, early external fixation systems faced significant challenges that limited their widespread adoption. High rates of pin-site infections arose from unsterile techniques, rudimentary materials like non-antiseptic metals, and inadequate wound management, often leading to osteomyelitis.^[20] Additionally, the lack of modularity in designs—such as fixed clamps or inflexible arches—hindered adjustments for fracture alignment or patient comfort, restricting their use to select cases.^[2]

Modern Evolution

In the mid-20th century, external fixation saw significant refinements that laid the groundwork for modern applications. Raoul Hoffmann, a surgeon in Geneva, Switzerland, introduced a rigid external fixator in 1938, featuring threaded pins connected by clamps to provide stable fracture immobilization, which was later commercialized and popularized in the 1950s following his death in 1972.^[21] Concurrently, in the Soviet Union, orthopedic surgeon Gavriil Ilizarov developed the circular external fixator in the early 1950s, utilizing tensioned wires and rings to enable distraction osteogenesis—a process of gradual bone lengthening and regeneration through controlled distraction.^[9] This innovation, first applied successfully in 1954 to treat a tibial non-union, revolutionized limb salvage and deformity correction, with Ilizarov treating hundreds of thousands of patients over his career at the Kurgan Institute, many with post-war injuries from World War II.^[22] The 1970s and 1980s marked the rise of modular external fixation systems, enhancing versatility and ease of application. The AO/ASIF (Association for the Study of Internal Fixation) group introduced the first comprehensive external fixator sets in the mid-1970s, featuring threaded rods and universal clamps for uniplanar stabilization, initially designed for open fractures and later expanded to distal radius and other applications.^[23] By the 1990s, advancements in computer-assisted design led to the Taylor Spatial Frame (TSF), invented by J. Charles Taylor in 1990, which employed a hexapod configuration of adjustable struts connected to rings for precise multiplanar deformity correction without repeated surgery.^[24] This system improved outcomes in complex reconstructions by allowing software-guided adjustments based on radiographic data. From the 2000s onward, external fixation has integrated advanced materials and technologies, shifting toward customization and reduced complications. Three-dimensional (3D) printing emerged as a key innovation around 2015, enabling the fabrication of patient-specific fixators using CT-derived models and biocompatible polymers like polylactic acid, which facilitate accurate fracture reduction with minimal tissue disruption and mechanical properties comparable to traditional metal frames.^[25]^[26] Minimally invasive techniques have become standard, emphasizing percutaneous pin insertion to preserve soft tissues, while research into antibiotic-coated pins aims to address pin-site infections, a common issue in prolonged use.^[27] Although bioresorbable pins remain more established in internal fixation, exploratory applications in external systems seek to eliminate hardware removal and reduce long-term complications.^[28] The global impact of these evolutions has been profound, particularly in low-resource settings where external fixation serves as an accessible, cost-effective option for trauma care, often as definitive treatment for open fractures when internal fixation is unavailable.^[29] Over time, the technique has transitioned from primarily temporary stabilization in damage-control scenarios to a definitive modality for complex cases, including nonunions and deformities, supported by hybrid and computer-planned systems that enhance stability and functional recovery.^[30]

Components of External Fixators

Fixation Elements

Fixation elements are the intraosseous components that penetrate the bone to provide anchorage for external fixators, primarily consisting of pins and wires designed to interface directly with bone tissue. The most common types include Schanz pins, which are threaded, self-tapping screws typically ranging from 3 to 6 mm in diameter, used for their robust hold in linear external fixation systems.^[31] Kirschner wires, in contrast, are thinner (0.6 to 2.5 mm diameter) and more flexible, often smooth or partially threaded, making them suitable for circular frames where multiple wires are tensioned for distributed load sharing.^[32] Hydroxyapatite-coated pins, applied to both Schanz and other types, enhance osseointegration by promoting bone apposition at the pin-bone interface, thereby reducing loosening and infection rates compared to uncoated variants.^[33] Material selection for fixation elements prioritizes biocompatibility and mechanical strength, with stainless steel offering cost-effective durability and titanium alloys providing superior corrosion resistance and lower modulus of elasticity to minimize stress shielding.^[34] Carbon fiber composites are occasionally incorporated for lightweight, radiolucent properties that improve imaging without compromising biocompatibility in select designs.^[35] Pin and wire sizes are tailored to bone density and location; for instance, 1.8 mm diameter Kirschner wires are standard for the tibia in adult circular fixation to balance flexibility and stability.^[36] Insertion mechanics involve bicortical placement, where the element traverses both cortical layers for enhanced axial and rotational stability, versus unicortical insertion limited to the near cortex, which is less invasive but offers reduced biomechanical strength.^[37] Predrilling is recommended prior to insertion to mitigate thermal necrosis, with torque limited to approximately 15-20 Nm to prevent excessive heat generation (exceeding 47°C) that could lead to bone damage and subsequent loosening.^[38] Self-drilling variants can further reduce thermal effects but require careful speed control during unicortical applications.^[38] Pin diameter directly influences construct stability, as thicker pins (e.g., 5-6 mm Schanz) provide greater resistance to bending and are preferred for load-bearing applications, while thinner wires suffice for tensioned, multi-element setups.^[39] Infection rates at pin sites, reported up to 30-50% in some series, are significantly lowered through meticulous insertion site care, including avoidance of thermal injury, hematoma formation, and regular soft tissue management to preserve the pin-bone interface.^[40] These elements connect externally to frames via clamps or rings, enabling adjustable skeletal stabilization.^[41] Recent advancements as of 2025 include next-generation pins with bioactive coatings beyond hydroxyapatite, such as silver-infused or antibiotic-eluting surfaces, aimed at further reducing infection risks, and 3D-printed custom pins for improved fit in complex anatomies.^[27]^[42]

External Frames and Connectors

External frames in external fixators serve as the adjustable external skeletons that link transosseous pins or wires to stabilize fractures or deformities, providing controlled mechanical environments for bone healing. Common frame types include linear bars for unilateral constructs, full or partial rings for circular systems, and clamps that integrate these elements into cohesive assemblies. Materials are selected for durability, lightweight properties, and imaging compatibility; aluminum is frequently used for clamps due to its strength-to-weight ratio, while bars and rings often employ radiolucent carbon fiber composites, which reduce radiographic artifacts compared to traditional stainless steel and offer up to 15% greater stiffness.^[1]^[43]^[44] Connectors such as clamps, nuts, and rods are essential for assembling and fine-tuning these frames, enabling precise multiplanar adjustments to match the biomechanical demands of specific injuries. Clamps typically feature openings for pins and rods, secured by threaded nuts that allow incremental tightening for stability; rods, often carbon fiber or metal, act as extensible connectors to span bone segments. In modular systems, quick-release mechanisms on clamps facilitate rapid reconfiguration, supporting both provisional and definitive fixation without invasive revisions.^[1]^[45]^[41] The biomechanical role of these frames centers on their configurability to deliver uniaxial or multi-axial stability, influencing load sharing between the fixator and bone to promote secondary healing through callus formation. Uniaxial frames, using single-plane bars, provide axial compression or distraction with moderate resistance to bending, suitable for diaphyseal fractures; multi-axial setups, incorporating orthogonal pins and rings, enhance torsional and shear rigidity by distributing forces across multiple vectors. For example, the delta frame—a triangular arrangement of bars and clamps—bolsters rotational control in periarticular fractures like those of the distal tibia, where additional pins in adjacent bones further mitigate micromotion.^[1]^[7]^[46] Innovations in frame design emphasize modularity and functionality, such as integrated hinge joints that enable gradual angular correction for deformities or contractures while preserving joint motion. These hinges, often part of circular or hybrid frames like the Ilizarov apparatus, allow precise, non-surgical adjustments via threaded mechanisms. Overall, the lightweight, interchangeable components—typically assembled from off-the-shelf parts—enhance patient mobility during treatment and simplify postoperative management.^[7]^[41] As of 2025, recent developments include 3D-printed frame components for patient-specific customization and enhanced modular systems with integrated sensors for real-time stability monitoring, improving outcomes in complex reconstructions.^[42]^[47]

Surgical Techniques

Preoperative Preparation

Preoperative preparation for external fixation surgery begins with a thorough patient evaluation to assess suitability and mitigate risks. This includes obtaining a detailed history to identify comorbidities such as diabetes, peripheral vascular disease, or smoking status, which can impair healing and increase infection risk. A comprehensive physical examination evaluates soft tissue status, including the extent of swelling, contusions, or open wounds, as well as neurovascular integrity through palpation of pulses, capillary refill, and sensory/motor testing. For open fractures, the Gustilo-Anderson classification is used to grade wound severity—Type I involves a clean wound less than 1 cm, Type II a wound 1-10 cm without extensive damage, and Type III, subdivided into A (adequate soft tissue coverage), B (inadequate soft tissue coverage despite adequate bone coverage), and C (associated with vascular injury requiring repair)—which guides the urgency of stabilization and potential for external fixation as initial treatment.^[48]^[49] Vascular assessment, often via Doppler ultrasound or ankle-brachial index, ensures adequate perfusion, particularly in lower extremity injuries where compromised blood flow may necessitate alternative fixation methods.^[1] Imaging plays a critical role in preoperative planning, starting with anteroposterior and lateral radiographs to confirm fracture pattern, displacement, and alignment. Computed tomography (CT) scans are employed for complex cases, such as intra-articular fractures or deformities, to provide detailed three-dimensional reconstruction for precise classification and simulation. Preoperative planning tools, including software for virtual simulation like 3D Slicer or Materialise Mimics, enable modeling of deformity correction by segmenting CT data, virtually reducing the fracture, and simulating frame configurations, which can reduce operative time and improve accuracy. Frame type selection—linear for simple diaphyseal fractures or circular/hybrid for complex periarticular injuries—is based on injury complexity, bone quality, and patient factors, often incorporating patient-specific 3D-printed models to pre-assemble components. Temporary stabilization with splints or traction is applied immediately post-injury to maintain length and alignment, minimizing further soft tissue damage until definitive fixation.^[50]^[1] Anesthesia options typically include general or regional techniques, selected based on patient comorbidities, injury location, and surgical duration, with regional blocks preferred for lower extremity procedures to provide postoperative analgesia. Antibiotic prophylaxis is administered to prevent pin-site and surgical site infections, with cefazolin (2 g IV) as the first-line agent for most cases, given within 60 minutes of incision and continued for 24-48 hours postoperatively in high-risk open fractures; alternatives like vancomycin are used for beta-lactam allergies. Informed consent is obtained, discussing potential complications such as nerve injury from pin placement, infection, or nonunion, emphasizing the device's external nature and need for patient compliance.^[51]^[52]

Implantation and Adjustment

The implantation of an external fixator is performed in a sterile operating environment to reduce the risk of infection. Pin sites are prepared by cleaning the skin with an antiseptic solution, such as chlorhexidine-alcohol, followed by small incisions to access the bone while protecting surrounding soft tissues with retractors or drill sleeves.^[53]^[1]^[54] Under fluoroscopic guidance, the bone is predrilled at planned insertion points with continuous irrigation to prevent thermal necrosis from friction.^[1] Pins or wires are then inserted sequentially, typically 2 to 4 per bone segment on either side of the fracture, advancing through the near cortex, medullary canal, and far cortex to ensure bicortical purchase.^[55]^[31] For lower limb procedures, a tourniquet is often applied to minimize intraoperative bleeding and improve visualization.^[56] To avoid joint violation and subsequent stiffness, pins are placed at least 14 mm distal to the joint line in the tibia, with careful trajectory planning under imaging.^[1] Following pin insertion, the external frame—consisting of bars, rings, or clamps—is assembled around the limb to connect the fixation elements, stabilizing the fracture in the desired alignment.^[1] Intraoperative alignment checks are conducted via fluoroscopy to confirm length, rotation, and reduction before final securement.^[1] In circular systems, such as the Ilizarov frame, transosseous wires are tensioned to approximately 90 kg to achieve the necessary rigidity.^[57] The procedure for simple fractures typically lasts 30 to 90 minutes, allowing for provisional or definitive stabilization depending on the injury.^[58] Post-implantation adjustments include dynamization, where the construct is modified after initial healing (often 2 to 6 weeks) to transition from rigid to more flexible fixation, promoting callus formation and fracture union by increasing interfragmentary motion.^[59]^[60] This is achieved by removing or loosening certain components, such as locking screws or bars, under controlled conditions to avoid loss of alignment.^[61]

Types of External Fixation Systems

Linear Systems

Linear external fixation systems, also referred to as unilateral or bilateral fixators, feature a design where transosseous pins or wires are inserted into the bone fragments and connected externally by bars or rails using clamps, providing unidirectional or bidirectional stabilization along the limb's axis. Unilateral configurations apply the frame on a single side of the limb, typically using half-pins in a monoplanar or biplanar arrangement, while bilateral setups involve frames on both sides for enhanced rigidity, though the latter is less common due to potential soft tissue interference from transfixing pins. This modular setup, exemplified by systems like the AO modular rail fixator, allows for quick assembly and adjustment, making it ideal for diaphyseal fractures in long bones such as the tibia or femur.^[41]^[62] These systems are primarily applied for temporary stabilization in polytrauma patients, where rapid immobilization is needed to maintain fracture length, alignment, and rotation without extensive soft tissue dissection, often serving as a bridge to definitive internal fixation once the patient's condition stabilizes. For instance, the AO modular rail system is frequently used in tibial fractures to provide immediate support in damage control orthopedics scenarios. In select cases, linear fixators can transition to definitive treatment for diaphyseal injuries, particularly when soft tissue healing is delayed or in pediatric patients.^[1]^[41]^[62] Key advantages of linear systems include their simplicity in design and application, which requires minimal surgical exposure and no intraoperative imaging, alongside cost-effectiveness due to modular, reusable components. Stability is achieved through parallel pin placement, with configurations using four or more pins per segment offering sufficient axial and torsional resistance for straightforward fracture patterns. Unlike circular systems suited for multiplanar corrections in complex deformities, linear fixators excel in basic, uniplanar stabilization. Removal typically occurs after 6-8 weeks once radiographic union is confirmed, minimizing infection risks associated with prolonged implantation.^[62]^[41]^[63]

Circular and Hybrid Systems

Circular external fixation systems provide multidirectional stability through ring-based constructs that encircle the limb, distributing forces evenly to support complex reconstructions. The Ilizarov apparatus, a foundational circular fixator, consists of interconnected rings secured to bone via tensioned olive or smooth wires, achieving 360-degree circumferential fixation that resists axial, torsional, and shear loads while permitting controlled adjustments.^[64] This design ensures high stability with minimal soft tissue impingement, facilitating early weight-bearing and gradual deformity correction.^[65] Building on Ilizarov principles, the Taylor Spatial Frame introduces a hexapod configuration with two full rings linked by six independently adjustable struts, enabling precise, computer-guided corrections across all six axes of deformity—coronal and sagittal angulation, axial translation, rotation, and lengthening or shortening.^[24] Software analysis of preoperative radiographs generates a correction plan, allowing incremental strut adjustments without altering the frame assembly, which streamlines treatment for multifaceted deformities.^[24] This system contrasts with simpler linear alternatives by offering enhanced versatility for simultaneous multiplanar modifications. Hybrid external fixation systems merge circular rings with linear components, such as half-pins or screws, to tailor stability to varying bone densities and fracture patterns. In designs like Orthofix's ProCallus or Galaxy systems, tensioned wires anchor rings to metaphyseal cancellous bone, while diaphyseal pins provide robust cortical purchase, optimizing overall frame rigidity.^[66] These modular hybrids are particularly suited for proximal humerus applications, where ring-wire constructs stabilize the articular surface and pin fixation secures the shaft, reducing avascular necrosis risk in complex fractures.^[67] Circular and hybrid systems are widely applied in limb lengthening, with distraction osteogenesis typically advancing at 1 mm per day—divided into four 0.25 mm increments—to stimulate organized bone regeneration through the soft tissue gap.^[64] They also address angular deformities via hinge placements and differential distraction, restoring alignment in multiplane malunions.^[68] For infected non-unions, these fixators support bone transport techniques, where a corticotomy segment is gradually moved to fill segmental defects, followed by compression at the docking site to promote union.^[69] Healing durations for limb lengthenings vary by extent but can reach up to 12 months in external fixation, encompassing distraction, consolidation, and frame removal phases.^[70] In the 2020s, advancements incorporate smart sensors, including load cells integrated into wire tensioning mechanisms for real-time monitoring of fixation loads and slippage, improving detection of instability and guiding adjustments.^[44]

Clinical Applications

Indications

External fixation is primarily indicated in scenarios involving severe trauma or complex reconstructive needs where internal fixation poses risks to soft tissues or stability. It is particularly favored when preserving vascularity and allowing access for wound care is essential, such as in contaminated or open injuries. In trauma settings, external fixation serves as a definitive or temporary stabilization method for open fractures classified as Gustilo Type II or III, where extensive soft tissue damage accompanies bone disruption. It is also recommended for pelvic ring injuries requiring rapid stabilization to control hemorrhage and maintain alignment, as well as in polytrauma patients with significant soft tissue compromise that delays definitive internal fixation. The Orthopaedic Trauma Association (OTA) recognizes its role in managing open fractures, particularly when combined with appropriate debridement and antibiotics.^[71] For reconstructive applications, external fixation is indicated in limb lengthening procedures for congenital short stature, enabling gradual distraction osteogenesis with typical gains of 5-8 cm in the femur and 4-6 cm in the tibia while minimizing neurovascular complications.^[72] It is likewise used for correcting non-unions or malunions through osteotomy and gradual realignment, and in osteomyelitis management following thorough debridement to maintain stability during infection resolution. Literature reports high success rates for non-union healing with external fixators in infected cases, attributing outcomes to the system's modularity.^[1] Additional indications include temporary spanning external fixation for acute joint instability, such as in knee dislocations, to restore ligamentous tension and prevent further neurovascular injury until soft tissues heal. In pediatric patients, it is applied for growth plate injuries (Salter-Harris Type III or IV) to stabilize fractures without disrupting physeal cartilage, promoting guided growth and remodeling. The American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons (AAOS) 2020 clinical practice guidelines on pediatric diaphyseal femur fractures suggest external fixation as an option for children aged 6-11 years.^[73]

Contraindications

External fixation is contraindicated in certain patient and injury scenarios to avoid excessive risks of failure, infection, or poor outcomes. Absolute contraindications include active systemic infections such as sepsis, where the introduction of percutaneous pins could worsen the condition or lead to disseminated complications.^[74] Severe vascular compromise in the affected limb represents another absolute contraindication, as pin insertion may further impair blood flow and promote tissue necrosis.^[1] Additionally, profound physiological instability, such as in patients unable to tolerate anesthesia or surgery, precludes the procedure.^[1] Relative contraindications encompass factors that increase the likelihood of suboptimal results but do not entirely rule out external fixation with careful consideration. These include severe osteoporosis or bone deterioration (e.g., bone mineral density below -2.5 standard deviations), which compromises pin-bone interface stability and raises the risk of loosening or fracture.^[75] Patient non-compliance, often linked to psychiatric conditions or cognitive impairments that hinder proper pin-site care and follow-up, is a significant relative contraindication, as inadequate maintenance can lead to infections or device failure.^[1] In pediatric cases, uncooperative guardians or family dynamics that impede adherence to care protocols similarly heighten risks.^[76] Closed fractures suitable for internal fixation also fall under relative contraindications, as external methods may unnecessarily prolong treatment and expose patients to pin-related issues when less invasive options suffice.^[77] Smoking further elevates risks as a modifiable relative factor, with studies demonstrating that smokers experience higher complication rates, including delayed union and nonunion, during external fixation; one prospective analysis reported complications in 50% of smokers versus 20% of nonsmokers, alongside extended fixation times averaging 96 days.^[78] When contraindications are present, alternatives such as internal plating for stable fractures or non-operative casting for select low-energy injuries are preferred to optimize healing while minimizing external device-related hazards.^[1]

Complications and Management

Common Complications

External fixation, while effective for stabilizing fractures and deformities, is associated with several common complications that can impact patient outcomes. These adverse events primarily arise from the transcutaneous placement of pins or wires, which breaches the skin barrier and introduces mechanical stress at the bone-implant interface. External fixation for lower extremity fractures is associated with notable complication rates, highlighting the need for vigilant monitoring.^[1] Infection remains the most frequent complication, particularly at the pin sites where hardware penetrates the skin. Pin-site infections occur in 30-50% of cases, with superficial infections being far more common than deep ones; superficial variants, characterized by erythema, drainage, and mild pain, affect up to 30% of pin sites and are typically managed conservatively, while deep infections leading to osteomyelitis arise in less than 5% of instances.^[79]^[80] These infections often stem from bacterial colonization at the skin-pin junction, with Staphylococcus species predominating.^[81] Neurovascular injuries represent another notable risk during pin placement, with an overall incidence of less than 2%; the risk approximately doubles without radiographic guidance.^[82]^[83] Such injuries may involve direct trauma to adjacent nerves (e.g., radial or peroneal) or vessels, resulting in temporary or persistent sensory/motor deficits or vascular compromise. Mechanical complications include pin or wire loosening, which arises from inadequate bone purchase or cyclic loading, potentially destabilizing the construct and necessitating revision. Malalignment, reported in 5-15% of cases, often results from improper frame assembly or adjustment errors, leading to angular or rotational deformities that compromise long-term function. Refracture after device removal occurs due to stress risers around healed pin tracts, with incidence varying based on bone quality and healing duration.^[1] Additional common issues encompass localized pain and swelling at pin sites or the frame, joint stiffness from prolonged immobilization, and psychological burden from the device's bulk and visibility, which can contribute to reduced quality of life during treatment. Risk factors exacerbating these complications include prolonged device use beyond 6 weeks, poor patient hygiene, and comorbidities such as diabetes or smoking, which heighten infection susceptibility.^[80]^[1]

Prevention and Treatment

Prevention of complications in external fixation begins with meticulous pin care protocols to minimize infection risks at pin sites. Daily cleaning with a 2 mg/ml chlorhexidine solution has been shown to decrease the prevalence of pin tract infections compared to other methods, such as povidone-iodine, by promoting effective antimicrobial action while maintaining patient comfort.^[84] Prophylactic antibiotics administered perioperatively, typically a single preoperative dose or up to 24 hours postoperatively, are recommended to reduce the incidence of surgical site infections following external fixator placement, though extended courses beyond this period do not provide additional benefit.^[52] Regular follow-up with X-rays, often weekly initially and then biweekly, allows for early detection of alignment issues or delayed healing, enabling timely adjustments to the frame.^[85] Treatment of infections varies by severity. Superficial pin site infections, characterized by erythema and mild drainage, are typically managed with oral antibiotics such as cephalexin (500 mg four times daily for 5-7 days) alongside local care to resolve symptoms without frame compromise.^[86] Deep infections, involving osteomyelitis or abscess formation, require surgical intervention including irrigation, debridement of infected tissue, and potential frame revision or pin exchange to eradicate the infection and restore stability.^[87] Malalignment during the treatment course can be corrected through gradual frame adjustments using multiplanar external fixators or, in cases of significant deformity, by performing an osteotomy followed by realignment within the existing construct.^[88] Postoperative care emphasizes multidisciplinary support to optimize outcomes. Physiotherapy protocols, starting within days of surgery, focus on gentle range-of-motion exercises and weight-bearing progression to maintain joint mobility and prevent muscle atrophy, tailored to the fixator type and patient tolerance.^[89] Pain management employs a multimodal approach, combining nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) like ibuprofen for inflammatory control with short-term opioids for breakthrough pain, aiming to minimize opioid dependence while ensuring functional recovery.^[90] The external fixator is removed once clinical stability is achieved—such as pain-free weight-bearing—and radiographic evidence confirms union, typically bridging callus across at least three of four cortices on plain films.^[91] Recent advancements in materials have targeted infection prevention. Systematic reviews indicate no proven reduction in infection rates with silver-coated pins compared to uncoated pins.^[27] Antimicrobial dressings, such as those incorporating silver, have shown promise in general wound care for managing exudates, though specific evidence for pin sites in external fixation remains limited.^[92]

References

[1]
External Fixation Principles and Overview - StatPearls - NCBI - NIH
The primary goal of external fixation is to maintain the length, alignment, and rotation of the fracture. External fixation can serve as provisional fixation or ...
[2]
[PDF] History of External Fixation - UNM Digital Repository
The origins of external fixation were in Denver and Belgium over 120 years ago, and the principles have remained largely the same.
[3]
External Fixators | International Center for Limb Lengthening
External fixators can be used to gradually lengthen a bone, straighten a deformed bone or reduce pressure on a joint through joint distraction.
[4]
General considerations on external skeletal fixators
2. Disadvantages of external skeletal fixation · Pin penetrating the soft tissues · Restricted joint motion · Pin tract complications in long-lasting external ...
[5]
An engineering review of external fixators - ScienceDirect.com
External Fixators are a common technique used to treat a variety of issues related to bones, predominantly due to its non-intrusive nature and versatility ...
[6]
The Role of External Fixation in the Management of Upper Extremity ...
Aug 15, 2023 · This review article summarizes the indications, techniques, clinical outcomes, and complications of external fixation of the upper extremity.
[7]
The Mechanics of External Fixation - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
External fixation entails the use of percutaneously placed transosseus pins and/or wires secured to external scaffolding to provide support to a limb. In this ...
[8]
Biomechanics and biology of external fixation of distal radius fractures
Understanding the basic mechanical principles and respect for pin-bone biology allow for successful use of external fixation with minimal complications.<|control11|><|separator|>
[9]
Ilizarov principles of deformity correction - PMC - PubMed Central
Gradual correction and lengthening uses the principle of 'distraction osteogenesis'. Bone and soft tissue are gradually distracted at a rate of 1 mm per day in ...
[10]
Fracture Healing Overview - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Apr 8, 2023 · Fracture healing is complex, and it involves the following stages: hematoma formation, granulation tissue formation, callus formation, and bone remodeling.
[11]
THE BIOLOGY OF FRACTURE HEALING - PMC - PubMed Central
Bone on one side of the cortex must unite with bone on the other side of the cortex to re-establish mechanical continuity.
[12]
Monitoring the Mechanical Properties of Healing Bone - PMC - NIH
It could be demonstrated that the healing time increases with the complexity of the fracture: 11.3 weeks for Type A, 13.1 weeks for Type B, and 15.1 weeks for ...Missing: timeline | Show results with:timeline
[13]
Bone Mechanical Properties in Healthy and Diseased States - PMC
The stress–strain curve for trabecular bone does not exhibit a clear linear region or a well-defined yield point (Figure 1c).
[14]
Hippocrates: A Pioneer in Orthopaedics and Traumatology
Nov 18, 2023 · Close Fractures Hippocrates reported that fracture reduction was achieved through manipulations and traction, while splints must be applied ...
[15]
Joseph François Malgaigne • LITFL • Medical Eponym Library
Nov 4, 2020 · 1840 – Malgaigne described a 'pointe métallique' which was a spike introduced into bone and fixed to a splint, with the aid of a strap, to ...
[16]
History of external skeletal fixation - PubMed
The concept of external skeletal fixation was introduced by Malgaigne in 1840, with a spike driven into the human tibia that was held by a strap encircling the ...
[17]
History of the Thomas Splint - Ortho Rhode Island
Feb 17, 2016 · The Thomas splint was first introduced by Hugh Owen Thomas in 1875, in his book titled, Diseases of the hip, knee and ankle joints with their deformities.Missing: external fixation 1880s
[18]
History and Evolution of External Fixation - Musculoskeletal Key
Aug 2, 2016 · This external fixation device was used to treat olecranon fractures. ... Jean-Francois Malgaigne (1806–1865) (A), “point” (B), and “claw” (C) ...
[19]
History of external fixation for treatment of fractures - PubMed
The external fixation device invented by Lambotte in 1902 is generally thought to be the first "real fixator". In America it was Clayton Parkhill, in 1897, with ...
[20]
Raoul Hoffmann and his external fixator - PubMed
Raoul Hoffmann and his external fixator. ... External Fixators / history*; Fractures, Bone / history*; Fractures, Bone ...Missing: 1938 | Show results with:1938
[21]
Ilizarov - Journal of Limb Lengthening & Reconstruction
Jun 15, 2020 · G. A. Ilizarov, we can suggest that there were hundreds of thousands because, some days, more than a hundred patients could receive ...
[22]
Development of the small AO fixator to the current set - PubMed
An indirect system to reduce and hold comminuted fractures of the distal radius was developed in the mid 1970's starting with a simple threaded distraction ...Missing: ASIF introduction
[23]
Taylor spatial frame-software-controlled fixator for deformity ... - NIH
The Taylor spatial frame (TSF) fixator was invented by Dr. J. Charles Taylor of Memphis USA (1990) which was designed to overcome these difficulties of the use ...
[24]
3D Printed Orthopaedic External Fixation Devices: A Systematic ...
Jun 7, 2023 · Three-dimensional (3D) printing technology has the potential to advance the practice and access to external fixation devices in orthopaedics.Missing: custom | Show results with:custom
[25]
https://threedmedprint.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s41205-023-00180-0
[26]
Role of coatings and materials of external fixation pins on the rates ...
Nov 18, 2021 · Role of coatings and materials of external fixation pins on the rates of pin tract infection: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
[27]
Bioabsorbable fixation in orthopaedic surgery and traumatology
Bioabsorbable internal fixation devices were introduced clinically in the treatment of fractures and osteotomies of the extremities.Missing: bioresorbable external
[28]
Definitive fixation with an external fixator - Basics of Open Fractures
In low-resource settings, a patient may be managed with an external fixator until the wounds have healed and a POP can be applied for the remaining time to bone ...
[29]
External Fixation Systems: From Temporary Stabilization ... - invamed
In the definitive treatment realm, external fixation offers solutions for complex fractures, nonunions, malunions, bone defects, and deformities, often in ...
[30]
External fixation - AO Surgery Reference
Introduction. Insertion of threaded pins in the supraacetabular region is performed by using the anterior inferior iliac spine (AIIS) as a starting point. This ...Missing: ASIF 1970s
[31]
Orthopedic hardware and equipment for the beginner: Part 1. Pins ...
The difference between a pin and a wire is largely one of diameter. Pins are between 1.5 mm (1/16 inch) and 6.5 mm (1/4 inch) in diameter. Kirschner wires (K- ...
[32]
Hydroxyapatite-coated Schanz pins in external fixators used for ...
Coating pins with hydroxyapatite increases their fixation to bone and reduces the rate of infection and loosening during external fixation for distraction ...Missing: Kirschner | Show results with:Kirschner
[33]
Titanium Alloy Pins Versus Stainless Steel Pins in External Fixation ...
Aug 7, 2025 · The purpose of this study was to compare pin-related complications and pain levels after the use of external fixation for the stabilization of ...
[34]
External Fixators System supplier & Manufacturer in china - XC Medico
... materials used in external fixators(stainless steel, titanium, carbon fiber, andpolymers) are biocompatible and designed forsafe use in orthopedic surgery
[35]
[PDF] The Ring Fixation System - Orthofix
Kirschner Wire (2 mm diameter) with Lateral Olive. 80112 Length 400 mm. 80111 Length 350 mm. 80101 Length 310 mm. Kirschner Wire (2 mm diameter) with Central ...
[36]
Biomechanical comparison of bicortical versus unicortical screw ...
Bicortical screw placement may provide a biomechanically superior construct than unicortical screw placement for the stabilization of unstable proximal tibia ...
[37]
Unicortical self-drilling external fixator pins reduce thermal effects ...
Dec 14, 2017 · Self-drilling unicortical and bicortical pins were inserted at different rotational speeds: (30–600) rpm. Maximum and mean temperatures of the ...
[38]
Stability with unilateral external fixation in the tibia - PMC - NIH
Larger diameter pins have a higher resistance to bending forces (the cross-sectional moment of inertia of any rod or bar structure increases with the fourth ...
[39]
The care of pin sites with external fixation - The Bone & Joint Journal
May 1, 2005 · The risk of pin-site infection is lower if attention is paid to avoiding thermal injury and local formation of haematoma during surgery and if ...
[40]
Modular external fixation - AO Surgery Reference
The modular external fixator is optimal for temporary use. It is rapidly applied without need for intraoperative x-rays and can be adjusted later.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition<|control11|><|separator|>
[41]
[PDF] Zimmer® XtraFix® External Fixation System Large & Small Surgical ...
XtraFix clamps are made primarily of aluminum, and pins are made from high strength stainless steel. Bars come in glass fiber and carbon fiber. Page 5. 5.
[42]
Developments in circular external fixators: A review - ScienceDirect
Circular external fixators (CEFs) are successfully used in orthopedics owing to their highly favorable stiffness characteristics which promote distraction ...
[43]
Tutor Set (External Fixation) – Key Components, Uses and Benefits
Aug 4, 2025 · Description: Long, cylindrical bars that connect multiple Schanz screws externally. Material: Carbon fiber (radiolucent for clear X-rays), ...<|separator|>
[44]
Biomechanical features of six design of the delta external fixator for ...
This device can promote immediate healing of fractured bone, minimizing the rate of complications as well as allowing early mobilization.Missing: frames multi-
[45]
Open Fracture Management - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Gustilo-Anderson type I open fractures is a low energy injury with wounds less than 1 cm with minimal soft tissue damage. Type II fractures are low to moderate ...
[46]
Open Fractures Management - Trauma - Orthobullets
Mar 27, 2025 · external fixation is temporary initial treatment of choice for majority of high energy open fractures of the lower extremity. local ...
[47]
Computer-assisted preoperative planning of bone fracture fixation ...
Computer-assisted preoperative planning (CAPP), or virtual surgical planning (VSP), may resolve many of these issues associated with conventional planning. In ...
[48]
Anesthesia for Orthopedic Surgeries - OpenAnesthesia
Jan 12, 2024 · Anesthesia for orthopedic surgeries can be performed with a wide range of techniques, including general, neuraxial, and regional anesthesia.
[49]
Current practice of antibiotic prophylaxis for surgical fixation of ...
Jan 16, 2017 · Most surgeons (96%) use cefazolin as first-line infection prophylaxis. Fifty-nine percent used a multiple-dose antibiotic regimen, 39% used a single-dose ...
[50]
Pin-site Infection: A Systematic Review of Prevention Strategies - PMC
Pin-site infection is a common sequelae of external fixation with estimated rates between 9 and 100%. The large disparity of reported rates of PSI is thought to ...
[51]
Prevention of infection in external fixator pin sites - ScienceDirect.com
The only definitive management is removal of the pin. This review will consider the current and potential future strategies for reducing pin site infection.
[52]
Hoffmann® 3 External Fixation System - Implants - Orthobullets
Jun 27, 2025 · Before insertion of anterior Apex half pins near the ankle joint, perform blunt dissection to bone to ensure safety of neurovascular bundle.Missing: principles preoperative
[53]
Tourniquet use in lower limb trauma and fracture surgery - PubMed
In this article, we review the evidence relating to harms and benefits of tourniquet use in lower limb fracture fixation surgery.
[54]
Combined limited internal fixation and multiplanar external ... - NIH
If satisfied with frame positioning, the surgeon may proceed to fixation of the calcaneus and then the midfoot with medial to lateral wires at 90 kg of tension.Missing: implantation | Show results with:implantation
[55]
The external fixation can be a good alternative to plate-screw ...
Conclusion: In bilateral DRF cases, hand functions in the first two months after treatment were better in the EF group, compared to the ORIF group. This ...
[56]
Fixators dynamization for delayed union and non-union of femur and ...
Aug 7, 2023 · In the context of dynamization, external fixation devices typically restore the fracture gap once the load is removed, a process known as ...Missing: post- | Show results with:post-
[57]
Biomechanics of fracture healing: how best to optimize your ... - NIH
Mar 14, 2024 · Furthermore, it has been shown that axial micromotion stimulates callus formation and more rigid fixation promotes remodeling. Importantly, the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[58]
[Dynamization of fracture fixation : Timing and methods]. - Orthobullets
The dynamization of fracture fixation is a frequently used method to improve the fracture healing process.
[59]
An engineering review of external fixators - PMC - NIH
Titanium alloy pins versus stainless steel pins in external fixation at the wrist: a randomized prospective study. Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery ...Missing: fiber | Show results with:fiber
[60]
The management of paediatric diaphyseal femoral fractures - NIH
Jul 11, 2016 · Union of femoral fractures with external fixation takes a minimum of 8 weeks [41, 42], and some authors recommend leaving the external fixator ...Missing: linear | Show results with:linear
[61]
The Ilizarov Technique: A Dynamic Solution for Orthopaedic ...
Aug 27, 2024 · This process is facilitated by the phenomenon called distraction osteogenesis, which is induced by tensile stress applied with the Ilizarov ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[62]
ILIZAROV External Fixator | Smith+Nephew Global
The Ilizarov method delivers stability, flexibility and precision with near-immediate weight-bearing in complex fractures and deformities.
[63]
ProCallus Hybrid Fixation - Orthofix
A Hybrid Fixator provides good stability by combining the advantages of tensioned wires and cortical screws. The Procallus Hybrid System® is made of.Missing: linear pins circular proximal humerus
[64]
External fixation for proximal humerus fractures neer type 3 and 4
Osteosynthesis with external fixator can be considered today as a valid treatment for PHF to stabilize the fracture, preserve the humeral head vascularization.
[65]
Ilizarov principles of deformity correction | The Annals of ... - RCSEng
Acute correction of deformity should be followed by bone grafting and stable fixation with compression. In infected non-unions, the non-union must be exposed ...History Of Ilizarov · Mechanical Principles Of The... · Clinical Use Of Ilizarov...
[66]
Hexapod Circular Frame Fixation for Tibial Non-union - NIH
However, a recent treatment algorithm for the use of circular frames in distraction, deformity correction, stabilisation and bone transport based on the type of ...
[67]
Bone Transport - International Center for Limb Lengthening
Additional time will be needed to heal the docking site, so it is not uncommon to have to wear the external fixator for 6 – 12 months. Patients with an ...
[68]
External Fixation - Musculoskeletal Key
Jun 14, 2016 · Placement of external fixator pins at a site of active infection or gross contamination may be contraindicated. Although temporary stabilization ...
[69]
External Fixator: How to Lengthen, Align, or Heal Bones
Sep 5, 2025 · An external fixator is a device used to immobilize a serious bone fracture or correct a deformity. It's attached during a surgical procedure ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[70]
Clinical Implications of Psychosocial Factors on Pediatric External ...
Pediatric limb reconstruction using circular external fixation is a prolonged treatment that interrupts patients' daily function.Missing: relative contraindications
[71]
Internal Fixation vs External Fixation - Orthofix ABS
External fixation is recommended in the presence of open fractures with contamination or impending compartment syndrome. It provides adequate stability, ...
[72]
Cigarette smoking delays bone healingA prospective study of 200 ...
Jan 1, 2004 · Results Half of the smokers and one fifth of the nonsmokers developed complications. Their mean time in external fixation was 96 (SD 20) days.Missing: rate | Show results with:rate
[73]
A Meta-analysis Comparing External Fixation against Open ... - NIH
This article aims to compare the outcomes between open reduction and internal fixation (ORIF) and external fixation (ExFix) in tibial plateau fractures.
[74]
Prospective evaluation of pin site infections in 39 patients treated ...
Prudently, treatment length correlates with higher risk and incidence of infection. Of the included 568 pin sites, 171 were infected (30 %), but 36 patients ( ...
[75]
Prevention of pin site infection in external fixation - NIH
May 12, 2016 · The infection rate has been reported to be 2.5-fold greater in patients with external fixators performing active correction than those which are ...
[76]
Routine pin tract care in external fixation is unnecessary - PubMed
Introduction: Pin site infections are seen in up to 40% of external fixators (ExFix) and are therefore the most common complication with this device. There ...Missing: incidence systematic review
[77]
https://abs.orthofix.it/blog/internal-fixation-vs-external-fixation/
[78]
a case report of vascular injury after femoral fracture external fixation
Paul et al. reported four iatrogenic vascular injuries after external fixation frame placement in 121 lower extremity fractures for an incidence of 3.3% [12].
[79]
[PDF] Effects of two different solutions used in pin site care on the ...
Jul 11, 2012 · Conclusion: Use of 2 mg/ml chlorhexidine in pin site care appears to decrease the prevalence of pin tract infection. Key words: Care; external ...
[80]
The value of radiography in the follow-up of extremity fractures - NIH
Aug 14, 2018 · These radiographs can be used to check for (secondary) dislocation, assess bone healing, and provide early detection of complications [5–8].
[81]
Pin Site Care - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
If signs and symptoms of a pin site infection do not rapidly improve, oral antibiotics are prescribed (cephalexin or clindamycin) for 5 to 7 days. A pin site ...
[82]
Debridement Versus Simple Scrubbing of External Fixator Pin Sites
This study aimed to determine if irrigation and debridement of external fixator pin sites leads to fewer deep surgical site infections, compared to simply ...Missing: revision | Show results with:revision
[83]
Ensuring precision in lower limb deformity correction through a ... - NIH
Acute correction of malalignment may be achieved with either closing or opening wedge osteotomy. After correction, osteotomy can be fixed internally or ...
[84]
Rehabilitation Techniques for Adults Undergoing External Fixation ...
External fixation devices are commonly used in orthopaedic surgery to manage a range of pathologies. In this patient population, there is currently no consensus ...
[85]
[PDF] Pharmacologic, Physical, and Cognitive Pain Alleviation for ...
Jul 19, 2021 · Multimodal analgesia incorporating oral opioids and NSAIDs is standard of care for managing orthopedic postoperative pain. Using a ...
[86]
Determining When It Is Safe to Remove the External Fixator
Aug 10, 2017 · The ultimate decision to remove an external fixator is generally based on the findings from clinical examination and plain radiographs. One ...
[87]
Randomised clinical trial of Hydrofiber dressing with silver versus ...
Rates of complete healing at study completion were 23% for Hydrofiber Ag dressing and 9% for povidone–iodine gauze (P = ns). No adverse events were reported ...