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Geographic information system software

Geographic information system (GIS) software consists of computer programs that provide the functions and tools needed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and display geographically referenced data.^[1] These tools enable users to work with spatial information in formats such as vector data (points, lines, and polygons) and raster data (grid-based cells), facilitating the integration of location-based attributes like coordinates and thematic layers.^[2] At its core, GIS software serves as the operational engine of a broader GIS framework, which also includes hardware, data, people, and methods, allowing for the visualization and interpretation of real-world phenomena tied to specific locations on Earth.^[2]^[3] The development of GIS software traces its origins to the mid-20th century, with the world's first operational GIS emerging in 1963 as the Canada Geographic Information System (CGIS), created by Roger Tomlinson for Canada's Department of Forestry and Rural Development to manage land inventory data through overlays and a national coordinate system.^[4] In 1964, Howard T. Fisher developed SYMAP at Northwestern University, one of the earliest computer mapping software programs that produced output on line printers, marking a shift toward automated spatial analysis.^[4] The field advanced significantly in 1981 with the release of ARC/INFO by Esri, the first commercially available GIS software, which combined a database with tools for spatial data management and became a cornerstone for professional applications.^[4] Subsequent evolution has incorporated advancements in computing power, remote sensing, and open-source contributions, expanding accessibility from mainframes to desktop and cloud-based platforms.^[4] Key features of GIS software include a graphical user interface (GUI) for user interaction, a database management system (DBMS) for organizing spatial and attribute data, and specialized tools for geographic querying, proximity analysis (e.g., identifying features within a specified distance), and overlay analysis (e.g., combining layers like soil types and slopes to assess suitability).^[2] These capabilities support diverse applications, from environmental monitoring—such as mapping habitats for rare species based on elevation and rainfall—to urban planning, resource management, and disaster response.^[3]^[2] Modern GIS software also integrates with scientific data formats and web services, enhancing interoperability for fields like earth sciences, public health, and transportation.^[5] Notable examples of GIS software include ArcGIS from Esri, a proprietary suite widely used for advanced mapping and analysis in government and industry; QGIS, an open-source alternative that offers robust tools for data visualization and geoprocessing without licensing costs; and GeoDa, specialized for spatial statistical analysis.^[6]^[7] These programs exemplify the progression toward user-friendly, scalable solutions that democratize access to geospatial technologies across sectors.^[7]

History

Early Development (1960s-1980s)

The origins of geographic information system (GIS) software trace back to the 1960s in Canada, where geographer Roger Tomlinson developed the Canada Geographic Information System (CGIS) for the Department of Forestry and Rural Development. Commissioned to create a national inventory of natural resources such as land use, agriculture, and forestry, Tomlinson's project began in 1963 and became the world's first operational GIS by the late 1960s.^[4]^[8] CGIS operated on mainframe computers, using vector-based data models to store and manipulate spatial information separately from attribute data, enabling efficient handling of large-scale topographic maps.^[9] This system marked the establishment of core GIS concepts, including the integration of locational and descriptive data for resource management.^[10] In the 1970s, developments in the United States advanced GIS through academic research, particularly at the Harvard Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis, founded in 1965 by Howard T. Fisher. The lab's ODYSSEY system, introduced in the mid-1970s, represented a pioneering vector GIS that supported advanced spatial analysis on minicomputers. ODYSSEY built on earlier tools like SYMAP (developed in 1964), emphasizing raster and vector data models to represent geographic features such as points, lines, and polygons.^[4] These efforts shifted focus from mere data storage to analytical capabilities, including basic spatial querying to retrieve and compare geographic entities based on attributes or locations.^[11] The 1980s saw GIS software prototypes emerge with the rise of personal computers, which democratized access beyond mainframes and academic institutions. MapInfo Corporation, founded in 1986, released the first desktop GIS product, initially called MIDAS, designed for MS-DOS and enabling non-experts to perform mapping and analysis without extensive programming.^[12] Early systems like these prioritized overlay analysis—a foundational technique for superimposing multiple data layers to identify relationships, such as suitable land for agriculture by combining soil and climate maps—without graphical user interfaces, relying instead on command-line interactions.^[13]^[9] This period laid the groundwork for GIS as a tool for environmental planning and resource assessment, though limited by hardware constraints.^[14]

Commercialization and Growth (1990s-2000s)

During the 1990s, GIS software transitioned from specialized academic and government tools to widely accessible commercial products, driven by advancements in desktop computing. Esri's ARC/INFO, initially released in 1982, solidified its position as a leading commercial GIS platform through major updates like version 6.0 in 1991, which enhanced data management and analysis capabilities using relational databases.^[15] The introduction of ArcView in 1991 marked a pivotal shift, offering an intuitive, user-friendly interface for non-experts and establishing desktop GIS as the dominant paradigm for spatial analysis and visualization.^[16] This software's commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) model democratized access, expanding Esri's user base beyond technical specialists.^[17] Concurrently, Intergraph advanced GIS integration within its CAD ecosystem; the Modular GIS Environment (MGE), built on the MicroStation platform, enabled seamless handling of spatial data alongside engineering designs, as demonstrated in applications for highway engineering and coastal resource management by the early 1990s.^[18]^[19] A key development for commercial viability was the emergence of open standards to promote interoperability among disparate GIS systems. In 1994, the Open GIS Consortium (now the Open Geospatial Consortium, or OGC) was founded on September 25 with eight charter members, including major vendors like Esri and Intergraph, to develop specifications for sharing geographic data across platforms.^[20] These efforts, such as early abstract models for spatial data, addressed fragmentation in proprietary formats, fostering broader adoption in commercial environments by enabling vendor-neutral data exchange.^[21] The 2000s saw accelerated growth in GIS commercialization, fueled by declining hardware costs that made powerful personal computers accessible to organizations of all sizes. By 2000, affordable input and processing hardware had expanded the GIS software market from tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands of users worldwide.^[22] This era also witnessed the rise of open-source alternatives, with the release of QGIS version 0.0.1 in July 2002 by developer Gary Sherman, providing the first major free desktop GIS for viewing, editing, and analyzing vector and raster data on Linux and other platforms.^[23] QGIS quickly gained traction as a cost-effective option, integrating features from tools like GRASS and supporting PostGIS databases, thus challenging proprietary dominance.^[24] Market expansion during this period highlighted GIS's integration into practical sectors, particularly urban planning and environmental management. In urban planning, GIS facilitated scenario modeling and land-use analysis, with North American adoption surging in the 1990s and 2000s through tools for population forecasting and infrastructure assessment. For environmental management, it supported resource monitoring and impact assessments, such as satellite image analysis for urban growth patterns across global cities from 1990 to 2000.^[25] A defining event accelerating GIS use in emergency response was the September 11, 2001, attacks on the World Trade Center, where mapping tools were instrumental in coordinating search-and-rescue operations, debris management, and recovery planning in New York City, elevating GIS's role in disaster preparedness nationwide.^[26]^[27]

Cloud and Modern Integration (2010s-2025)

The 2010s marked a pivotal shift in GIS software toward cloud-based architectures, enabling scalable data storage, sharing, and analysis without heavy reliance on local hardware. Esri launched ArcGIS Online in June 2012, introducing a cloud platform that allowed users to create, store, and collaborate on maps and geospatial data in real time, fundamentally expanding access beyond desktop installations.^[28] This migration was complemented by major cloud providers offering specialized geospatial services; for instance, AWS introduced Amazon Location Service in December 2020 to support location-based applications with high-precision mapping and geofencing, building on earlier S3 storage for geospatial datasets.^[29] Similarly, Google Cloud enhanced its geospatial capabilities with BigQuery's native support for spatial data types and functions in 2018, facilitating large-scale querying of location intelligence directly in the cloud.^[30] Open source GIS tools experienced significant maturation during this period, driven by community contributions that improved performance and integration. QGIS 3.0, released on February 23, 2018, introduced native 3D visualization capabilities, allowing users to render and interact with terrain, buildings, and vector data in a fully integrated 3D view, which previously required external plugins.^[31] Concurrently, PostGIS, the spatial extension for PostgreSQL, saw key enhancements such as version 3.0 in October 2019, which added parallel processing for spatial joins and aggregates to handle massive datasets more efficiently, and version 3.3 in August 2022, incorporating advanced raster support and geometry validation tools for robust spatial database management.^[32] These updates solidified open source options as viable alternatives for enterprise-level spatial analysis, emphasizing interoperability with cloud environments. In the 2020s, GIS software increasingly integrated with emerging technologies like 5G networks to enable real-time data processing and decision-making. 5G's low-latency connectivity has facilitated seamless incorporation of IoT sensors and mobile data into GIS platforms, supporting applications such as dynamic urban planning and disaster response where live geospatial updates are critical.^[33] For example, telecom operators leverage GIS for 5G site optimization, using spatial analytics to predict coverage gaps and integrate real-time traffic data for adaptive network adjustments.^[34] AI-driven automation further advanced in tools like ArcGIS Pro, with version 3.3 in May 2024 introducing semantic search for geoprocessing tools and AI assistants for automated feature extraction from imagery, while version 3.6, released on November 13, 2025, includes enhanced AI workflows for parcel management and predictive modeling.^[35]^[36] The COVID-19 pandemic from 2020 onward accelerated the adoption of remote GIS collaboration features, as organizations shifted to cloud platforms for distributed teams to share dashboards and perform contact tracing via real-time spatial visualizations.^[37] This urgency highlighted the need for secure, web-based tools that supported global data integration during crises. Looking toward late 2025 and beyond, trends point to hybrid cloud-edge computing models in GIS, where edge devices process data locally for immediacy before syncing to central clouds, optimizing for low-latency scenarios like autonomous vehicles and environmental monitoring.^[38] Such architectures are projected to dominate, combining the scalability of public clouds with the security of on-premises systems to handle the growing volume of geospatial data.^[39]

Core Functionality and Classification

Desktop GIS Software

Desktop GIS software refers to standalone applications installed on personal computers that enable users to perform local data processing, visualization, and analysis of geospatial information without relying on network connectivity. These tools have been foundational in the field of geographic information systems (GIS), allowing professionals to handle spatial data in environments where internet access may be limited or unnecessary. Unlike server-based systems, desktop GIS emphasizes self-contained operations on individual workstations, supporting a range of tasks from data creation to advanced mapping. Core features of desktop GIS software include robust vector and raster data editing capabilities, which allow users to create, modify, and attribute geometric features such as points, lines, and polygons for vector data, or pixel-based grids for raster imagery. Spatial analysis tools are integral, enabling operations like buffering to define zones around features, overlay analysis to combine layers for intersection or union results, and proximity calculations to assess relationships between datasets. Cartographic output functionalities facilitate the production of high-quality maps, including symbology, labeling, and layout design for professional presentations or reports.^[40]^[41] Major commercial desktop GIS applications, such as ArcGIS, demand significant computational resources due to the intensive processing required for handling large datasets, often necessitating multi-core processors (at least 4 cores recommended, with 10 or more optimal for complex tasks), a minimum of 8 GB RAM (16 GB or higher preferred), and substantial storage (32 GB free space at minimum); requirements may vary for other tools like open-source options. For instance, workflows such as geocoding—converting textual addresses into spatial coordinates using reference data and locator styles—require efficient memory management to match thousands of records accurately. Similarly, thematic mapping involves classifying data by attributes (e.g., population density) and applying graduated symbols or choropleth schemes, which can strain system resources when rendering visualizations from voluminous raster or vector inputs.^[42]^[43]^[44]^[45] Historically, desktop GIS software dominated the market in the early 2000s, with vendors like Esri capturing a substantial portion globally by the late 2000s, reflecting the era's focus on local installations for professional use. Today, these applications maintain a critical role in offline, high-precision tasks, such as land surveying where accurate spatial analysis and data integration are performed in remote or disconnected settings to manage project planning and environmental assessments.^[46]^[47]^[48] In terms of performance, desktop GIS offers advantages in processing speed over cloud-based alternatives, particularly for large datasets where local hardware can execute analyses without the latency introduced by data transmission over networks, ensuring no internet dependency for core operations. Some desktop tools now include optional web extensions for enhanced data sharing, though their primary strength remains in standalone functionality.^[49]^[50]

Web and Cloud-Based GIS

Web and cloud-based GIS solutions enable users to access, analyze, and visualize geospatial data through web browsers or cloud platforms, eliminating the need for local software installation and leveraging remote servers for processing. These systems prioritize scalability to handle large datasets, real-time collaboration among distributed teams, and seamless integration with other services, making them ideal for enterprise environments requiring flexible, on-demand resources. By hosting data and computations in the cloud, users can perform complex spatial analyses without managing hardware infrastructure, fostering broader accessibility for professionals in fields like urban planning, environmental monitoring, and disaster response.^[51]^[52] Prominent platforms include ArcGIS Online, a software-as-a-service (SaaS) offering from Esri that provides secure mapping, data management, spatial analysis, and content sharing capabilities hosted on scalable cloud infrastructure. ArcGIS Online dynamically adjusts resources to accommodate growing data needs without user intervention, supporting features like hosted feature services for querying and editing geospatial data. Another key platform is Google Earth Engine, a cloud-based service designed for planetary-scale satellite imagery processing, combining a multi-petabyte catalog of geospatial datasets with advanced analysis tools to enable efficient handling of remote sensing data for global environmental studies.^[51]^[53]^[54]^[52] Core features of these platforms include real-time collaboration, where users can share maps, layers, and apps across organizations via partnered or distributed workspaces, allowing simultaneous editing and feedback without version conflicts. API integrations, such as RESTful services in ArcGIS Online, facilitate connectivity with external systems for data exchange and automation, while auto-scaling mechanisms automatically provision computing resources to process big data workloads efficiently, ensuring performance during peak demands like large-scale imagery analysis in Google Earth Engine. On the technical side, WebGL technology enables interactive 3D rendering of geospatial scenes directly in web browsers, supporting visualization of terrain and buildings without plugins. Interoperability is enhanced through adherence to Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) standards, including Web Map Service (WMS) for raster map delivery and Web Feature Service (WFS) for vector data access, allowing seamless integration across diverse GIS tools.^[55]^[54]^[53]^[52]^[56]^[57] These solutions offer advantages such as cost savings through subscription models, which shift expenses from upfront hardware investments to predictable operational fees, including maintenance, updates, and support. Cloud-based GIS reduces infrastructure overhead by leveraging provider-managed scalability and backups, leading to lower total ownership costs for organizations. Adoption among enterprises has risen significantly, driven by the need for agile, collaborative tools that complement desktop GIS for advanced, remote workflows.^[58]^[59]^[60]

Mobile and Field GIS Applications

Mobile and field GIS applications encompass software designed for portable devices such as smartphones and tablets, enabling geospatial data collection, visualization, and analysis in dynamic, often remote environments. These tools facilitate real-time fieldwork by integrating GPS, sensors, and mapping capabilities, allowing users to capture location-based data without reliance on desktop systems. Unlike stationary GIS platforms, mobile applications prioritize mobility, offline functionality, and user-friendly interfaces to support on-site decision-making in sectors like environmental monitoring and urban planning.^[61] Prominent examples include Esri Field Maps, a comprehensive app for iOS and Android that supports data-driven mapping, form-based editing, and real-time location tracking for field workers. This application allows users to access authoritative maps, collect high-accuracy data via integrated GPS, and generate reports directly from the device. Similarly, QField serves as the mobile companion to the open-source QGIS desktop software, enabling seamless project synchronization and offline data capture on Android devices. QField leverages the QGIS engine for vector and raster data handling, with built-in GPS integration for precise positioning during fieldwork.^[62]^[63] Key features of these applications enhance field efficiency, such as augmented reality (AR) overlays that superimpose GIS layers onto live camera views for intuitive spatial navigation and asset identification. Photo geotagging automatically embeds location metadata into images captured in the field, aiding in documentation and analysis. Offline GPS functionality ensures data collection in areas without internet connectivity, with automatic synchronization to cloud platforms like ArcGIS Online or QFieldCloud upon reconnection, minimizing data loss and enabling collaborative workflows.^[64]^[65]^[66] The adoption of mobile GIS surged following the smartphone boom after 2015, driven by widespread access to high-resolution GPS and sensor-equipped devices, which expanded geospatial applications from niche professional use to broader accessibility. By 2025, integration with drones has further advanced these tools, allowing field apps to incorporate aerial imagery and real-time data feeds for comprehensive site assessments, such as in precision mapping and infrastructure inspections. Market analyses project the mobile GIS sector to grow significantly, with the broader mobile mapping market reaching $112.6 billion by 2032, fueled by advancements in GPS and device proliferation.^[67]^[68]^[69] Despite these advancements, mobile GIS faces challenges including limited battery life during prolonged GPS use and reduced positional accuracy in low-signal or obstructed areas, such as dense urban canyons or remote terrains. Strategies like disabling battery optimization can improve accuracy but accelerate drain, necessitating trade-offs in field operations. In agriculture, these applications support precision farming by enabling farmers to geotag crop health observations and integrate drone-derived multispectral data for variable-rate applications. In disaster response, mobile GIS aids rapid assessment through real-time reporting of hazards and evacuation routing, as seen in flood and wildfire scenarios where field teams use apps to map impacts and coordinate relief.^[70]^[71]^[72]^[73]

Open Source GIS Software

Desktop Applications

QGIS stands as one of the most prominent open-source desktop GIS applications, offering a free, cross-platform solution compatible with Windows, macOS, and Linux operating systems. It provides robust capabilities for viewing, editing, and analyzing geospatial data, including vector and raster formats, with support for over 2,700 plugins that extend its functionality for specialized analyses such as hydrological modeling and spatial statistics.^[74]^[75] A key feature is its seamless integration with GRASS GIS, allowing users to access advanced GRASS modules directly within the QGIS interface for enhanced raster and vector processing.^[76] The software's intuitive interface and extensive documentation make it accessible to beginners while accommodating complex workflows for professionals. GRASS GIS, another cornerstone of open-source desktop GIS, originated in the 1980s as a project of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' Construction Engineering Research Laboratory for land management and environmental planning. It has evolved into a powerful toolset emphasizing advanced raster and vector data processing, including topographic analysis, image processing, and spatiotemporal modeling, particularly suited for scientific research in fields like ecology and hydrology.^[77] GRASS supports modular design with over 300 tools, enabling detailed simulations and visualizations, and its command-line interface facilitates scripting for reproducible research. The project's longevity and focus on geospatial computation have fostered a dedicated community of researchers and developers who contribute to its ongoing enhancements.^[78] SAGA GIS specializes in geoscientific analyses, with a strong emphasis on terrain modeling, including tools for deriving slope, aspect, curvature, and hydrological features from digital elevation models. Developed initially for automated geodata processing, it excels in raster-based operations and offers a modular library for terrain-specific tasks like pit removal and flow accumulation.^[79] It provides Python scripting support through its API, allowing users to automate workflows and integrate SAGA modules into custom scripts for advanced environmental simulations. This scripting capability enhances its utility in research settings, where repeatable analyses are essential. In terms of adoption, QGIS sees millions of downloads annually, reflecting its broad appeal among users worldwide, and it is widely adopted in academic institutions for teaching and research due to its cost-free nature and comprehensive feature set.^[80] GRASS GIS maintains a niche but influential user base in scientific communities, with active contributions from global researchers, while SAGA GIS supports specialized geoscientific applications, bolstered by integration with tools like QGIS to expand its reach. These applications benefit from vibrant open-source communities that provide forums, tutorials, and regular updates, ensuring sustained development and user support.^[81]^[82]

Server-Side and Web Tools

Server-side and web tools in open source geographic information system (GIS) software enable the hosting, serving, and processing of geospatial data over networks, facilitating interoperability and access through standards like those from the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC). These tools are essential for deploying scalable web-based mapping applications, supporting protocols such as Web Map Service (WMS) and Web Feature Service (WFS) to deliver vector and raster data efficiently. By leveraging open standards, they allow developers to build robust systems that integrate with various clients, from web browsers to mobile applications, without proprietary lock-in. GeoServer stands as a prominent Java-based open source server designed for sharing, processing, and editing geospatial data, fully compliant with OGC standards including WMS, WFS, Web Coverage Service (WCS), and Web Processing Service (WPS). It supports a wide array of data sources, such as PostGIS, Oracle Spatial, and file-based formats like Shapefiles and GeoTIFF, while offering output in multiple formats including GeoJSON, KML, and image types like PNG and GeoTIFF. This versatility makes GeoServer ideal for enterprise-level deployments, where it handles dynamic styling via Styled Layer Descriptor (SLD) and security features like authentication and authorization to control data access.^[83]^[84] MapServer, another key server-side tool, functions as a high-performance geographic data rendering engine written in C, optimized for publishing spatial data and creating interactive web mapping applications. It excels in rendering complex maps from diverse sources, including vector data in formats like ESRI Shapefiles and raster data such as GeoTIFF, while supporting OGC services like WMS, WFS, and WCS for seamless integration. Known for its efficiency in handling large datasets, MapServer powers numerous production environments and is one of the leading open source options for web mapping, with widespread adoption in projects requiring fast image generation and thematic mapping capabilities.^[85]^[86] On the client-side web tool front, Leaflet.js serves as a lightweight, open source JavaScript library for developing mobile-friendly interactive maps, weighing approximately 42 KB to ensure quick loading and smooth performance across devices. It provides core features like zoom controls, tile layering, and event handling, with extensibility through plugins for advanced functionalities such as geocoding and drawing tools. In 2025, Leaflet has seen enhanced integrations with CesiumJS for 3D visualization, enabling developers to overlay 2D maps on 3D globes via libraries like WebGL Earth, thus expanding its utility for immersive geospatial applications.^[87]^[88] These tools find practical application in public data portals, where GeoServer and MapServer enable governments and organizations to disseminate geospatial datasets openly, as seen in implementations by agencies like the U.S. Geological Survey for national map services. For instance, they support the creation of citizen-accessible platforms for environmental monitoring and urban planning data. Regarding scalability, both servers are engineered to manage high traffic; MapServer's C-based core allows it to render maps for large audiences efficiently, while GeoServer's clustering capabilities distribute loads across multiple instances to handle millions of requests. Leaflet complements these by providing responsive front-ends that scale well in browser environments, ensuring interactive experiences even under heavy user loads in portals serving global audiences.

Development Frameworks and Libraries

Development frameworks and libraries form the foundational building blocks for creating custom geographic information system (GIS) applications within the open source ecosystem, providing developers with programmable interfaces for handling spatial data manipulation, visualization, and analysis. These tools emphasize modularity and extensibility, allowing integration into larger software stacks without relying on proprietary components. By leveraging standardized APIs and bindings in languages such as C++, Python, and JavaScript, developers can build tailored solutions for specific geospatial workflows, from data processing pipelines to interactive web mapping interfaces.^[89]^[90]^[91] The Geospatial Data Abstraction Library (GDAL) paired with the OpenGIS Simple Features Library (OGR) serves as a core open source library for translating and processing raster and vector geospatial data formats. Released under an MIT-style open source license, GDAL/OGR supports over 200 raster and vector formats, enabling seamless data interchange across diverse sources such as shapefiles, GeoTIFF, and KML. It includes a suite of command-line utilities, including ogr2ogr for format conversion and reprojection, which facilitate automated data workflows in custom GIS applications. This library's abstract data model abstracts underlying format complexities, making it indispensable for developers building data ingestion and transformation layers.^[92]^[89]^[93] PostGIS extends the PostgreSQL relational database management system with spatial capabilities, functioning as an open source spatial database extender that supports the storage, indexing, and querying of geospatial objects. It implements the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) standards, allowing developers to perform spatial operations via SQL queries, such as ST_Intersects for determining topological relationships between geometries like points, lines, and polygons. This enables efficient handling of large-scale spatial datasets in custom applications, with features like spatial indexes accelerating query performance on complex topologies. PostGIS's integration with PostgreSQL's ACID compliance ensures robust data integrity for programmable GIS backends.^[94]^[90] OpenLayers is a JavaScript framework designed for developing interactive web-based maps, providing an API for rendering map tiles, vector data, and markers from various sources without server-side dependencies. It supports high-performance rendering techniques, including vector tiling, which allows efficient display of large datasets by serving vector data in tiled formats rather than raster images, reducing bandwidth and improving client-side interactivity. Developers use OpenLayers to embed dynamic maps in web applications, with modules for handling projections, layers, and user interactions like zooming and panning. Its modular architecture facilitates extension through plugins, making it suitable for custom front-end GIS components.^[91]^[95] As of 2025, a prominent trend in open source GIS development involves enhanced Python bindings that integrate geospatial libraries with data science ecosystems, exemplified by GeoPandas, which extends the pandas library to handle spatial data structures like GeoDataFrames. GeoPandas leverages underlying libraries such as GDAL and Shapely to enable vector-based geospatial analysis, including spatial joins and geometric operations, within familiar Python workflows. This facilitates seamless incorporation of GIS functionalities into machine learning pipelines and data visualization tools, broadening adoption among data scientists building custom applications. The library's active development, with version 1.1.0 released in early 2025, underscores its role in bridging traditional GIS with modern computational paradigms.^[96]^[97]^[98]

Proprietary GIS Software

Major Desktop Vendors

Esri's ArcGIS Pro stands as the flagship desktop GIS product from Environmental Systems Research Institute (Esri), offering advanced capabilities in 3D modeling and integration of artificial intelligence tools for geospatial analysis.^[99] ArcGIS Pro enables users to create immersive 3D scenes from 2D data, perform volumetric analysis, and visualize complex terrains, while its AI features include deep learning models for automated feature extraction from imagery and predictive analytics.^[100]^[101] Esri maintains dominance in the desktop GIS market, with ArcGIS holding over 70% share in commercial industries as of recent assessments.^[102] Hexagon, which acquired Intergraph in 2010, provides GeoMedia as its primary desktop GIS solution tailored for engineering and high-stakes applications.^[103] GeoMedia supports seamless data integration from diverse sources, enabling spatial analysis for infrastructure design and real-time decision-making in engineering workflows.^[103] The software excels in defense sectors, where it facilitates mission-critical visualization, target detection, and geospatial intelligence for military operations.^[103] Autodesk integrates GIS functionality into its AutoCAD Map 3D toolset, fostering hybrid CAD-GIS workflows for professionals in architecture, engineering, and construction.^[104] This toolset allows direct access and editing of spatial data within the AutoCAD environment, supporting tasks like geospatial data aggregation, topology management, and map production that bridge traditional CAD drafting with GIS analysis.^[104] Such integration streamlines processes for users handling both vector-based designs and geographic datasets, enhancing efficiency in urban planning and civil projects.^[105] Major desktop GIS vendors like Esri have shifted toward subscription-based pricing models, though perpetual licenses remain available for certain configurations such as Single Use or Concurrent Use.^[106] Esri's annual revenues exceed $1 billion, reflecting its extensive adoption across enterprise and government sectors.^[107]

SaaS and Cloud Platforms

SaaS and cloud platforms represent a significant evolution in proprietary geographic information system (GIS) software, delivering subscription-based access to scalable, web-hosted mapping, analysis, and visualization tools without requiring local installations. These platforms enable users to store, process, and share geospatial data over the internet, supporting real-time collaboration and integration with other cloud services for enhanced workflow efficiency. By leveraging cloud infrastructure, they offer on-demand scalability, automatic updates, and pay-as-you-go pricing models that cater to organizations of varying sizes, from small teams to large enterprises. Esri's ArcGIS Online stands as a leading SaaS platform, providing collaborative dashboards that allow teams to create, share, and interact with operational, strategic, and informational visualizations tailored to specific audiences. It supports secure multiuser mapping, enabling organizations to manage access to data, maps, and applications across distributed teams. The platform incorporates GeoAI tools for deploying machine learning models, including deep learning for feature extraction from imagery, such as object detection and pixel classification, and Deep Learning Studio for training custom models in a collaborative environment. ArcGIS Online integrates seamlessly with enterprise tools like Salesforce through the Maps Connector, allowing users to overlay ArcGIS layers with Salesforce records for unified geospatial and CRM analysis. Mapbox offers a cloud-based GIS solution emphasizing developer-friendly APIs for custom map styling, powered by the Mapbox Style Specification, which enables modifications to colors, fonts, icons, and visual elements for tailored interactive maps. Its APIs and SDKs facilitate integration into applications, notably powering ride-sharing services like Uber, where custom layers enhance data visualization and 3D rendering for navigation and user interfaces. Mapbox Enterprise extends these capabilities for large-scale deployments, supporting high-volume data uploads and integrations with business intelligence tools such as IBM Cognos to enable sophisticated geospatial analysis and insight generation. Carto focuses on analytics-driven GIS as a cloud-native location intelligence platform, allowing users to perform spatial analysis on big data without moving it from cloud storage. It utilizes Spatial SQL to query location-based data, combining standard SQL syntax with geospatial functions for tasks like proximity analysis and pattern detection, making it accessible to GIS analysts, data scientists, and developers. This approach supports business intelligence applications, such as retail site selection and market expansion, by integrating with data warehouses like BigQuery and Snowflake for scalable visualizations and insights. Carto also enhances CRM platforms like Salesforce by embedding geospatial mapping into dashboards, expanding analytical capabilities for sales and operations teams. The GIS SaaS and cloud market is experiencing robust growth, projected to expand at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of approximately 14% from 2024 to 2033, driven by increasing demand for scalable spatial analytics and integrations with enterprise systems like Salesforce.^[108] These platforms often complement desktop GIS tools in hybrid environments, allowing seamless data synchronization between cloud and on-device processing for comprehensive workflows.

Specialized Enterprise Solutions

Specialized enterprise solutions in geographic information system (GIS) software encompass proprietary platforms designed for industry-specific applications and large-scale organizational deployments, emphasizing integration with existing infrastructure, high-precision data handling, and sector-tailored analytics. These tools often extend beyond general-purpose GIS by incorporating domain-specific functionalities, such as network optimization for telecommunications or logistics routing, to support mission-critical operations in enterprises. Oracle Spatial exemplifies this category through its seamless embedding within Oracle Database, enabling robust spatial data management for enterprise-scale applications.^[109] Oracle Spatial provides native support for multidimensional spatial data types, indexing, and querying, allowing organizations to store and analyze geospatial information directly within relational databases without external middleware. This integration facilitates efficient handling of complex datasets, including vector and raster formats, for applications like telecom network planning. For instance, Turk Telekom utilized Oracle Spatial and Graph to manage national broadband infrastructure, enabling dynamic visualization and analysis of fiber optic networks, cell tower placements, and coverage optimization to support expansion and maintenance planning. The platform's graph capabilities further enhance network routing and dependency modeling, critical for telecom operators handling vast, interconnected assets.^[110]^[109] Pitney Bowes Spectrum, now maintained under Precisely following the 2020 acquisition, delivers location intelligence tailored for logistics and supply chain management, with core modules for geocoding, routing, and data enrichment. Its Universal Addressing Module standardizes and validates addresses across over 240 countries, achieving validation accuracy exceeding 99% by cross-referencing against official postal databases like USPS, which corrects delivery lines and appends missing details to minimize undeliverable shipments. In logistics, Spectrum's Enterprise Routing Module optimizes delivery routes by integrating geospatial data with real-time traffic and vehicle constraints, reducing fuel costs and improving on-time delivery rates for large fleets. This makes it particularly valuable for enterprises in e-commerce and transportation, where precise location-based decisions drive operational efficiency.^[111]^[112] Global Mapper, developed by Blue Marble Geographics, serves as an affordable proprietary option for mid-tier enterprises requiring advanced LiDAR processing without the overhead of high-end systems. Priced starting at $700 for the standard edition, it supports import, visualization, and export of LiDAR point clouds in formats like LAS and LAZ, handling datasets up to billions of points through efficient memory management. The optional LiDAR Module enables automated feature extraction using machine learning algorithms to classify ground, vegetation, buildings, and powerlines, alongside manual editing tools for quality control. This affordability, combined with its versatility for terrain modeling and volume calculations, positions Global Mapper as a practical choice for industries like environmental consulting and infrastructure surveying in resource-constrained organizations.^[113]^[114]^[115] Case studies in oil and gas pipeline management highlight the role of these specialized solutions in enhancing safety and compliance. For example, a midstream operator implemented a GIS-based SCADA system for pipeline leak detection, reducing response times from 4 hours to 30 minutes.^[116] Similarly, in natural gas distribution, a Brazilian utility employed GIS multicriteria analysis to select pipeline corridors, integrating environmental and population data to minimize risks and regulatory hurdles.^[117] As of 2025, enterprise GIS deployments increasingly incorporate cybersecurity features, such as encrypted data transmission and role-based access controls, to protect sensitive infrastructure assets from threats like ransomware.^[118] These adaptations underscore the evolving emphasis on secure, resilient GIS for critical sectors.

Supporting and Specialized Tools

Spatial Database Management Systems

Spatial database management systems (DBMS) are essential components of geographic information system (GIS) software, providing robust storage, indexing, and querying capabilities for large-scale geospatial data. These proprietary and hybrid systems extend traditional relational databases with native spatial data types, enabling efficient handling of vector geometries, rasters, and 3D models while supporting complex spatial operations like intersection, buffering, and proximity analysis. In GIS workflows, they serve as the backend for managing terabyte-scale datasets from sources such as satellite imagery, urban planning records, and environmental monitoring, ensuring scalability and performance for enterprise applications.^[119] Oracle Spatial and Graph integrates spatial functionality directly into the Oracle Database, offering native spatial data types such as SDO_GEOMETRY for representing points, lines, polygons, and collections in 2D and 3D. It supports comprehensive 3D data handling, including solids, point clouds, and LiDAR, with operators for spatial analysis in up to four dimensions. For efficient querying, it employs R-tree indexing structures that approximate geometries with minimum bounding rectangles, enabling fast spatial joins and filters on massive datasets.^[120]^[121]^[122] Microsoft SQL Server Spatial extends the core database engine with spatial data types, including geometry for planar (Euclidean) coordinates and geography for geodetic (round-earth) calculations, accessible via T-SQL extensions. These types support a range of methods defined by the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC), such as STIntersects and STDistance, for performing spatial queries and transformations. The system integrates seamlessly with Azure SQL Database, allowing cloud-based scaling for distributed geospatial workloads, including support for spatial indexing to optimize query performance on large tables.^[123]^[124]^[119] Esri's File Geodatabase (FileGDB) is a proprietary, file-based format designed for storing and managing both spatial and attribute data in a compact structure, optimized for high-performance reads in standalone or embedded GIS environments. It supports multiple feature classes within a single .gdb directory, handling vector data like shapefiles and rasters while providing faster access than older formats like personal geodatabases, particularly for datasets exceeding hundreds of millions of features. The format includes built-in compression options to reduce storage footprint without sacrificing read speeds, making it suitable for offline field operations and data exchange in proprietary GIS pipelines.^[125]^[126]^[127] Benchmarks demonstrate the scalability of these systems for billion-scale geospatial datasets; for instance, FileGDB maintains read performance for datasets with well over 300 million features by leveraging efficient file structures. Microsoft SQL Server Spatial, with spatial indexes, optimizes query performance on large geometry tables through grid-based approximations.^[126]^[128] Open-source alternatives like PostGIS provide similar capabilities on PostgreSQL but are addressed in other sections of this entry.

Geospatial Libraries and APIs

Geospatial libraries and APIs provide developers with proprietary toolkits to integrate GIS functionalities, such as mapping, geocoding, and spatial analysis, directly into custom applications without relying on full standalone software. These components enable embedding location-based services into mobile, desktop, web, and enterprise solutions, often with support for both online and offline scenarios. Major providers offer SDKs and APIs that prioritize ease of integration, scalability, and specialized features like high-definition mapping for advanced use cases. The Esri ArcGIS Runtime SDK, now known as ArcGIS Maps SDK for Native Apps, delivers cross-platform APIs for building 2D and 3D mapping applications on mobile and desktop environments, including Android, iOS, .NET (for Windows, macOS, and Linux), Qt, and Java platforms.^[129] It supports offline editing capabilities, allowing applications to view, edit, and analyze maps without internet connectivity by accessing local device storage and sensors.^[130] This SDK facilitates direct integration with enterprise GIS data, enabling developers to create robust, location-aware apps for fieldwork and data collection. Google Maps Platform includes a suite of APIs, notably the Geocoding API, which converts addresses into geographic coordinates and supports reverse geocoding for over 5 million active applications and websites worldwide.^[131] The platform operates on a pay-as-you-go pricing model, charging $5 per 1,000 requests after a free usage cap of 10,000 monthly requests for the Geocoding API (as of 2025).^[132]^[133] These APIs power high-volume location services essential for e-commerce, logistics, and user-facing apps, with built-in quotas up to 3,000 queries per minute to ensure reliability. HERE Location Services offers HD mapping solutions tailored for autonomous vehicles through its HERE HD Live Map, providing centimeter-level accuracy for road features, lane markings, and environmental data to support safe navigation and decision-making in automated driving systems.^[134] It includes real-time traffic layers that deliver dynamic updates on incidents, congestion, and road conditions, integrated via APIs for automotive and mobility applications.^[135]

Real-Time and IoT Integration Tools

Real-time and IoT integration tools in geographic information system (GIS) software enable the processing of live geospatial data streams from sensors and Internet of Things (IoT) devices, facilitating immediate analysis and response in dynamic environments such as urban infrastructure and environmental monitoring. These proprietary solutions focus on handling high-velocity data flows, applying geospatial rules to trigger actions, and integrating with broader enterprise systems to support decision-making without persistent storage. By leveraging streaming protocols and edge processing, they address the demands of applications requiring sub-second responsiveness, such as traffic management and disaster response. Esri's ArcGIS GeoEvent Server (formerly GeoEvent Processor) is a key tool for stream analytics in GIS, designed to ingest, process, and distribute real-time event data from diverse sources like sensors and feeds, managing both velocity and volume through configurable processors that filter, enrich, and geofence incoming streams. It supports rules-based alerting by defining processors that evaluate geospatial conditions—such as proximity to critical infrastructure—and generate notifications or automate workflows when thresholds are met, enabling applications like real-time asset tracking in utilities. This capability integrates seamlessly with ArcGIS Enterprise, allowing visualization of live data layers in web maps and dashboards for operational oversight. IBM Maximo Spatial extends asset management with geospatial visualization, incorporating IoT feeds to monitor device locations and conditions in a mapped context, often through integration with Esri ArcGIS for spatial querying of assets. When combined with Maximo's broader IoT platform, it enables predictive maintenance by analyzing real-time sensor data—such as vibration or temperature metrics—against spatial asset hierarchies to forecast failures and prioritize interventions, reducing downtime in sectors like transportation and energy. This setup allows field technicians to access geolocated alerts via mobile interfaces, enhancing efficiency in large-scale operations. By 2025, advancements in GIS IoT integrations emphasize 5G-enabled edge computing to process data closer to sources, minimizing transmission delays and supporting scalable deployments in smart cities. For instance, platforms like ArcGIS GeoEvent Server now leverage 5G networks for low-latency streaming from distributed sensors, enabling real-time urban analytics in initiatives such as Singapore's Smart Nation project, where GIS tools aggregate traffic, environmental, and public safety data for predictive modeling. These integrations enhance edge-based filtering, allowing local computation of geospatial events before cloud aggregation, which is critical for applications like dynamic routing in megacities. Despite these progresses, challenges persist in real-time GIS IoT processing, particularly data fusion from heterogeneous sources like varying sensor protocols and formats, which requires standardized ontologies and middleware to ensure interoperability without loss of geospatial accuracy. Achieving latency under one second demands optimized streaming architectures, as delays from data ingestion to visualization can compromise responsiveness in time-sensitive scenarios, such as emergency evacuations, necessitating advancements in distributed computing and protocol harmonization.

Emerging Trends and Future Directions

AI and Machine Learning Applications

Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) have become integral to geographic information system (GIS) software, enabling automated analysis, pattern recognition, and predictive modeling of spatial data. These technologies process vast geospatial datasets, such as satellite imagery and sensor feeds, to derive insights that surpass traditional manual methods. In GIS applications, AI/ML facilitates tasks like feature extraction and anomaly detection, enhancing decision-making in fields ranging from environmental monitoring to urban development.^[136] A key technique involves convolutional neural networks (CNNs) for image classification, particularly in land use mapping, where models analyze pixel-level patterns in raster data to categorize areas such as forests, urban zones, or agricultural fields. For instance, the ArcGIS Image Analyst extension supports deep learning workflows using CNN-based models to classify land cover from high-resolution imagery, allowing users to train or apply pretrained models for accurate delineation.^[137] This approach automates the identification of land use changes, improving efficiency over rule-based classification.^[138] Prominent tools embedding AI/ML include Esri's GeoAI suite, which integrates deep learning frameworks like TensorFlow and PyTorch within ArcGIS for tasks such as object detection and semantic segmentation on satellite imagery.^[136] Similarly, QGIS offers plugins like Deepness, an open-source tool that applies ONNX neural network models for segmentation and detection on raster layers, including satellite orthophotos, to perform change detection by comparing temporal datasets.^[139] These tools enable training on multispectral satellite data to monitor environmental shifts, such as deforestation or urban expansion, with outputs visualized directly in GIS interfaces.^[136] By 2025, advancements in generative AI have introduced capabilities for scenario modeling in GIS, where models simulate future spatial outcomes, such as urban growth under different policy conditions, by generating synthetic geospatial data grounded in real inputs.^[140] In urban planning, AI-driven GIS models have achieved accuracy rates up to 95% in tasks like density evaluation and transport optimization, leveraging fine-tuned large language models on geospatial datasets.^[141] Ethical considerations in AI/ML for GIS center on biases inherent in training data, which can perpetuate spatial inequities if datasets underrepresent marginalized areas or reflect historical disparities.^[142] For example, biased training in GeoAI models may lead to inaccurate land use predictions in diverse urban contexts, necessitating auditing techniques like data diversification and fairness metrics during model development.^[143] Case studies in climate forecasting illustrate AI/ML's impact, such as the NASA-IBM Prithvi-weather-climate foundation model, which uses geospatial data from MERRA-2 reanalysis to downscale forecasts and predict events like hurricanes with enhanced resolution.^[144] Integrated into GIS workflows, this model supports hyper-local predictions for precipitation and wind patterns, aiding resilience planning by processing satellite-derived inputs for real-time scenario analysis.^[144]

Big Data Handling and Analytics

Geographic information system (GIS) software has evolved to incorporate distributed computing frameworks for managing vast volumes of geospatial data, often exceeding petabytes in scale from sources such as satellite imagery and sensor networks. A key approach involves extensions like Apache Sedona (formerly GeoSpark), which integrates spatial analytics into Apache Spark, enabling efficient processing of large-scale vector and raster data across clusters.^[145] This allows for handling petabyte-scale rasters through parallel operations, including spatial joins and aggregations, with performance improvements of up to two orders of magnitude over traditional Hadoop-based systems on real-world datasets.^[146] Such frameworks address the volume and variety of big geospatial data by distributing computations, reducing processing times for complex queries on massive datasets.^[147] Prominent tools exemplify these capabilities, notably Google Earth Engine, a cloud-based platform that processes global datasets including over 40 years of Landsat imagery from 1972 onward, spanning a multi-petabyte catalog of satellite and geospatial data.^[148] Earth Engine facilitates planetary-scale analysis by leveraging Google Cloud infrastructure for tasks like time-series vegetation monitoring and land cover change detection, processing billions of pixels without local hardware constraints.^[52] Integration with distributed systems like Hadoop further enhances velocity, the speed of data ingestion and querying; for instance, Hadoop-GIS supports high-performance spatial warehousing, enabling scalable queries on terabyte-scale datasets such as OpenStreetMap records.^[149] In 2025, advancements in GIS big data infrastructure have achieved sub-minute query latencies on 10TB datasets through optimized spatial engines like Apache Sedona 1.8.0, which supports vectorized user-defined functions and enhanced filter pushdown for distributed Spark environments.^[145] Hadoop integrations contribute to this velocity by partitioning spatial data for parallel processing, as demonstrated in benchmarks where containment queries on hundreds of gigabytes complete in under 100 seconds across multiple processing units.^[149] These metrics underscore the shift toward real-time analytics in GIS, with tools like Esri's GIS Tools for Hadoop enabling distributed spatial analysis on dynamic data streams.^[150] Applications of these big data handling techniques in GIS include epidemic modeling, where distributed platforms process spatiotemporal health data to simulate disease spread, integrating satellite-derived environmental variables for predictive accuracy.^[151] Similarly, traffic prediction leverages velocity-enabled frameworks to analyze real-time sensor feeds and historical patterns, forecasting congestion on urban networks using geospatial big data from GPS and IoT sources.^[152] However, challenges persist in data privacy, particularly under the EU's General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), which mandates anonymization of location-based personal data in GIS processing to prevent re-identification risks from aggregated geodata.^[153] Compliance requires techniques like differential privacy in distributed queries, balancing analytical utility with ethical safeguards.^[154]

Sustainability and Collaborative Platforms

Geographic information system (GIS) software plays a pivotal role in sustainability efforts by facilitating environmental monitoring and resource management. Tools like Esri's Climate Action solutions leverage GIS to map carbon footprints, integrating spatial analytics with authoritative datasets to visualize greenhouse gas emissions and support climate adaptation strategies.^[155] For instance, these solutions enable organizations to assess emission hotspots and model reduction scenarios, aiding in the transition to low-carbon economies.^[156] Integration with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) further amplifies GIS's impact on global sustainability. ArcGIS solutions for the SDGs provide frameworks to track progress on all 17 goals through thematic mapping and indicator dashboards, allowing users to monitor inequities in areas like poverty reduction and clean water access.^[157] This integration combines geospatial data with UN-defined indicators to inform policy and resource allocation, as outlined in Esri's dedicated SDG ontology tools.^[158] Collaborative platforms in GIS software enhance global cooperation by enabling shared data environments and open access. ArcGIS Hub offers shared workspaces where teams can co-manage sites, edit content, and engage stakeholders through configurable interfaces, streamlining project collaboration for public and internal audiences.^[159] Similarly, the Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem serves as an open data portal, providing free access to satellite-derived datasets for GIS applications in land monitoring and climate services, fostering international partnerships in environmental analysis.^[160] Looking to 2025 trends, blockchain technology is emerging to ensure data provenance in GIS, offering decentralized verification of geospatial datasets to prevent tampering and enhance trust in shared environmental information.^[161] Virtual reality (VR) integrations are also advancing stakeholder engagement in sustainability planning, allowing immersive visualizations to improve spatial understanding and community involvement by up to 62%.^[162] These capabilities have tangible impacts, particularly in deforestation tracking. Global Forest Watch (GFW), powered by GIS and satellite alerts, monitors tree cover loss across the tropics, enabling near-real-time detection that has supported reduced deforestation rates in protected areas through data-driven interventions.^[163] The platform's analysis of global datasets has facilitated the monitoring of approximately 500 million hectares of tree cover loss since 2001, informing conservation efforts worldwide.^[164]

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WMS returns images in a number of possible formats. This page shows a list of the output formats. The syntax for setting an output format is: format=<format>
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MapServer is an Open Source geographic data rendering engine written in C. Beyond browsing GIS data, MapServer allows you create “geographic image maps”.Missing: high- performance
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Known as one of the fastest mapping engines in the world, MapServer is an Open Source platform for publishing spatial data and interactive mapping applications ...Missing: high- performance rendering usage
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GDAL is a C++ translator library for more than 200 raster and vector geospatial data formats. It is released under an X/MIT style Open Source license.
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GDAL is a translator library for raster and vector geospatial data formats that is released under an MIT style Open Source License by the Open Source ...API · Raster drivers · Vector drivers · Software using GDAL
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ArcGIS geoprocessing tool that extracts features using deep learning models and also automates the postprocessing.
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Make fast, mission-critical decisions for defense. GeoMedia gives defense analysts immediate data integration and visualization to detect targets and points of ...
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Esri's annual revenue is $1.1B. Zippia's data science team found the following key financial metrics about Esri after extensive research and analysis.
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Build a safer autonomous driving system with advanced HD map data. Help autonomous vehicles make accurate driving decisions to operate in a safe and ...
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Use GIS to map, analyze and understand inequities to advance the Global Goals as part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
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ArcGIS Solution for SDGs. • Integrates Goal, Target, & Indicator ontology. • Thematic mapping preview. • SDG Indicator monitoring dashboard. • Community ...
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