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Haptic technology

Haptic technology, commonly referred to as haptics, is a branch of interactive technology that simulates the sense of touch by applying forces, vibrations, motions, or other tactile stimuli to users, enabling them to perceive and manipulate virtual, remote, or physical objects through tactile feedback.^[1]^[2]^[3] The term "haptics" originates from the Greek word haptikos, meaning "able to touch" or "tactile," and has been used since the early 20th century in psychology to describe touch-based sensing and manipulation.^[4]^[5] Haptic systems typically integrate actuators (such as eccentric rotating mass motors or linear resonant actuators) to generate feedback, sensors to capture user inputs like position and force, and control algorithms to synchronize tactile responses with visual or auditory cues in real time.^[6]^[2] Historically, haptic technology traces its roots to the 1940s and 1950s, when early force-feedback mechanisms were developed for aircraft control systems to simulate aerodynamic forces and for teleoperators handling radioactive materials, with pioneering work by researchers like Raymond C. Goertz at the Atomic Energy Commission.^[7] By the 1960s and 1970s, advancements in computing enabled more sophisticated haptic interfaces for robotics and virtual environments, evolving into consumer applications by the 1990s with force-feedback joysticks in gaming.^[8] Key types of haptic feedback include kinesthetic haptics, which convey forces and movements to muscles and tendons for simulating weight and resistance, and cutaneous haptics, which stimulate the skin with vibrations, textures, or pressure for surface sensations.^[9]^[2] These technologies are fundamental to enhancing immersion in virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) systems, where users can "feel" interactions like grasping objects or navigating textures.^[10] Notable applications span multiple industries: in consumer electronics, haptics provide subtle vibrations in smartphones for notifications and precise feedback in touchscreens; in gaming, devices like controllers deliver impacts and textures to heighten engagement; in medicine, haptic simulators train surgeons on procedures by replicating tissue resistance; and in automotive design, steering wheels and seats use haptics for safety alerts and comfort adjustments.^[1]^[4]^[9] Emerging uses include teleoperation in robotics for remote surgery and hazardous tasks, as well as accessibility aids for visually impaired users through tactile navigation.^[11]^[12] Despite challenges like achieving high-fidelity realism and low-latency responses, ongoing research focuses on advanced materials, such as piezoelectric actuators and ultrasound-based mid-air haptics, promising broader integration in wearables, prosthetics, and metaverse experiences.^[13]^[14]

Fundamentals

Definition and Principles

Haptic technology refers to systems that create tactile experiences by applying forces, vibrations, motions, or other sensory stimuli to the user's body, enabling interaction with virtual, remote, or augmented environments through the sense of touch. This interface bridges human perception and computational simulations, allowing users to "feel" digital objects or distant physical interactions as if they were direct.^[1] At its core, haptic technology operates on two primary principles of touch perception: kinesthetic feedback and cutaneous feedback. Kinesthetic feedback conveys sensations of position, motion, and force through proprioceptors in muscles, tendons, and joints, simulating weight, resistance, and movement dynamics. In contrast, cutaneous feedback stimulates the skin to produce sensations of pressure, texture, and vibration via specialized mechanoreceptors, such as Meissner's corpuscles for low-frequency vibrations and Merkel cells for sustained pressure. Psychophysically, these receptors transduce mechanical stimuli into neural signals, with perception thresholds varying by frequency and intensity, enabling discrimination of fine details like surface roughness.^[15]^[16] Haptic systems integrate touch with visual and auditory cues to form cohesive multimodal experiences, enhancing realism and user immersion in applications like virtual reality. The physics of force application relies on Newton's third law, where the haptic device exerts an equal and opposite reaction force to the user's input, maintaining stability in feedback loops. A fundamental model for force feedback in simulations is given by

\mathbf{F} = m \mathbf{a}

where \mathbf{F} is the applied force vector, m is the virtual mass, and \mathbf{a} is the acceleration, allowing replication of inertial effects in virtual objects.^[17]^[18]^[19]

Types of Haptic Feedback

Haptic feedback modalities are broadly classified into tactile and kinesthetic categories, with tactile feedback stimulating the skin's mechanoreceptors to convey sensations like vibration, pressure, and texture, while kinesthetic feedback targets proprioceptive senses to simulate forces and movements.^[2] Tactile modalities include vibrotactile, thermal, and cutaneous feedback, each engaging specific skin receptors, whereas kinesthetic feedback provides resistance or guidance to mimic physical interactions.^[20] Vibrotactile feedback involves the delivery of mechanical vibrations to the skin, typically in the frequency range of 50-300 Hz, to simulate textures or alerts by activating mechanoreceptors such as Meissner corpuscles (sensitive to 30-50 Hz) and Pacinian corpuscles (responsive to 200-300 Hz).^[21] This modality is widely used for conveying dynamic surface properties, as vibrations in this range effectively mimic the tactile cues from object manipulation.^[22] Force or kinesthetic feedback generates sensations of resistance, weight, inertia, or compliance through applied forces that guide or oppose user movements, simulating the interaction with grasped objects like tools or virtual items.^[2] For example, this feedback can replicate the effort required to lift a heavy object or the flexibility of a soft material, relying on muscle and joint receptors rather than skin contact.^[23] Thermal feedback simulates temperature variations on the skin to convey material properties, such as the warmth of metal or coolness of ice, by applying controlled heat or cooling elements.^[24] This modality enhances realism in scenarios involving diverse surface temperatures, though it requires precise control to avoid discomfort.^[25] Texture and cutaneous feedback focuses on lateral skin deformations to replicate sensations of roughness, slip, or fine surface details, engaging slowly adapting receptors like Merkel cells for sustained pressure and rapidly adapting ones for transient changes.^[26] This type distinguishes subtle tactile qualities, such as the grit of sandpaper versus smooth fabric, through shear forces that mimic fingertip scanning.^[27] Haptic systems are further classified by interface type: graspable devices held in the hand for direct manipulation, wearable interfaces like gloves for body-integrated feedback, and touchable surfaces such as screens for localized stimuli; hybrid systems often combine multiple modalities for richer experiences.^[28] These categories allow flexibility in application while integrating tactile and kinesthetic elements. Despite these capabilities, haptic feedback faces inherent limitations from human sensory bandwidth, with skin vibrations effectively perceived up to approximately 1 kHz before sensitivity diminishes, and tactile resolution being coarser than visual acuity, constraining the fidelity of complex simulations.^[29] This disparity highlights the challenge of matching haptic detail to other senses in immersive environments.^[30]

Historical Development

Early Innovations

The foundations of haptic technology trace back to 19th-century psychological studies on the sense of touch, particularly the work of German physiologist Ernst Heinrich Weber, who in 1834 quantified tactile thresholds through experiments measuring the smallest detectable difference in pressure on the skin, establishing Weber's law as a cornerstone for understanding sensory perception.^[31] Weber's research, conducted using a compass-like instrument to apply controlled stimuli to the skin, demonstrated that the just noticeable difference in tactile sensation is proportional to the magnitude of the original stimulus, providing early empirical insights into human touch sensitivity that later informed haptic interface design.^[32] These studies laid the groundwork for distinguishing between cutaneous (skin-based) and kinesthetic (position and force) feedback, concepts central to modern haptics.^[33] In the 1950s and 1960s, practical applications emerged in nuclear engineering, where remote manipulation of hazardous materials drove the development of early teleoperation devices. A pivotal innovation was the master-slave manipulator invented by Raymond Goertz at Argonne National Laboratory in 1954, an electromechanical system that allowed operators to control a "slave" arm behind radiation shields using a corresponding "master" arm, incorporating basic force feedback to mimic the resistance encountered by the remote tool.^[34] This device introduced bilateral control, where forces applied to the slave arm were reflected back to the master, enabling intuitive operation despite physical separation and marking the first widespread use of force-reflecting telemanipulation.^[35] The 1970s saw breakthroughs in computer-controlled haptic interfaces, building on these mechanical foundations to enable virtual force simulation. At the University of North Carolina, the GROPE project, initiated by Frederick Brooks in 1967 and achieving its first prototype in 1971, created the earliest computer-generated force-feedback system, using an Argonne Remote Manipulator Arm to render 3D molecular interactions, allowing users to "feel" virtual protein structures through reflected forces.^[36] This work advanced key concepts like bilateral control in digital environments, where operator inputs and environmental forces were synchronized via computational models. Complementing these efforts, vibrotactile displays gained traction for accessibility; the Optacon (Optical-to-Tactile Converter), developed in the late 1960s by John Linvill and James Bliss at Stanford Research Institute and commercially released in 1970, used a vibrating pin array to translate printed text into readable tactile patterns for blind users, demonstrating the potential of localized vibrations for information conveyance.^[37] These innovations shifted haptics from purely mechanical teleoperators to programmable systems, setting the stage for broader research without venturing into commercial consumer applications.

Key Milestones and Commercialization

In the 1980s, haptic technology advanced from laboratory research to practical applications in professional training, particularly through enhancements to force feedback in flight simulators. These innovations, often integrated into high-fidelity simulators, represented early commercialization in aerospace training, building on prior teleoperation concepts to improve operator immersion and performance.^[38] The 1990s marked a surge in commercial products targeting consumer gaming. Immersion Corporation, founded in 1993, pioneered haptic solutions by developing patents for vibrotactile and force-feedback devices, including interfaces for software integration that enabled developers to embed tactile effects in applications.^[39] A landmark release was the Microsoft SideWinder Force Feedback Pro joystick in 1997, which used motor-driven mechanisms to deliver dynamic forces like jolts and resistance, revolutionizing PC flight and action games by allowing users to "feel" virtual interactions.^[40] This era also saw the patenting of haptic APIs, such as those supporting Microsoft's DirectInput protocol, which standardized force feedback across Windows-based games starting in the late 1990s.^[41] During the 2000s, haptic integration expanded rapidly into mainstream gaming and mobile devices. Sony's DualShock controller, introduced in 1997, featured dual vibration motors for rumble effects that simulated impacts and motion, achieving widespread adoption by the early 2000s as a core feature in consoles like the PlayStation 2 and Xbox.^[42] In the mobile sector, Apple's iPhone launched in 2007 with built-in vibration motors for alerts and notifications, marking the entry of haptics into everyday consumer phones and setting the stage for more nuanced feedback in touch interfaces.^[43] By the 2010s, the haptic industry had evolved from specialized robotics tools to a global market exceeding $1 billion, fueled by licensing from companies like Immersion and innovations from newcomers such as HaptX, established in 2012 to commercialize advanced wearable haptic systems.^[44]^[45] This growth reflected the technology's shift toward ubiquitous use in entertainment and interfaces, with the market reaching $1.6 billion by 2014 through expanded applications in gaming peripherals and touch-enabled devices.^[44]

Recent Advancements

From 2020 to 2023, haptic wearables gained prominence in virtual reality applications, exemplified by the HaptX Gloves DK2, which provided precise force feedback through microfluidics to simulate object interactions in VR environments.^[46] The COVID-19 pandemic accelerated haptic integration in telehealth, particularly for remote surgery, where robotic systems with tactile feedback enabled surgeons to perform procedures over distances while minimizing infection risks.^[47] In 2025, Immersion Corporation advanced haptic software with an AI-powered SDK that enhances realistic feedback in gaming and augmented reality by dynamically adjusting vibrations based on user interactions and environmental cues.^[48] By 2025, key academic breakthroughs included Northwestern University's development of a compact wearable device in March that applies multidirectional forces—such as twisting, stretching, and pressure—to mimic complex human touch sensations for VR and assistive applications.^[49] Concurrently, Rice University researchers published a review in March on multisensory haptic wearables that combine vibration, skin stretch, pressure, and temperature feedback, targeting consumer products like prosthetics and immersive media.^[50] Market analyses project the global haptics sector to reach $7.1 billion by 2035, driven by adoption in automotive, consumer electronics, and XR interfaces.^[51] Emerging innovations focus on hybrid systems for enhanced realism, such as ultrasound combined with targeted vibrations to reproduce textures in mid-air without physical contact, as demonstrated by NTT's 2025 technology that modulates frequencies for varied haptic patterns.^[52] Thermal-electrical combinations have also progressed, with soft wearables integrating Peltier elements for temperature shifts alongside pneumatic actuators to deliver combined warmth and pressure cues in VR simulations.^[53]

Haptic Technologies

Contact-Based Systems

Contact-based haptic systems deliver tactile sensations through direct physical interaction between the device and the user's skin or body, primarily using mechanical actuators to simulate vibrations, forces, or muscle responses. These systems are foundational in providing kinesthetic and cutaneous feedback, enabling users to perceive texture, pressure, and resistance in virtual or remote environments. Common implementations rely on electromagnetic or piezoelectric principles to generate controlled movements, with applications spanning gaming controllers to surgical simulators. Vibrotactile devices, a subset of contact-based systems, employ actuators to produce vibrations that mimic surface textures or impacts. Eccentric Rotating Mass (ERM) motors, which use an off-center mass rotated by a DC motor, generate broad-spectrum vibrations typically in the 100-250 Hz range suitable for rumble effects in gaming controllers. These motors are cost-effective and robust but suffer from variable amplitude control due to their rotational inertia. Linear Resonant Actuators (LRAs), in contrast, utilize a voice coil and spring-mass system driven by sinusoidal signals at their resonant frequency (often 150-200 Hz), offering sharper, more precise pulses with faster rise times (under 10 ms) and better efficiency for nuanced feedback like button clicks. LRAs are preferred in modern mobile devices for their linear motion, which reduces perceived latency and enhances realism in texture rendering. Force feedback mechanisms in contact-based systems simulate resistance and motion through active control of device elements, often using DC motors, electromagnetic brakes, or clutches integrated into joysticks, styluses, or exoskeletons. These components apply opposing forces to the user's input, conveying virtual object stiffness or weight; for instance, brakes can lock joints to mimic immovable barriers, while clutches disengage to allow free movement. A seminal example is the PHANToM device, developed in the 1990s by SensAble Technologies, which employs three DC motors with cable drives to provide six degrees-of-freedom force feedback up to 8.5 N, enabling precise manipulation of virtual 3D models in computer-aided design and medical training. This parallel linkage design remains a core reference for high-fidelity kinesthetic interfaces due to its low friction and wide workspace. Electrical Muscle Stimulation (EMS) represents an advanced contact-based approach, using low-voltage electrical currents (typically 10-150 mA, 20-100 Hz pulses) applied via skin electrodes to induce involuntary muscle contractions, thereby simulating kinesthetic forces without mechanical linkages. This method directly modulates proprioception, allowing users to feel virtual resistances or guided movements in augmented reality setups, such as pulling against a simulated rope or stabilizing a virtual tool. EMS operates on the principle of neuromuscular excitation, where biphasic or monophasic pulses trigger motor units, providing force illusions up to several Newtons while maintaining portability. Comprehensive reviews highlight its efficacy in VR for tasks like object grasping, though safety limits (e.g., current densities below 2 mA/cm²) are critical to avoid discomfort.^[54] Implementation of contact-based systems faces key challenges, including achieving low latency—ideally under 10 ms end-to-end—to prevent perceptual desynchronization and motion sickness in interactive applications—and optimizing power efficiency, as actuators like ERMs can consume up to 100 mW per vibration cycle. Latency encompasses signal processing, actuator response, and feedback loops, with delays exceeding 20 ms often disrupting immersion in teleoperation scenarios. Power constraints are particularly acute in battery-powered wearables, where LRAs improve efficiency by 50-70% over ERMs through resonant operation. A fundamental relation in vibration-based feedback is the amplitude A = \frac{F}{k}, where F is the applied force and k is the system's stiffness, illustrating how perceived displacement scales inversely with rigidity in stiffness-rendering tasks; this equation underpins models for tuning actuator outputs to match human tactile thresholds. Representative examples illustrate the evolution of these technologies. Apple's Taptic Engine, integrated into iPhones and Apple Watches since 2015, combines a custom LRA with inertial measurement for context-aware vibrations, delivering micro-second precise feedback for notifications and gesture confirmations at frequencies up to 250 Hz. Similarly, piezoelectric actuators enable ultra-precise micro-vibrations (amplitudes as low as 1 µm at 200-300 Hz) by exploiting the inverse piezoelectric effect, where voltage induces material deformation; these are ideal for high-resolution tactile displays in touchscreens, offering response times below 1 ms and low power (under 10 mW) without moving parts.

Non-Contact Systems

Non-contact haptic systems deliver tactile sensations through intangible mediums such as acoustic waves, pneumatic pulses, or electromagnetic fields, enabling interaction without physical devices touching the user's skin. These technologies leverage principles of wave propagation or field manipulation to create localized pressure, vibration, or deformation on the body, often in mid-air environments. Unlike contact-based methods, they prioritize remote delivery, which facilitates shared interactive spaces and reduces contamination risks. Ultrasound-based haptics represent a prominent approach, utilizing arrays of ultrasonic transducers to generate focused acoustic pressure fields that induce perceptible vibrations on the skin. Systems like those developed by Ultraleap (formerly Ultrahaptics) since the early 2010s employ phased arrays to create focal points where nonlinear acoustic effects produce localized forces, simulating textures or impacts without contact. The spatial resolution of these focal points typically achieves diameters of approximately 8-10 mm, allowing for fine-grained patterns such as edges or surfaces.^[55] The underlying acoustic pressure p at these points follows the relation p = \rho c v, where \rho is the medium's density, c is the speed of sound, and v is the particle velocity, enabling controlled energy transfer to the skin. Air vortex ring systems provide another non-contact method, generating toroidal air pulses that travel through free space to deliver impact-like sensations upon striking the body. Disney Research's AIREAL, introduced in 2013, uses an array of speakers and modulators to form these stable vortex rings, which maintain shape over distances up to several meters and impart tactile feedback akin to wind or collision. This pneumatic approach excels in simulating broader, dynamic forces but offers coarser resolution compared to ultrasound, with pulses dissipating after 1-2 meters.^[56]^[57] Electrostatic and magnetic field-based systems induce subtler haptic effects through non-invasive field interactions with the skin or embedded materials. Electrostatic methods, such as contactless piloerection, apply varying electric fields to cause hair follicle stimulation or minor skin deformation, evoking tingling or breeze-like sensations without electrodes. Magnetic approaches, like those using electromagnet arrays for mid-air force rendering, manipulate ferromagnetic particles or induce currents in conductive tissues to produce directional pulls or vibrations, as demonstrated in prototypes achieving forces up to 0.1 N over short ranges. These fields enable precise, low-intensity feedback but require users to be within 10-30 cm of the source.^[58]^[59]^[60] Key advantages of non-contact systems include enhanced hygiene due to the absence of shared surfaces and support for multi-user scenarios in open spaces, as fields or waves can target multiple individuals simultaneously. However, limitations persist, such as restricted effective range—typically under 50 cm for ultrasound and electrostatic methods—and relatively low intensity, often insufficient for strong forces without increasing power consumption or array size. Ongoing research focuses on improving scalability and perceptual fidelity to broaden applicability.^[61]^[62]

Wearable and Emerging Interfaces

Wearable haptic devices integrate tactile feedback directly onto the body, enhancing immersion in virtual environments through kinesthetic and cutaneous sensations. Haptic gloves, such as the SenseGlove Nova 2, employ magnetic brakes for force feedback up to 20 N per finger, alongside vibrotactile actuators and palm contact simulation, enabling users to grasp and manipulate virtual objects with realistic resistance.^[63] Full-body suits like the Teslasuit utilize electro-muscle stimulation across 68 contact points to deliver localized vibrations and contractions, simulating impacts, textures, and thermal variations in virtual reality applications during the 2020s.^[64] These wearables often incorporate motion capture for precise tracking, allowing synchronized haptic responses to user movements.^[65] Haptic exoskeletons extend force guidance to larger body segments, providing directional assistance for training and rehabilitation. Lightweight upper-limb exoskeletons with seven degrees of freedom apply up to 10 N of force to guide arm trajectories, reducing positioning errors by 40% in teleoperation tasks.^[66] Hand exoskeletons, such as those using cable-driven mechanisms, deliver variable stiffness feedback to simulate object rigidity, with peak forces of 15 N per joint for enhanced precision in virtual assembly simulations.^[67] These systems prioritize low inertia—typically under 500 g—to maintain natural motion while rendering multidirectional forces. Emerging interfaces leverage advanced materials for conformable, skin-like feedback. Soft robotics incorporating dielectric elastomer actuators (DEAs) generate large strains (up to 100%) and rapid responses (milliseconds) for flexible, wearable haptic arrays that conform to body contours, providing vibrotactile patterns without rigid components.^[68] A 2x2 DEA array in a soft haptic communicator, for instance, produces localized deformations mimicking emotional cues through programmable waveforms.^[69] Thermal patches based on Peltier elements enable bidirectional temperature modulation, cooling to 5°C or heating to 45°C for sensations of material properties like hot metal or ice.^[70] In smart fabrics, electromagnetic haptics embed conductive threads for subtle notifications, as seen in Google Jacquard's integration of touch sensors and vibration motors into garments, delivering directional cues via 10-50 Hz pulses.^[71] By March 2025, Northwestern University's dynamic force wearable introduced a compact actuator applying multidirectional forces (up to 5 N) through twisting, stretching, and poking motions, simulating complex textures like fabric shear in arrays of 1 cm² modules.^[49] AI-optimized actuators, drawing from machine learning models for texture prediction, adapt feedback in real-time, reducing latency to under 10 ms for dynamic surface simulations in soft interfaces.^[13] Despite advancements, wearable haptics face persistent challenges in user comfort and power efficiency. Ergonomic constraints, including skin irritation from prolonged contact and bulkiness exceeding 200 g, limit extended use, with studies reporting 25% dropout rates in trials due to discomfort.^[72] Battery life remains a critical bottleneck, often restricted to 2-4 hours under active feedback, as high-voltage actuators like DEAs consume 1-5 W per module, necessitating compact lithium-polymer cells with energy densities below 300 Wh/kg.^[73] Thermal management in Peltier-based systems exacerbates this, governed by the heat transfer equation:

Q = m \cdot c \cdot \Delta T

where Q is the thermal energy transferred, m is mass, c is specific heat capacity, and \Delta T is temperature change, highlighting the need for efficient cooling to sustain feedback without overheating.^[74]

Applications

Consumer Electronics and Entertainment

Haptic technology has become integral to mobile devices, enhancing user interaction through subtle vibrations that simulate physical sensations. Apple's Taptic Engine, introduced in the iPhone 6s in 2015 alongside 3D Touch, provides precise haptic feedback for notifications, typing, and gestures by using a linear resonant actuator (LRA) to generate varied vibration patterns that mimic button presses or impacts.^[75]^[76]^[77] This system replaced traditional buzzers with more nuanced responses, improving accessibility and immersion in everyday tasks like virtual keyboard input. By 2025, advanced LRAs in flagship smartphones, such as those from Samsung and Google, offer multi-level vibrations for richer feedback in gaming and augmented reality apps, with response times under 10 milliseconds for seamless integration.^[78]^[79] In video games, haptic feedback has evolved from basic rumble motors to sophisticated systems that convey environmental details and actions. Sony's DualSense controller, launched with the PlayStation 5 in 2020, incorporates voice coil actuators for immersive haptic feedback and adaptive triggers that adjust resistance to simulate activities like drawing a bowstring or revving an engine, significantly enhancing player engagement in titles like Astro's Playroom.^[80]^[81] Haptic vests further amplify immersion by delivering full-body vibrations synchronized with in-game events, such as explosions or footsteps; for instance, the bHaptics TactSuit X40 uses 40 motors to provide directional feedback compatible with over 250 VR games, allowing users to feel spatial audio cues as tactile sensations.^[82]^[83] Virtual and augmented reality systems leverage haptic feedback in controllers to enable realistic object interactions. Meta's Oculus Touch controllers, introduced with the Oculus Rift in 2016, feature asymmetric vibration motors that deliver targeted pulses to simulate textures, impacts, and grips, such as feeling the recoil of a virtual gun or the surface of an object during manipulation.^[84] This vibrotactile approach bridges the gap between visual and tactile senses, improving presence in experiences like Beat Saber. Haptic touchpads in laptops, like those using Boréas' piezo haptics, eliminate physical clicks while simulating them through vibrations, reducing fatigue and enabling precise multi-touch navigation.^[85]^[86] The consumer electronics market for haptics is experiencing robust growth, particularly in budget smartphones, driven by demand for affordable immersive features in gaming and notifications. According to Archive Market Research, the haptic technology segment for mobile devices is projected to expand significantly in 2025, with LRAs becoming standard in mid-range models from brands like Xiaomi and Motorola, contributing to a global market value exceeding USD 4.74 billion.^[79]^[87] This trend reflects broader adoption in entertainment, where haptics enhance user retention without high costs, as seen in the integration of basic vibrotactile systems across 70% of new Android devices.

Medical and Rehabilitation

Haptic technology plays a pivotal role in medical and rehabilitation applications by providing tactile feedback that enhances precision, training efficacy, and patient outcomes in clinical settings. Although earlier versions of the da Vinci Surgical System lacked haptic feedback, the da Vinci 5, launched in 2024, incorporates force feedback at the instrument tip to relay tissue tension and pressure during tasks like dissection and suturing, enhancing surgeon intuition in complex operations. For instance, the da Vinci Research Kit can be used with added haptic interfaces that simulate tissue palpation, enabling trainees to practice minimally invasive procedures with realistic force cues, which has been shown to reduce cognitive workload during simulations. Recent advancements in the da Vinci 5 System, with expanded rollout as of 2025, further improve procedural accuracy.^[88]^[89]^[90]^[91]^[92] In neurorehabilitation, haptic exoskeletons facilitate stroke recovery by delivering targeted tactile and proprioceptive feedback to restore motor function, particularly in upper-limb and balance training. Devices like whole-hand haptic rendering systems support high-fidelity interaction during repetitive exercises, promoting neuroplasticity and improving grasp precision in post-stroke patients. For example, exoskeleton-assisted therapies, often combined with virtual reality, enable intensive, therapist-independent sessions that enhance inter-joint coordination and reduce recovery time compared to traditional methods. These systems leverage contact-based force feedback to guide movements, allowing patients to sense virtual object compliance and adjust accordingly for tasks like reaching or grasping.^[93]^[94]^[95]^[96] Haptic tools in dentistry provide tactile guidance during procedures, with drill feedback systems simulating bone and enamel resistance to train students on precise cavity preparations. Simulators like the Simodont Dental Trainer use real handpieces with force feedback to replicate drilling sensations, allowing endless practice without patient risk and improving motor skills acquisition. Studies indicate that such haptic interfaces significantly enhance preclinical performance by offering immediate, objective tactile cues on pressure and vibration, reducing errors in restorative work.^[97]^[98]^[99]^[100] Sensory substitution devices employing tactile haptic displays assist visually and hearing-impaired individuals by converting environmental data into vibrotactile patterns, such as Braille-like maps for navigation or speech-to-touch interfaces. These systems, including pin-array or wearable vibrotactile arrays, enable users to perceive spatial layouts or auditory cues through skin stimulation, fostering independence in daily tasks. For hearing augmentation, haptic wearables translate sound frequencies into localized vibrations, improving noise-robust speech perception for the deaf.^[101]^[15]^[102]^[103] By 2025, haptic advancements in telehealth have enabled remote palpation, allowing clinicians to assess tissue abnormalities via bidirectional force feedback devices, a development accelerated by post-COVID demands for contactless diagnostics. Systems like robotic-assisted tele-examiners provide surgeons with palpable sensations of lumps or hardness during virtual consultations, improving diagnostic accuracy in underserved areas. Concurrently, haptic prosthetics with texture feedback have advanced to deliver nuanced sensations of surface roughness and compliance through neuromorphic sensors and multisensory interfaces, enhancing user dexterity and embodiment in upper- and lower-limb applications. These prosthetics use bio-inspired tactile layers to mimic natural touch, enabling precise manipulation of varied materials.^[104]^[105]^[106]^[107]^[108]^[13]

Industrial and Remote Control

Haptic technology plays a crucial role in industrial and remote control applications by providing tactile feedback that enhances operator precision and safety in environments where direct human intervention is impractical or dangerous. In teleoperation systems, haptic interfaces enable master-slave robotic configurations, allowing operators to control remote manipulators with force and texture feedback that mirrors real-time interactions. These systems are particularly vital in hazardous settings such as nuclear facilities and underwater operations, where they facilitate tasks like waste handling and exploration without exposing personnel to risks.^[109]^[110] In nuclear decommissioning, haptic-enabled telemanipulators assist in handling radioactive materials by transmitting forces from the slave robot to the operator's haptic device, improving task accuracy and reducing cognitive load during shared-control operations. For instance, evaluations of such systems have shown that haptic feedback significantly lowers manipulation errors in glovebox environments by providing intuitive guidance for delicate procedures. Similarly, in underwater applications, haptic teleoperation of remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) compensates for environmental disturbances like cross-currents, using soft haptic interfaces to deliver stable force cues that enhance manipulator control and prevent collisions.^[109]^[111]^[110] Within the automotive sector, haptic feedback integrated into steering wheels supports advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) by delivering vibrations or torque to alert drivers to lane deviations, thereby promoting safer vehicle handling without diverting visual attention. Studies on truck driving demonstrate that haptic lane-keeping assistance reduces lane departures by up to 70% for distracted operators, enhancing overall road safety through subtle, continuous tactile cues. In aviation training, force feedback yokes in flight simulators replicate aerodynamic forces, such as those encountered during turbulence, allowing pilots to experience realistic resistance and vibrations that improve response times and situational awareness. This technology employs smart linear motors to generate dynamic forces, simulating conditions like stalls with high fidelity and low noise.^[112]^[113] Telepresence systems incorporating haptics further extend remote collaboration capabilities, enabling operators in augmented reality (AR) environments to share tactile sensations during joint tasks, as seen in emerging 2025 AR meeting platforms for industrial oversight. These setups use haptic-enabled toolkits to transmit touch feedback between local and remote users, facilitating coordinated manipulation in virtual shared spaces. Overall, the integration of haptics in these domains yields measurable benefits, including a 35% reduction in assembly errors and enhanced operator dexterity through improved tactile precision, which collectively minimize accidents and boost efficiency in high-stakes industrial operations.^[114]^[115]^[116]

Other Specialized Uses

In the realm of art and design, haptic technology has enabled interactive installations that simulate textures and physical interactions, allowing audiences to "feel" digital or abstract concepts. For instance, mid-air haptic displays have been used in exhibits to create multisensory art experiences, combining touch with vision and sound to evoke emotional responses in viewers.^[117] A notable example from the 2010s is the SIGGRAPH Art Gallery's incorporation of haptic elements in installations like virtual insect simulations, where participants experienced tactile feedback through wearable devices to explore multi-sensory human perception.^[118] More recent works, such as the 2023 haptic poetry installation "Final Wisdom I," engage users in manipulating spatialized imagery via force-feedback gloves, blending poetry with tangible interactions.^[119] Haptic systems have also found applications in educational tools and tactile puzzles, particularly for enhancing learning through touch-based engagement. Devices like the Feelif Creator combine haptic feedback with embossed dots to facilitate Braille instruction, aiding visually impaired students in transitioning to screen-based reading by providing vibrational cues alongside audio.^[120] In puzzle formats, haptic-enabled smartphone games such as BraillePlay offer accessible educational challenges for blind children, using vibration patterns to represent spatial elements in games that teach literacy and problem-solving.^[121] A 2025 study demonstrated a wearable haptic device integrated with a digital maze game, where children received directional vibrations to navigate puzzles, improving spatial awareness without visual reliance.^[122] Beyond education, haptic technology supports intimate remote interactions through teledildonics, which employs networked devices to transmit tactile sensations over distances. These systems use haptic actuators to replicate touch via vibrations and motion, enabling synchronized experiences between users.^[123] Research highlights how such platforms, developed since the early 2010s, foster digital intimacies by integrating force feedback with internet connectivity, as seen in devices that adjust intensity based on remote inputs.^[124] In space exploration, haptic gloves enhance rover control for missions, providing operators with tactile cues to mimic remote environments. NASA's collaboration with SenseGlove in the 2020s utilized VR-integrated haptic gloves to simulate zero-gravity interactions, allowing astronauts to train for Mars rover operations by feeling virtual tool resistances.^[125] Prototypes like the 2019 Astronaut Smart Glove enable gesture-based control of robotic assets on Mars, capturing hand motions to adjust sensitivity for precise extraterrestrial tasks.^[126] Sensory substitution extends haptics to non-medical navigation aids, converting auditory inputs into tactile outputs for environmental awareness. Systems like wrist-worn sound-to-touch devices translate ambient noises into vibration patterns, activating both somatosensory and auditory brain regions to aid orientation in sighted and low-vision users.^[127] The vOICe, while primarily visual-to-auditory, inspires haptic adaptations for navigation, where sound cues are mapped to touch for real-time spatial feedback beyond therapeutic contexts.^[128] By 2025, haptics has advanced metaverse art through interfaces that enable virtual sculpting with realistic textures, as in the MetaDigiHuman framework, which blends digital avatars with force-feedback for collaborative artistic creation.^[129] In space applications, zero-G training incorporates haptic suits to simulate microgravity manipulations, improving astronaut preparedness for extended missions via immersive VR feedback.^[125]

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Back in 1993, when personal ... Immersion Corporation is the company that created the haptic feedback technology in the PlayStation 5 DualSense controller.
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Microsoft Flight Simulator 98 and SideWinder Force Feedback Pro ...
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Enhancing stroke rehabilitation with whole-hand haptic rendering
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Haptic-Enabled Hand Rehabilitation in Stroke Patients: A Scoping ...
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The Simodont dental trainer equipment
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The impact of virtual reality haptic simulators in pre-clinical ...
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The future of sensory substitution, addition, and expansion via haptic ...
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Haptic-assistive technologies for audition and vision sensory ...
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Improved tactile speech perception and noise robustness using ...
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A Systematic Review of Telemedicine Based on Perception and ...
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Haptic Feedback Systems for Lower-Limb Prosthetic Applications
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User Evaluation of a Haptic-Enabled Shared-Control Approach for ...
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ROV Teleoperation in the Presence of Cross‐Currents Using Soft ...
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Argonne's new dual-armed telerobotic system for hazardous waste ...
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Haptic Lane-Keeping Assistance for Truck Driving: A Test Track Study
Haptic steering wheel assistance improves lane keeping in truck driving. Haptic steering assistance reduces lane departures for distracted truck drivers.
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Next Level Flight Simulation: Realistic Control Loading and Force ...
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[PDF] A Toolkit for Remote Collaboration in Tangible Augmented Reality ...
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Engineers develop intuitive haptic devices for safer remote robot ...
May 19, 2025 · A research team has developed a novel haptic device designed to enhance both safety and efficiency for workers in industrial settings.
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Haptic Feedback Systems for Remote IoT Manufacturing
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Final Wisdom I: Interactive Haptic Poetry Installation at SIGGRAPH ...
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Feelif Creator: Review - Perkins School For The Blind
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BraillePlay: Educational smartphone games for blind children
There are many educational smartphone games for children, but few are accessible to blind children. We present BraillePlay, a suite of accessible games for ...
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[PDF] Design, Development and Evaluation of a Wearable Haptic Device ...
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Touching at a Distance: Digital Intimacies, Haptic Platforms ... - NIH
Sep 21, 2021 · The last decade has seen rise in technologies that allow humans to send and receive intimate touch across long distances.
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An Astronaut Smart Glove to Explore the Moon, Mars and Beyond
Oct 31, 2019 · “With it, astronauts could easily control a range of robotic assets, making science and exploration operations on the Moon, Mars and at other ...
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The future of sensory substitution, addition, and expansion via haptic ...
A wrist-worn sound-to-touch sensory substitution device was recently shown in brain imaging to induce activity in both somatosensory and auditory regions ...
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Vision Substitution (Sustitución Sensorial Visual, Sinnesersatz)
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MetaDigiHuman: Haptic Interfaces for Digital Humans in Metaverse
Sep 1, 2024 · The ubiquity of digital or virtual humans is evident, and it is projected to be a significant trend in 2025. These virtual humans, facilitated ...