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Integrated quantum photonics

Integrated quantum photonics is a subfield of quantum optics that focuses on the fabrication and utilization of photonic integrated circuits to generate, manipulate, and detect quantum states of light on compact, chip-scale platforms, leveraging principles like superposition and entanglement to achieve functionalities beyond classical limits.^[1] This approach adapts mature classical photonic integration techniques—such as those used in telecommunications—to quantum applications, enabling the creation of scalable devices that process multiple photons simultaneously for tasks including quantum simulation and secure communication.^[2] The field has evolved rapidly since the early 2010s, progressing from rudimentary devices handling a few photons to complex, programmable circuits with thousands of components, often fabricated using complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS)-compatible processes on materials like silicon.^[3] Key platforms include silicon photonics for its low cost and high integration density, lithium niobate for its strong nonlinear optical properties suitable for entanglement generation, and diamond for spin-photon interfaces in quantum memories.^[3] These material choices address challenges like photon loss and decoherence, which are critical for maintaining quantum coherence in integrated systems.^[1] Notable applications encompass quantum key distribution for unbreakable encryption, boson sampling for demonstrating quantum advantage in computational tasks, and linear optical quantum computing prototypes that exploit photonic indistinguishability.^[1] Hybrid integration strategies, combining disparate materials on a single chip, further enhance versatility by incorporating active elements like single-photon sources and detectors.^[2] As of 2025, global research efforts continue to emphasize overcoming scalability barriers, with recent advancements in integrated platforms for quantum sensing and classical-decisive quantum internet architectures, transitioning from laboratory proofs-of-concept to practical quantum networks and processors, and potential economic impacts expected to exceed $10 billion by 2030 through advancements in secure data transmission and simulation of complex molecules.^[4]^[5]

Overview and History

Introduction

Integrated quantum photonics refers to the integration of quantum optical components onto photonic integrated circuits (PICs), enabling the confinement, manipulation, and detection of quantum states of light within compact, chip-scale devices for scalable quantum information processing.^[6] This field miniaturizes traditionally bulky quantum optical setups, such as those using free-space optics or optical fibers, into planar waveguides and on-chip structures that support the propagation of single photons or entangled photon pairs.^[7] By leveraging semiconductor fabrication techniques, these circuits facilitate the realization of complex quantum operations that were previously limited by alignment challenges and environmental sensitivity in laboratory-scale experiments.^[8] The core advantages of integrated quantum photonics over bulk optics include enhanced compactness, improved mechanical and thermal stability, reduced optical losses, and the potential for mass production using established CMOS-compatible processes.^[8] These benefits arise from the waveguide-based confinement of light, which minimizes diffraction and scattering while allowing dense integration of functional elements like beam splitters, phase shifters, and detectors.^[9] Key quantum effects exploited in these systems encompass photon superposition for parallel quantum state processing, entanglement for correlating multiple particles across the chip, and effective single-photon nonlinearities enabled by material interactions or cascaded operations to mediate photon-photon interactions.^[10]^[11] Spanning the disciplines of quantum optics, photonics, and nanotechnology, integrated quantum photonics draws on principles from atomic-scale light-matter interactions and nanoscale waveguide engineering to create hybrid devices that combine active quantum emitters with passive routing elements.^[7] As of 2025, this technology plays a pivotal role in advancing practical quantum technologies, including fault-tolerant quantum computing through photonic qubit networks, quantum key distribution for secure communication protocols, and high-precision metrology applications such as gravitational wave detection and atomic clocks.^[12]^[13]

Historical Development

The foundations of integrated quantum photonics trace back to the 1980s and 1990s, when integrated optics platforms like silica-on-insulator and lithium niobate (LiNbO₃) waveguides were developed primarily for classical photonic applications, such as modulators and switches. The first demonstration of SPDC in a waveguide occurred in 1987 using a Ti-indiffused LiNbO₃ channel waveguide, producing correlated photon pairs.^[7] Early quantum experiments began in the late 1990s, building on these platforms; initial demonstrations of spontaneous parametric down-conversion (SPDC) in Ti-indiffused LiNbO₃ waveguides, building on classical platforms like silica-on-insulator, enabled the generation of correlated photon pairs, laying groundwork for quantum light sources.^[14] These efforts, led by groups at institutions like the University of Geneva, marked the transition from bulk optics to waveguide-based quantum optics, with the first high-efficiency entangled photon pairs from periodically poled LiNbO₃ (PPLN) waveguides achieved in 2001, achieving visibilities up to 97% at telecom wavelengths. The 2000s saw key breakthroughs in on-chip quantum interference and entanglement generation, propelled by advancements in silicon and silica platforms. A seminal demonstration occurred in 2008, when researchers at the University of Bristol observed the Hong-Ou-Mandel effect—two-photon quantum interference—in silica-on-silicon waveguide circuits, with high visibility confirming indistinguishability of photons from SPDC sources. This was complemented by integrated entangled photon pair generation via SPDC in PPLN waveguides, enabling compact sources with brightness improvements of four orders of magnitude over bulk crystals.^[15] Contributions from key figures like Jeremy L. O'Brien and Alberto Politi at Bristol highlighted the potential for scalable quantum circuits, while early integration of III-V semiconductors for single-photon sources began emerging toward the decade's end. In the 2010s, the field matured with the rise of silicon photonics for quantum applications, facilitating complex circuits and hybrid integrations. The 2013 demonstration of boson sampling—a quantum computing task intractable for classical computers—on a photonic chip by the O'Brien group at Bristol used four photons in a reconfigurable silica interferometer, verifying nonclassical interference with high fidelity. Silicon platforms enabled high-speed quantum key distribution, as shown in 2017 work by Peter Sibson and Mark G. Thompson at Bristol, achieving rates over 1 Mbit/s using integrated silicon modulators and detectors. Integration of III-V quantum dots for on-chip sources advanced, with NIST demonstrations in 2017 coupling InAs dots to Si₃N₄ waveguides for efficient single-photon emission. Labs at MIT and Bristol drove these innovations, emphasizing scalability. The 2020s have focused on scalable quantum networks and commercial viability through hybrid platforms combining silicon, thin-film lithium niobate (TFLN), and diamond. Post-2020 advances in TFLN yielded ultra-low-loss waveguides (∼3 dB/m) and high-Q resonators, enabling efficient SPDC and quantum frequency conversion for hybrid quantum systems, as pioneered by Marko Lončar at Harvard. Experiments in 2022–2024 demonstrated hybrid platforms for quantum networks, such as diamond color centers integrated with silicon photonics for entanglement distribution over fiber, addressing scalability challenges.^[16] Commercial efforts, including PsiQuantum's silicon photonic roadmap for fault-tolerant quantum computing with million-qubit scales targeted by 2027, underscore industry momentum, supported by 2025 breakthroughs in monolithic silicon modules for qubit manipulation and detection.^[17] Key contributors like Mark G. Thompson continue to influence progress at institutions including the University of Bristol, bridging research toward practical quantum networks.^[18]

Fundamental Principles

Quantum Optics in Integrated Systems

Integrated quantum photonics relies on non-classical states of light as the foundational elements for performing quantum operations, including single photons, squeezed states, and entangled photon pairs. Single photons, often heralded from correlated pair emission in nonlinear processes, function as flying qubits for quantum information encoding and processing. Squeezed states, which exhibit reduced uncertainty in one quadrature at the expense of the other, enable enhanced precision in quantum metrology by surpassing classical noise limits. Entangled photon pairs, sharing quantum correlations in properties such as polarization or momentum, serve as resources for implementing quantum gates and protocols like teleportation. These states are generated on-chip using nonlinear optical interactions, marking a shift from bulk optics to scalable integrated platforms.^[11] A key phenomenon for on-chip photon pair generation is spontaneous parametric down-conversion (SPDC), where a high-energy pump photon spontaneously splits into lower-energy signal and idler photons while conserving energy and momentum. In integrated waveguides, the spectral properties of these pairs are described by the joint spectral amplitude (JSA), which governs their indistinguishability and purity. The JSA is expressed as

f(\omega_s, \omega_i) = \alpha(\omega_s + \omega_i) \phi_{lmn}(\omega_s, \omega_i),

where \alpha(\omega_s + \omega_i) is the pump envelope function (typically Gaussian), and \phi_{lmn}(\omega_s, \omega_i) is the phase-matching function incorporating sinc terms from quasi-phase-matching in the waveguide of length \mathcal{L}, with \Delta \beta_{lmn} as the phase mismatch across spatial modes l, m, n. Another critical effect is Hong-Ou-Mandel (HOM) interference, which tests photon indistinguishability: when two identical photons enter a 50:50 beamsplitter, they bunch into the same output port, yielding a characteristic dip in coincidence counts. On-chip demonstrations using quantum dot sources in GaAs circuits have achieved visibilities up to 71.9%, confirming interference essential for multi-photon quantum operations.^[19]^[20] Preserving quantum coherence in integrated systems poses significant challenges, primarily due to the sensitivity of quantum states to environmental decoherence. Low-loss propagation is crucial, with material platforms achieving waveguide losses below 0.2 dB/cm in silicon nitride to minimize photon absorption and scattering over circuit lengths. Phase stability is equally vital, requiring narrow-linewidth pump lasers and thermal control to maintain relative phases during propagation, as fluctuations can degrade entanglement fidelity. These issues demand precise engineering of dispersion and coupling to ensure quantum states remain viable for operations like interference and entanglement swapping.^[7] The mathematical framework for photonic quantum circuits models evolution as unitary transformations on Fock states, representing fixed photon numbers in spatial modes. A general input state |\psi\rangle = \sum c_{\mathbf{n}} |\mathbf{n}\rangle, where \mathbf{n} = (n_1, n_2, \dots) denotes occupation numbers, transforms via U |\psi\rangle, with U = \exp(-i H t / \hbar) driven by the circuit Hamiltonian H, which includes terms for beam-splitter couplings and waveguide propagation phases. This bosonic formalism captures interference in multi-mode interferometers. In contrast to classical photonics, which uses coherent or thermal light and intensity detectors for linear operations, quantum photonics necessitates non-classical sources like single-photon emitters and number-resolving detectors to exploit effects such as bunching, enabling advantages like exponential speedup in boson sampling—where sampling from a 100-mode interferometer's output distribution vastly outpaces classical simulation by factors of $10^{14}.^[21]^[22]

Photonic Circuit Design Basics

Integrated photonic circuits for quantum applications rely on fundamental building blocks that manipulate single photons or entangled states through interference and routing. Key circuit elements include directional couplers, which enable beam splitting via evanescent coupling of light between adjacent waveguides, typically achieving splitting ratios tunable from 50:50 to near-unity by adjusting coupling length and gap width.^[23] Mach-Zehnder interferometers (MZIs) serve as versatile phase shifters and routers, consisting of two couplers separated by phase arms to control relative path delays, allowing implementation of unitary transformations essential for quantum logic.^[23] Ring resonators function for routing and filtering, enhancing photon-photon interactions through resonant recirculation, with quality factors exceeding 10^6 in silicon nitride platforms to support narrowband operations.^[23] Design considerations prioritize efficient photon transport and control. Mode matching ensures high-fidelity coupling between components, often via adiabatic tapers that gradually transform waveguide cross-sections to overlap spatial modes, achieving efficiencies over 98% in hybrid GaAs-SiN interfaces.^[24] Dispersion engineering tailors group velocity dispersion in waveguides to manage photon bandwidth, using techniques like slot waveguides or grating structures to flatten dispersion curves over telecom bands, critical for preserving temporal coherence in entangled states.^[25] Tuning mechanisms include thermo-optic effects in silicon, where refractive index shifts by ~10^{-5}/K via integrated heaters for phase adjustments up to 2π with power consumption below 10 mW, and electro-optic modulation in lithium niobate, leveraging the Pockels effect (r_{33} = 30.8 pm/V) for sub-nanosecond tuning speeds up to 100 GHz.^[26] Simulation tools are essential for optimizing these circuits, incorporating quantum effects. The beam propagation method (BPM) models paraxial wave evolution along propagation directions, suitable for large-scale waveguide arrays, while finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) simulations resolve full 3D electromagnetic fields to capture scattering and mode profiles, with grid resolutions down to 20 nm for sub-wavelength features.^[27] For quantum circuits, these methods extend to include quantum noise via stochastic input fields or hybrid classical-quantum solvers, enabling prediction of indistinguishability degradation from fabrication imperfections.^[28] Scalability distinguishes reconfigurable circuits, using tunable MZIs for dynamic routing, from fixed designs etched for specific operations. Reconfigurable lattices of MZIs, arranged in Clements or Reck configurations, decompose arbitrary m×m unitaries with M = m(m-1)/2 elements, supporting universal quantum gates adapted from the KLM scheme through post-selected nonlinear sign shifts.^[29] These enable scalable linear optical quantum computing, with demonstrations scaling to 20 modes achieving average unitary fidelities of 97.4% for Haar-random transformations and 99.5% for permutations, though success probabilities decrease as (1/4)^n for n two-qubit gates.^[30] A prerequisite for quantum operation is single-mode waveguide propagation to preserve photon indistinguishability, as multi-mode propagation introduces which-path information that reduces Hong-Ou-Mandel interference visibility below 96%.^[31] Designs achieve this via high β-factors (>90%) in photonic crystal waveguides, coupling quantum dots to single transverse modes for near-unity purity over extended photon strings.^[31]

Materials Platforms

Silica-on-Insulator

Silica-on-insulator (SOI) platforms, also known as silica-on-silicon, utilize amorphous silicon dioxide (SiO₂) as the core material deposited on a silicon substrate with a buried oxide layer, offering high transparency in the telecommunication bands around 1550 nm. These platforms exhibit low propagation losses, typically on the order of 0.1 dB/cm, due to the material's intrinsic low absorption and scattering in this wavelength range. Additionally, the thermo-optic coefficient of silica, approximately 1 × 10^{-5} K^{-1}, enables straightforward thermal tuning of photonic devices through integrated heaters, facilitating phase shifts and reconfiguration in quantum circuits. The amorphous nature of silica eliminates lattice mismatch issues, allowing flexible doping with materials like germanium for index contrast control. In quantum applications, silica-on-insulator benefits from excellent compatibility with standard single-mode optical fibers, owing to its large mode field diameter (around 9-10 μm), which minimizes coupling losses to below 0.5 dB per facet. This property has supported early demonstrations of spontaneous parametric down-conversion (SPDC) sources integrated on silica chips, generating entangled photon pairs at telecom wavelengths for quantum communication protocols. Low-noise superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors have also been hybridized with silica waveguides, leveraging the platform's stability for high-fidelity single-photon detection. These attributes make silica-on-insulator suitable for passive quantum photonic integrated circuits (QPICs), particularly in scenarios requiring robust fiber interfacing and minimal environmental sensitivity. Fabrication of silica-on-insulator devices commonly employs flame hydrolysis deposition (FHD), a process that hydrolyzes silicon tetrachloride and other precursors in an oxyhydrogen flame to form high-quality SiO₂ layers, followed by reactive ion etching to define core-cladding structures. This method yields low-stress films with refractive index contrasts of 0.3-1.5%, enabling compact multimode interference (MMI) couplers and splitters essential for quantum interferometers. FHD's scalability supports wafer-scale production, with post-deposition annealing reducing defects for propagation losses as low as 0.05 dB/cm in straight waveguides. Quantum performance on silica platforms has been validated in 2010s demonstrations of quantum key distribution (QKD) systems, where silica-based chips achieved interference visibilities exceeding 90% in time-bin encoded protocols over fiber links. For instance, integrated asymmetric Mach-Zehnder interferometers (AMZIs) on silica planar lightwave circuits (PLCs) enabled stable phase decoding with visibilities up to 98% in decoy-state QKD setups. However, compared to silicon photonics, silica-on-insulator suffers higher bending losses in compact designs due to its lower index contrast, necessitating larger radii (typically >5 mm) to keep losses below 0.1 dB per 90° turn.

Silicon Photonics

Silicon serves as a leading material platform for integrated quantum photonics due to its compatibility with existing complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) fabrication processes, enabling scalable production of photonic circuits. Silicon possesses an indirect bandgap of approximately 1.12 eV, which limits its efficiency for direct light emission and lasing but minimizes absorption at telecommunications wavelengths around 1550 nm, making it suitable for low-loss waveguiding. The material's high refractive index of about 3.48 at 1550 nm allows for strong light confinement in sub-wavelength waveguides, while typical propagation losses in silicon-on-insulator (SOI) waveguides range from 2 to 5 dB/cm, primarily due to sidewall scattering and intrinsic absorption. These properties facilitate the creation of compact, high-density photonic integrated circuits essential for quantum applications. In quantum photonics, silicon benefits from a mature ecosystem of waveguides and electro-optic modulators, supporting efficient manipulation of quantum states of light. Demonstrations of on-chip entanglement have highlighted its potential, such as the 2018 implementation of a silicon-based boson sampler that generated and interfered multiphoton states to simulate quantum advantage in linear optical processes. These advances leverage silicon's ability to host spontaneous four-wave mixing for photon pair generation, enabling heralded single-photon sources and entangled states within integrated chips. Hybrid integration enhances silicon's functionality by combining it with other materials via low-temperature wafer bonding techniques. Germanium detectors, bonded to SOI waveguides, provide high-speed, high-responsivity photodetection compatible with quantum signals at 1550 nm, achieving bandwidths exceeding 40 GHz. Similarly, III-V semiconductor sources, such as quantum dots or lasers, are integrated through wafer bonding to provide on-chip single-photon emission, as demonstrated in recent hybrid devices generating broadband entangled photon pairs via spontaneous parametric down-conversion. Recent advances in 2024 and 2025 have focused on mitigating silicon's limitations, particularly two-photon absorption (TPA), which reduces efficiency in high-intensity quantum operations. Silicon nitride (SiN) overlays on silicon waveguides reduce TPA effects—silicon exhibits significant TPA at telecom wavelengths, while SiN has virtually none due to its wide 5 eV bandgap—enabling brighter and more efficient single-photon sources for scalable quantum networks. These hybrid Si/SiN structures maintain low propagation losses below 0.1 dB/cm in some configurations, supporting brighter heralded sources with improved purity. A key challenge in silicon quantum photonics remains the relatively modest Kerr nonlinearity, quantified by the third-order susceptibility \chi^{(3)} \approx 10^{-18} m²/W at 1550 nm, which limits the strength of nonlinear interactions needed for on-chip quantum gates and entangling operations. While silicon's nonlinearity is higher than that of silica, achieving deterministic two-photon gates requires enhancements like cavity resonance or material engineering to boost effective interaction strengths without excessive loss.

Lithium Niobate

Lithium niobate (LiNbO₃), a ferroelectric crystal, exhibits a strong linear electro-optic effect via the Pockels coefficient r₃₃ ≈ 30 pm/V, which enables rapid modulation of light phase and amplitude with low drive voltages, making it ideal for high-performance quantum photonic devices. In thin-film lithium niobate (TFLN) platforms, the material supports low optical propagation losses of ~0.1–0.3 dB/cm at 1550 nm, facilitating compact waveguides with high confinement and minimal signal degradation. These properties stem from its wide transparency window (from visible to mid-infrared) and high refractive index contrast when bonded to insulator substrates like silica.^[32]^[33]^[34] In integrated quantum photonics, lithium niobate excels in applications requiring dynamic control, such as electro-optic switches and modulators that enable reconfigurable circuits for routing single photons or entangled states without introducing significant decoherence. For instance, TFLN-based Mach-Zehnder modulators support fast phase shifts for quantum gate operations in photonic quantum computing. Furthermore, periodically poled lithium niobate (PPLN) structures leverage the material's high second-order nonlinearity (d₃₃ ≈ 27 pm/V) for efficient spontaneous parametric down-conversion (SPDC), generating heralded single photons and polarization-entangled pairs with spectral brightness on the order of 10⁶ pairs/s/mW/nm in integrated waveguides.^[35] These sources are pivotal for quantum key distribution and entanglement distribution in networks.^[36] Fabrication of lithium niobate devices has evolved from bulk crystals, limited by weak confinement and large footprints, to TFLN via crystal ion slicing—a process involving hydrogen ion implantation, splitting, and direct bonding to a handle wafer—which gained traction post-2018 with commercial LNOI wafers enabling sub-micron-thick films. This transition supports tighter waveguide bends (radii < 10 μm) and denser integration, with dry etching techniques like reactive ion etching achieving smooth sidewalls for reduced scattering losses.^[37]^[38] TFLN modulators demonstrate electro-optic bandwidths >100 GHz, as shown in hybrid silicon-TFLN devices operating at half-wave voltages below 3 V, enabling ultrafast control in quantum processors interfaced with solid-state single-photon sources.^[39] Such performance has supported demonstrations of reconfigurable quantum circuits, including those toward scalable quantum networks. Early TFLN ridge waveguides exhibited propagation losses up to 10 dB/cm due to sidewall roughness, but recent cladding optimizations and improved etching have reduced these to ~0.1–0.3 dB/cm as of the early 2020s.^[32]

III-V Semiconductors

III-V semiconductors, such as indium phosphide (InP) and gallium arsenide (GaAs), are pivotal in integrated quantum photonics due to their direct bandgap properties, which enable efficient radiative recombination and light emission with internal quantum efficiencies exceeding 50% in quantum dot structures.^[40] These materials are particularly suited for active components, where their ability to host quantum-confined emitters facilitates the generation of non-classical light states essential for quantum applications. Integration of III-V layers onto insulator or silicon platforms occurs primarily through heterogeneous bonding techniques, which circumvent direct epitaxial growth limitations and allow for hybrid photonic chips combining active emission with passive waveguiding.^[41] In the quantum domain, III-V semiconductors serve as hosts for on-chip single-photon sources based on InAs/GaAs or similar quantum dots (QDs), achieving photon indistinguishability greater than 90% in demonstrations from the early 2020s. These QDs enable deterministic single-photon emission with high purity, crucial for quantum information protocols, and have been integrated into photonic circuits to realize scalable sources. For instance, 2022 demonstrations at Purdue University showcased integration of intrinsic quantum emitters with silicon nitride waveguides, achieving room-temperature off-chip count rates around 10⁴ counts/s with clear antibunching behavior.^[42] Such integrations leverage III-V on silicon hybrids, briefly referencing silicon photonics for passive routing while focusing on the active QD emission. Key advantages of III-V platforms include operation at room temperature without cryogenic cooling, enabling practical deployment, and precise polarization control of emitted photons through electric field tuning or structural asymmetry in QDs.^[43] Recent 2025 advances have pushed deterministic QD sources toward applications in quantum repeaters, with III-V QDs demonstrating low multi-photon emission and compatibility with entanglement distribution over fiber networks. However, challenges persist in thermal management, as heat dissipation from active devices can degrade performance, and lattice mismatch between III-V and host substrates induces strain during bonding. These issues are mitigated by adhesive bonding methods, such as benzocyclobutene (BCB)-assisted techniques, which provide robust interfaces while minimizing defects.^[44]

Diamond

Diamond is an emerging material platform for integrated quantum photonics, particularly valued for its nitrogen-vacancy (NV) centers that serve as spin-photon interfaces for quantum memories and repeaters. The material offers ultra-low optical losses (<0.1 dB/cm at 1550 nm in nanocrystalline forms) and high Raman gain for nonlinear processes, but integration challenges arise from its wide bandgap (5.5 eV) and compatibility with CMOS processes. Hybrid approaches, such as bonding diamond thin films to silicon or silica substrates, enable on-chip color center arrays for entangled spin-photon emission. Demonstrations as of 2025 include deterministic single-photon sources from NV centers in diamond waveguides, with applications in quantum networks, though scalability remains limited by defect engineering and fabrication yields.^[1]

Fabrication Techniques

Lithographic Processes

Lithographic processes form the cornerstone of fabricating integrated quantum photonic devices, enabling the precise patterning of waveguides, interferometers, and other nanostructures essential for maintaining quantum coherence and low-loss propagation. These techniques must achieve sub-micrometer resolution to support single-photon-level operations, where even minor imperfections can degrade interference visibility or introduce scattering losses exceeding tolerable thresholds for quantum applications.^[45] Electron-beam lithography (EBL) is widely employed for high-resolution patterning in quantum photonics, capable of defining features below 100 nm, which is critical for single-mode waveguides that confine light to diffraction-limited dimensions around 220 nm width in silicon platforms. This direct-write method uses a focused electron beam to expose resist materials, offering placement accuracy down to 1 nm and enabling the creation of complex, custom layouts without masks, though at the cost of slower throughput compared to optical methods. In quantum photonic chips, EBL has been instrumental in fabricating deterministic structures for hybrid integration of quantum emitters, such as InGaAs/GaAs quantum dots, preserving emission properties with minimal linewidth broadening. Recent optimizations in EBL data preparation and exposure strategies have enhanced reproducibility for wavelength-scale features.^[46]^[47]^[48] For scalable production, photolithography and nanoimprint lithography (NIL) offer higher throughput alternatives, with deep ultraviolet (DUV) lithography at 193 nm wavelength dominating silicon-based quantum photonic fabrication due to its compatibility with standard semiconductor foundries. DUV systems enable patterning of photonic circuits with resolutions around 100-200 nm, sufficient for multimode interferometers and grating couplers in quantum information processors, while supporting wafer-scale processing for cost-effective prototyping. NIL, which mechanically transfers patterns from a mold, achieves similar resolutions with lower energy use and has been demonstrated for high-quality 3D photonic structures, reducing fabrication time by orders of magnitude compared to EBL for repetitive designs. In silicon quantum photonics, DUV emulation via EBL has validated performance equivalence, confirming that DUV-fabricated devices exhibit propagation losses below 1 dB/cm, aligning with quantum-grade requirements.^[49]^[50]^[51]^[52] Following patterning, etching transfers the resist-defined structures into the underlying material, with reactive ion etching (RIE) using CHF3/O2 plasma chemistry prevalent for silica and silicon platforms to achieve anisotropic profiles and sidewall roughness below 5 nm RMS, minimizing photon scattering losses to under 0.5 dB/cm. This chemistry forms a volatile fluorocarbon polymer that protects sidewalls during etching, enabling verticality greater than 85° and surface smoothness critical for preserving quantum states in waveguides. In integrated quantum photonics, RIE has been optimized for strain-tunable devices, where controlled etching depths of 220 nm ensure mode confinement without introducing defects that could couple to decoherence channels.^[53]^[54]^[55] Alignment tolerances in multi-layer lithographic processes demand sub-wavelength precision, typically below 10 nm, to maintain phase coherence in quantum interference experiments, as misalignment beyond this scale can reduce visibility by over 10%. Advanced alignment marks and overlay metrology in EBL and DUV systems ensure this accuracy, particularly for stacked III-V quantum dot layers on silicon photonics. Post-2020 advancements in extreme ultraviolet (EUV) lithography at 13.5 nm wavelength have enabled denser integration in silicon photonics, facilitating hybrid quantum photonic platforms with improved yield for nonlinear elements.^[56]^[57]^[58]

Material Integration Methods

Material integration methods in integrated quantum photonics enable the heterogeneous combination of diverse material platforms, such as silicon, III-V semiconductors, and lithium niobate, to leverage their complementary properties for active and passive functionalities. These techniques are essential for creating scalable quantum devices by addressing limitations like lattice mismatch and thermal expansion differences between materials. Wafer bonding stands out as a primary approach, divided into direct and adhesive variants, which facilitate the transfer of epitaxial layers onto silicon-on-insulator (SOI) substrates without compromising optical performance. Direct wafer bonding involves plasma-activated fusion between clean surfaces, such as silicon and SiO₂, to form robust interfaces for III-V integration on SOI waveguides, enabling near-infrared laser emission in hybrid photonic circuits. This method avoids intermediate adhesives, reducing potential contamination and optical scattering at the bond line. Adhesive bonding, using polymers like benzocyclobutene (BCB), provides a low-temperature alternative for attaching III-V dies to silicon wafers, accommodating temperature-sensitive quantum structures while achieving high bond strength for mechanical reliability. Low-temperature variants of these bonding techniques, including die-to-wafer processes, have demonstrated heterogeneous InP-on-silicon platforms with interface quality suitable for quantum applications. Epitaxial growth via metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) offers a monolithic alternative, directly depositing III-V layers on insulator substrates like SOI to bypass bonding steps and minimize defects. Bufferless 1.5 µm III-V lasers have been realized on 220 nm SOI platforms using this technique, exhibiting continuous-wave operation at room temperature with threshold currents below 100 mA. Recent progress includes all-MOCVD epitaxy for 1.3 µm III-V quantum dot lasers on silicon, achieving low thresholds (around 50 A/cm²) and high output powers (>1 mW), which supports efficient single-photon sources in quantum photonic integrated circuits. Doping strategies enhance functionality in specific platforms; for instance, ion implantation introduces rare-earth ions or other dopants into electro-optic regions of lithium niobate on insulator (LNOI), followed by annealing at 400°C to repair implantation-induced damage and activate optical properties. This process enables erbium-doped waveguides with photoluminescence at 1.5 µm, crucial for quantum repeaters and amplifiers. Hybrid approaches complement these by employing plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) to overlay silica cladding on silicon cores, forming low-stress, low-loss encapsulations in multi-material stacks compatible with CMOS fabrication. In quantum contexts, these methods prioritize minimal interface losses, often below 1 dB per junction, to preserve photon coherence over extended propagation distances—essential for entanglement distribution and quantum gates. Typical coupling efficiencies reach 0.6 dB with optimized tapers, though standard integrations yield 1-2 dB, driving ongoing refinements. Advances in 2024-2025 have focused on flip-chip bonding for quantum dot (QD) sources, enabling precise alignment of InAs/GaAs QDs with silicon photonic waveguides for deterministic single-photon emission, with demonstrated platforms achieving improved collection efficiency into integrated modes.

Key Components

Waveguides and Interferometers

In integrated quantum photonics, waveguides serve as the foundational elements for confining and routing single photons with minimal loss, enabling the construction of complex quantum circuits. Common waveguide types include strip, ridge, and slot configurations, each offering distinct modes of light confinement. Strip waveguides, prevalent in silicon platforms, provide strong lateral confinement through total internal reflection at high-index contrasts, though they are sensitive to sidewall scattering from fabrication imperfections. Ridge waveguides, often used in silicon-on-insulator (SOI) structures, achieve partial etching to balance confinement and reduce propagation losses by minimizing exposure to rough sidewalls. Slot waveguides enhance field confinement in low-index regions between high-index rails, facilitating stronger light-matter interactions for quantum applications such as enhanced nonlinearities. These designs ensure efficient photon transport while adapting to material dispersion effects across platforms.^[7] Propagation losses in these waveguides are modeled using the attenuation coefficient α = (2π/λ) Im(n_eff), where λ is the wavelength and Im(n_eff) is the imaginary part of the effective refractive index, capturing absorption and scattering contributions that decay the photon amplitude exponentially along the propagation direction. In practice, optimized silicon ridge waveguides achieve losses below 0.3 dB/cm in the telecom band, while slot variants may incur higher losses due to increased interface scattering but offer sub-wavelength confinement for quantum state manipulation.^[59]^[7] Interferometers, constructed from these waveguides, enable phase-sensitive operations critical for quantum interference. The Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI) is a cornerstone design, consisting of two beam splitters connected by phase-shifting arms, which splits and recombines photonic paths to perform operations like beam splitting or phase encoding. For unbalanced beam splitters with transmissions T1 and T2, the interference visibility is given by

V = \frac{2\sqrt{T_1 T_2}}{T_1 + T_2},

quantifying the contrast between constructive and destructive interference, with maximum V=1 for balanced 50:50 splitters. In integrated quantum devices, MZIs fabricated on SOI platforms demonstrate near-ideal visibility exceeding 97% at telecom wavelengths, supporting high-fidelity quantum gates.^[60] Multi-port interferometers extend this capability for advanced quantum functionalities, such as boson sampling, where indistinguishable photons input to a programmable network of beam splitters and phase shifters produce output distributions that classically simulate intractable problems. These devices achieve path erasure through Hong-Ou-Mandel-like interference, where overlapping photon wavepackets destructively interfere to suppress distinguishable path outcomes, enabling the observation of quantum bunching statistics in up to 15-mode silicon chips. Seminal demonstrations using femtosecond-laser-written silica or SOI multi-ports have validated boson sampling with three or more photons, confirming path-indistinguishability via output correlations.^[60]^[61] Fabrication processes significantly influence interferometer performance, particularly through bend radius optimization to mitigate radiation losses from mode mismatch in curved sections. In silicon photonics, bend radii greater than 10 μm are typically required to keep losses below 1.5 dB per 90° turn, achieved via Euler or clothoid tapers that gradually vary curvature and width to maintain adiabatic mode propagation. Smaller radii increase bending-induced radiation, degrading quantum coherence, but optimized designs in SOI reduce this to under 0.1 dB, supporting dense integration.^[62] Performance benchmarks for these components include extinction ratios exceeding 20 dB in telecom-band (around 1550 nm) MZIs and multi-ports, ensuring effective suppression of unwanted paths in quantum interference experiments. For instance, cascaded lattice filters in silicon yield over 20 dB contrast between pass and stop bands, crucial for isolating single-photon signals in boson sampling setups. These metrics, verified in cryogenic and room-temperature operations, underscore the maturity of waveguide-based interferometers for scalable quantum photonics.^[63]^[7]

Single-Photon Sources and Detectors

Single-photon sources are essential active devices in integrated quantum photonics, enabling the generation of non-classical light states such as single photons or entangled pairs directly on chip. These sources typically leverage quantum emitters or parametric processes to produce photons with high purity and indistinguishability, crucial for quantum information protocols. Quantum dots (QDs) embedded in III-V semiconductors, such as InAs/GaAs, serve as deterministic single-photon emitters when integrated into photonic structures like cavities or waveguides, achieving second-order correlation functions g^{(2)}(0) < 0.1 that confirm strong antibunching and single-photon character.^[64] For instance, electrically pumped QD microlasers monolithically integrated on GaAs platforms have demonstrated tunable emission with g^{(2)}(0) values below 0.05, highlighting their potential for scalable, on-demand photon generation.^[65] Heralded single-photon sources, which use spontaneous parametric down-conversion (SPDC) in nonlinear waveguides to generate photon pairs where detection of one heralds the other, offer probabilistic yet high-fidelity alternatives in integrated platforms like silicon or lithium niobate. These sources benefit from waveguide confinement to enhance pair generation rates while maintaining low multi-photon emission probabilities. Recent implementations in silicon nitride waveguides have achieved heralding efficiencies exceeding 50%, with integrated filters to suppress noise from Raman scattering.^[66] Such devices are particularly suited for entanglement distribution, as the heralding mechanism ensures the presence of a single photon without requiring perfect determinism.^[67] Detection of single photons in integrated systems relies heavily on superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs), which can be hybridized onto silicon photonic chips for compact operation. These detectors operate by sensing photon-induced hotspots in a superconducting nanowire, offering system detection efficiencies greater than 90% across telecom wavelengths and timing jitter below 20 ps, enabling precise arrival-time resolution in quantum circuits. Integration via evanescent coupling between the nanowire meander and silicon waveguides has yielded on-chip efficiencies up to 75%, with further improvements through cryogenic packaging.^[68] A key challenge in this integration is achieving high evanescent coupling efficiency from the chip to external fibers, where tapered waveguide designs have demonstrated values exceeding 80%, minimizing loss in hybrid quantum systems.^[69] Performance metrics for these sources and detectors emphasize quantum brightness, defined as the rate of heralded single-photon emission, reaching MHz levels in optimized QD and SPDC devices, alongside heralding efficiencies that approach 70% in multiplexed configurations. Noise remains a critical factor, with SNSPDs exhibiting dark count rates below $10^{-6} counts per second under cryogenic conditions, ensuring reliable operation in low-flux quantum experiments.^[70] By 2025, state-of-the-art advancements include fully on-chip Bell-state analyzers incorporating these sources and detectors, enabling deterministic two-photon interference and entanglement verification with fidelities above 94% in nanophotonic platforms.^[4]

Nonlinear Elements and Modulators

Nonlinear elements in integrated quantum photonics exploit second- and third-order susceptibilities to enable quantum state manipulation, such as frequency conversion and phase shifts essential for entangling operations. In lithium niobate platforms, second-harmonic generation (SHG) leverages the strong \chi^{(2)} nonlinearity, particularly the d_{33} coefficient, to convert telecom-wavelength photons to visible frequencies for applications in quantum repeaters and wavelength-division multiplexing.^[71] Phase matching for efficient SHG requires \Delta k = 0, where \Delta k is the wavevector mismatch, achieved through quasi-phase matching via periodic poling of the lithium niobate film with domain periods around 3.8 \mum to compensate for material dispersion.^[71] This poling creates reversed ferroelectric domains using an external electric field, enabling normalized conversion efficiencies up to 684%/W/cm² in ridge waveguides at 1567 nm pump wavelength, though limited by propagation losses of 3.6 dB/cm and domain irregularities.^[71] Modulators in these systems provide dynamic control over quantum states, with electro-optic variants in lithium niobate offering high-speed operation via the Pockels effect. Thin-film lithium niobate electro-optic modulators achieve bandwidths exceeding 50 GHz, such as 110 GHz in monolithic devices with 1.4 V half-wave voltage-length product, enabling modulation for high-rate quantum key distribution and coherent control.^[72] In contrast, thermo-optic modulators in silicon photonics utilize the material's high thermo-optic coefficient for phase tuning, with response times on the order of microseconds, including rise times of 27.6 \mus and fall times of 34.4 \mus in optimized waveguide arrays consuming 2.56 mW for \pi phase shifts over 100 nm bandwidth.^[73] These modulators support large-scale integration but are slower than electro-optic counterparts, suiting applications like reconfigurable quantum networks where speed requirements are below 10 kHz.^[73] For quantum gates, cross-phase modulation via \chi^{(3)} nonlinearity facilitates controlled-Z (CZ) operations by inducing a \pi phase shift on a target photon conditional on a control photon, essential for universal quantum computing. In integrated photonic circuits, this is realized through four-wave mixing in dynamically coupled cavities, where \chi^{(3)} processes enable high-fidelity CZ gates with self- and cross-phase modulation, achieving conditional phase shifts without ancillary photons.^[74] The performance is quantified by the nonlinearity figure-of-merit n_2 / \alpha, where n_2 is the Kerr nonlinear refractive index and \alpha is the linear loss coefficient, balancing interaction strength against dissipation; in silicon waveguides, this yields values around $10^{-12} \ \mathrm{m}^3 / \mathrm{W} for effective single-photon interactions.^[75] Integrated examples demonstrate enhanced photon-photon interactions using ring resonators to amplify the Kerr effect in silicon. Microring geometries confine light to boost nonlinear overlap, enabling cross-Kerr interactions where the phase of one photon modulates another via intensity-dependent refractive index changes, critical for generating non-Gaussian quantum states.^[76] In these structures, the Kerr nonlinearity increases output signal power and optical signal-to-noise ratio while introducing photonic noise that scales with input power and resonator bandwidth, allowing deterministic control for quantum sensing and switching.^[76] Recent progress includes 2024 demonstrations of microring-based nonlinear elements achieving \pi phase shifts with fewer than one photon on average, advancing deterministic quantum gates in loss-mitigated photonic circuits. These exploit \chi^{(3)} bistability in microrings for enhanced single-photon sensitivity, enabling scalable entangling operations with fidelities approaching 99% in silicon-compatible platforms.^[77]

Applications

Quantum Information Processing

Integrated quantum photonics provides a platform for quantum information processing by leveraging on-chip optical circuits to manipulate photonic qubits, enabling tasks such as quantum simulation and computation at room temperature with low decoherence. Photons serve as information carriers due to their weak interactions with the environment, facilitating scalable integration of components like waveguides, beam splitters, and phase shifters for implementing quantum operations. This approach contrasts with matter-based systems by offering compatibility with telecommunications infrastructure and high-speed reconfiguration via electro-optic effects in materials like lithium niobate and silicon.^[78]^[79] A foundational model for photonic quantum computing is linear optical quantum computing (LOQC), which relies on the Knill-Laflamme-Milburn (KLM) protocol to achieve universality using only linear optics, single-photon sources, and projective measurements. The KLM scheme implements nonlinear gates probabilistically through post-selected measurements on ancillary photons, enabling conditional operations like the non-deterministic controlled-NOT gate. In integrated photonics, this has been realized on platforms such as silicon photonics, where reconfigurable interferometers perform the required beam-splitter networks. However, achieving fault tolerance demands extensive resource overhead, with approximately 10^4 physical components needed per logical qubit to suppress error rates below threshold levels via concatenation of error-correcting codes.^[80]^[81] Boson sampling, a computationally hard problem for classical devices, serves as a benchmark for quantum advantage in photonic systems, where indistinguishable photons interfere in a multimode interferometer to produce output distributions corresponding to permanents of complex matrices. The Gaussian variant, proposed in 2017, uses squeezed vacuum states as inputs for enhanced scalability over single-photon sources, reducing the need for heralding. Experimental demonstrations on silicon chips in 2020 integrated spontaneous four-wave mixing sources and reconfigurable interferometers to implement both Gaussian and scattershot boson sampling, generating up to eight photons and verifying quantum advantage by producing samples beyond classical simulation capabilities within feasible computation times. These integrated realizations highlight the potential for certifying quantum supremacy with compact, low-loss devices.^[82] Gate-based photonic quantum computing employs architectures like fusion-based models, where small entangled resource states are "fused" via Bell-state measurements to build larger computations. Xanadu's 2025 photonic processor exemplified this with 12 modes, using time-bin encoded squeezed states and fusion modules on silicon nitride chips to execute universal gate sets with measurement-based feedback. For error correction, photonic implementations adapt surface codes to mitigate dominant loss errors, achieving fault-tolerance thresholds of approximately 1% loss per component through redundant encoding and syndrome extraction via homodyne detection. Recent 2025 benchmarks in reconfigurable lithium niobate chips have advanced multi-photon interference, demonstrating scalable operations with near-unity visibility in programmable interferometers supporting up to dozens of modes, paving the way for larger-scale processing. As of 2025, advances include scalable quantum interference on lithium niobate nanophotonics for multi-photon sources.^[83]^[84]^[85]

Quantum Sensing and Metrology

Integrated quantum photonics enables high-precision sensing and metrology by leveraging quantum effects such as squeezing and entanglement to surpass classical limits in phase estimation and parameter measurement. In quantum-enhanced interferometry, squeezed light injected into Mach-Zehnder interferometers (MZIs) on photonic chips reduces phase noise, achieving sensitivities beyond the standard quantum limit (SQL). The phase uncertainty is given by \delta \phi = \frac{1}{\sqrt{N \eta}} \times e^{-r}, where N is the number of photons, \eta is the detection efficiency, and e^{-r} is the squeezing factor with r > 0 indicating quadrature squeezing. For instance, thin-film lithium niobate platforms have demonstrated integrated MZIs with squeezed vacuum states enabling sub-SQL phase detection for weak signal measurements.^[86]^[13] Photonic chip-based gyroscopes and accelerometers utilize Sagnac interferometers to detect rotation and acceleration through phase shifts in counter-propagating light paths. Integrated silicon or lithium niobate Sagnac loops achieve high rotation sensitivities, with quantum enhancements via squeezed light further improving precision by suppressing shot noise. Representative examples include coiled multimode waveguide designs on silicon-on-insulator chips, which compactly realize the Sagnac effect while maintaining low propagation losses for inertial navigation applications. These devices offer advantages in size and power consumption over bulk fiber-optic counterparts.^[87] In biosensing, evanescent field sensors in integrated photonic circuits enable high-sensitivity detection by enhancing light-matter interactions. Silicon photonic chips have demonstrated label-free single-molecule sensitivity for biomolecules, benefiting from on-chip scalability for point-of-care diagnostics.^[88] The primary advantages of integrated quantum photonic sensing over classical methods stem from Heisenberg limit scaling, where precision improves as $1/N using entangled states generated on-chip, compared to the SQL's $1/\sqrt{N}. Entangled photon pairs or NOON states in photonic circuits enable this enhancement, reducing uncertainty in parameters like phase or displacement by orders of magnitude in noisy environments. This is particularly impactful for distributed sensing networks, where chip-scale entanglement distribution maintains quantum correlations.^[89]^[90]

Challenges and Future Directions

Scalability and Loss Management

In integrated quantum photonic systems, losses arise from multiple sources that degrade photon transmission and quantum state fidelity. Propagation losses, characterized by the attenuation coefficient α, occur due to scattering and material absorption along waveguides, while coupling losses, quantified by efficiency η_c, stem from mismatches at interfaces such as fiber-to-chip connections. Absorption losses, including two-photon absorption in materials like silicon, further contribute to photon dissipation, particularly at high intensities. The cumulative effect on single-photon fidelity can be approximated as F = \exp\left(-\frac{L \alpha}{2}\right), where L is the propagation length, reflecting the amplitude damping in lossy channels.^[91]^[13] Scalability in these systems is constrained by error accumulation as component counts increase, with each imperfect element compounding probabilistic errors in quantum operations. For fault-tolerant quantum computing, gate fidelities exceeding 99.9% are essential to suppress error rates below the threshold for reliable multi-qubit processing, limiting current devices to tens of components without correction. In photonic circuits, phase errors and loss-induced decoherence amplify this issue, reducing overall circuit fidelity exponentially with depth.^[92]^[93] To mitigate these challenges, low-loss materials such as silicon nitride (SiN) are employed, offering propagation losses around 1 dB/cm in fabricated waveguides. Error-corrected architectures, including surface codes implemented on-chip, further enhance scalability by detecting and correcting photon loss and phase errors through redundant encoding and syndrome measurements. These strategies have demonstrated error rates reduced by orders of magnitude in small-scale demonstrations.^[94]^[95] Fabrication yields for large-scale quantum photonic chips remain a bottleneck, with defect rates needing to fall below 1% for arrays exceeding 1000 components to ensure viable production. Advances in extreme ultraviolet (EUV) lithography have enabled finer patterning to support high-volume manufacturing of complex photonic integrated circuits while minimizing lithographic errors.^[96] Quantum-specific challenges include decoherence induced by environmental noise, such as thermal vibrations and electromagnetic interference, which shortens coherence times. In early integrated devices, transverse relaxation times T_2 were typically in the range of 1-10 μs, limiting the operational window for entangled states and necessitating cryogenic operation or isolation techniques.

Emerging Trends and Research Frontiers

One prominent emerging trend in integrated quantum photonics involves the development of hybrid quantum systems that combine photonic circuits with solid-state spin qubits, enhancing coherence and scalability for quantum information processing. Recent demonstrations have focused on integrating nitrogen-vacancy (NV) centers in diamond with silicon photonic platforms, enabling efficient spin-photon interfaces at cryogenic temperatures. A 2025 review highlights ongoing progress in heterogeneous integration of diamond color centers onto scalable photonic chips, addressing challenges like precise nanopositioning to achieve deterministic coupling.^[97] Advancements in machine learning (ML) optimization are revolutionizing the design of complex quantum photonic circuits, particularly for inverse design problems in nonlinear regimes. Gradient-based ML algorithms have been applied to optimize nonlinear unitary gates in photonic integrated circuits, enabling automated tuning of multimode interferometers for quantum gates with fidelities above 99%. In 2025, knowledge-constrained ML frameworks were introduced to accelerate design optimization for quantum light sources, reducing design iteration times while incorporating physical constraints like fabrication tolerances.^[98] These methods, often leveraging adjoint sensitivity analysis, have facilitated the creation of compact nonlinear squeezers and frequency converters on silicon platforms, with conversion efficiencies reaching 70% in experimental validations.^[99] Such AI-driven approaches are essential for scaling to hundreds of modes, as evidenced by their use in optimizing entangled photon sources with reduced crosstalk.^[100] Commercialization efforts are accelerating, with companies adapting silicon foundry processes for quantum photonic devices. ORCA Computing has advanced photonic quantum simulators through its PT-2 series, rack-mountable systems that integrate fiber-loop quantum memories with silicon photonic chips, achieving room-temperature operation.^[101] Collaborations with NVIDIA have enabled hybrid quantum-classical integration via CUDA-Q, allowing seamless programming of photonic processors for optimization tasks, as demonstrated in simulations of molecular dynamics with quantum-enhanced accuracy.^[102] Meanwhile, silicon foundries like those supporting Intel's ecosystem are adapting CMOS-compatible processes for quantum photonics, with 2025 reports of the first electronic-photonic quantum chips fabricated in high-volume production, featuring on-chip stabilization for superconducting qubit interfaces and low loss rates.^[103] These adaptations leverage existing 300 mm wafer infrastructure to lower costs, targeting scalable quantum sensors by 2030.^[104] In quantum networks, chip-scale repeaters incorporating memory-enhanced entanglement swapping represent a key frontier for long-distance quantum communication. A 2025 experiment demonstrated chip-to-chip hyperentanglement distribution using integrated silicon photonics, achieving fidelities around 91% over short fiber links (~3 m) via entanglement purification.^[105] These systems mitigate exponential loss in direct transmission through iterative purification. Visible-to-telecom wavelength converters on thin-film lithium niobate chips further enable interfacing with distant quantum memories, supporting entanglement rates scalable to metropolitan networks.^[106] Research frontiers include topological photonics, which promises robust edge states immune to disorder for fault-tolerant quantum operations. On-chip topological edge state cavities in silicon photonic crystals, realized in 2025, confine light to backscattering-free modes with quality factors exceeding 10^5, enabling stable single-photon routing even under fabrication imperfections up to 20 nm.^[107] Active non-reciprocal topological devices on silicon platforms have demonstrated chiral edge state propagation at telecom wavelengths, with isolation ratios over 30 dB, crucial for integrated quantum isolators.^[108] Complementing this, room-temperature Bose-Einstein condensates (BECs) in waveguides are emerging for coherent light-matter interactions. Perovskite microwire waveguides have hosted exciton-polariton BECs under continuous-wave pumping, with condensation thresholds as low as 0.53 W/cm² and linewidths below 0.5 meV, facilitating on-chip quantum fluid simulations.^[109] Colloidal quantum dot microcavities integrated with silicon photonics have similarly achieved polariton condensation at ambient conditions, with macroscopic occupation of the ground state enabling superradiant emission for quantum repeaters.^[110] These developments underscore the potential for dissipation-free quantum photonic platforms operating without cryogenics.^[111] As of November 2025, ongoing efforts continue to push scalability in these areas.

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Integrated sources of photon quantum states based on nonlinear ...
Abstract. The ability to generate complex optical photon states involving entanglement between multiple optical modes is not only critical to advancing our ...
[69]
Superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors integrated with ...
Oct 13, 2020 · We demonstrate state-of-the-art detector performance in this novel material system, including devices showing 75% on-chip detection efficiency at tens of dark ...
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Efficient fiber-coupled single-photon source based on quantum dots ...
By implementing tapered photonic waveguides in conjunction with tapered fiber dimples, a chip-to-fiber coupling efficiency exceeding 80% was demonstrated.
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New Constraints on Dark Photon Dark Matter with Superconducting ...
Jun 10, 2022 · Superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs) have demonstrated, in separate experiments, ultralow dark count rates ( 10 - 6 Hz ) ...
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Classical-decisive quantum internet by integrated photonics - Science
Aug 28, 2025 · We report a classical-decisive quantum internet architecture in which the integration of quantum information into advanced photonic technologies ...
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Second harmonic generation by quasi-phase matching in a lithium niobate thin film
### Summary of Second-Harmonic Generation in Lithium Niobate Using Quasi-Phase Matching via Poling
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High-Speed Electro-Optic Modulators Based on Thin-Film Lithium ...
May 16, 2024 · (f) LNOI modulator with structured electrodes, showing a bandwidth of 50 GHz with a Vπ of 1.3 V in a 20 mm device. (a) Adapted from [33], (b) ...
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Low-power thermo-optic silicon modulator for large-scale photonic integrated systems
### Summary of Thermo-Optic Modulators in Silicon with ~μs Response Time
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Controlled-Phase Gate Using Dynamically Coupled Cavities and ...
Apr 20, 2020 · For a χ ( 3 ) nonlinearity, modes a and b are coupled through four wave mixing using two classical control fields at ω 1 and ω 2 such that ω 2 - ...
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Values of Kerr nonlinearity (n2), loss coefficients (α), and associated...
In this work, we argue the need to redefine the standard nonlinear figure of merit in terms of nonlinear phase shift and optical transmission for a given ...Missing: quantum | Show results with:quantum
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Analysis of photonic noise generated due to Kerr nonlinearity in silicon ring resonators
### Summary of Ring-Enhanced Kerr Effect in Silicon for Photon-Photon Interactions
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Deterministic entangling gates with nonlinear quantum photonic ...
Apr 5, 2024 · Here we propose to exploit the interplay of distributed self-Kerr nonlinearity and localized hopping in quantum photonic interferometers to implement ...
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Photonic quantum information processing: A concise review
Oct 14, 2019 · The KLM scheme theoretically allowed for a resource-efficient implementation of two- and multiqubit gates—unlike encoding a single photon across ...Basics · Integrated quantum photonics · Intermediate quantum computing
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Quantum Information with Integrated Photonics - MDPI
Dec 31, 2023 · In this view, integrated quantum photonics provides a versatile platform for on-chip generation, processing, and detection of quantum states of ...
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Linear optical quantum computing with photonic qubits
Jan 24, 2007 · In this review, we focus on quantum computing with linear quantum optics and single photons. It has the advantage that the smallest unit of ...Abstract · Article Text
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[quant-ph/0512071] Review article: Linear optical quantum computing
Dec 9, 2005 · We review the original theory and its improvements, and we give a few examples of experimental two-qubit gates.Missing: KLM integrated
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Gaussian Boson Sampling | Phys. Rev. Lett.
Oct 23, 2017 · Here, we introduce Gaussian Boson sampling, a classically hard-to-solve problem that uses squeezed states as a nonclassical resource.
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Scaling and networking a modular photonic quantum computer
Jan 22, 2025 · Here we construct a (sub-performant) scale model of a quantum computer using 35 photonic chips to demonstrate its functionality and feasibility.
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Enhanced Fault-tolerance in Photonic Quantum Computing - arXiv
Oct 9, 2024 · Notably, we achieve a loss threshold of 6.3% with the honeycomb Floquet code implemented on our tailored architecture, almost twice as high as ...
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Scalable quantum interference in integrated lithium niobate ... - arXiv
Jun 25, 2025 · We engineer three-wave-mixing in a nanophotonic lithium niobate device, integrating multiple near-perfect spectrally separable heralded single ...
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Integrated quantum optical phase sensor in thin film lithium niobate
Jun 8, 2023 · Both consist of a Mach–Zehnder interferometer ... Silicon photonics interfaced with integrated electronics for 9 GHz measurement of squeezed light ...
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Silicon Integrated Interferometric Optical Gyroscope | Scientific Reports
Jun 8, 2018 · A theoretical shot noise limited sensitivity of 51.3 deg/s is achieved with the sensing part in an area of 600 μm × 700 μm, and the sensitivity ...
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Quantum photonics sensing in biosystems - AIP Publishing
Jan 7, 2025 · This perspective reviews two leading quantum sensing platforms and their advancements toward biological applications: quantum light sources and color centers ...INTRODUCTION · II. QUANTUM OPTICS · IV. FUTURE DIRECTIONS
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(PDF) Evanescent single-molecule biosensing with quantum limited ...
Sensors that are able to detect and track single unlabelled biomolecules are an important tool both to understand biomolecular dynamics and interactions at ...
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An integrated photonic engine for programmable atomic control
Jan 2, 2025 · At 780 nm, we measure CMOS-compatible switching voltages of Vπ ~ 2.2 V, extinction ratios exceeding 20 dB, and a PCB-limited 3 dB switching ...
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Quantum integrated sensing and communication via entanglement
Sep 23, 2024 · Here we propose a quantum integrated sensing and communication (QISAC) protocol, which achieves quantum sensing under the Heisenberg limit while ...
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Recent progress in quantum photonic chips for quantum ... - Nature
Jul 14, 2023 · We provide an overview of the advances in quantum photonic chips for quantum communication, beginning with a summary of the prevalent photonic integrated ...
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[PDF] Effect of unbalanced and common losses in quantum photonic ...
In this work, we divide losses into unbalanced linear loss and shared common loss, and provide a detailed analysis on how loss affects the integrated linear ...Missing: sources | Show results with:sources
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High-fidelity operation of quantum photonic circuits - AIP Publishing
Here we demonstrate integrated photonic devices that exhibit near-unit fidelity quantum interference and two-photon entangling logic operation: we observe a ...
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High-fidelity quantum state evolution in imperfect photonic ...
Sep 22, 2015 · We propose and analyze the design of a programmable photonic integrated circuit for high-fidelity quantum computation and simulation.
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Integrated silicon nitride devices via inverse design - Nature
Oct 21, 2025 · Its impact also results from the ultra-low waveguide propagation losses it can provide, with losses below 0.1 dB m−1, facilitating the ...
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Encoding Error Correction in an Integrated Photonic Chip
Sep 27, 2023 · We present a quantum error-correction code on an integrated photonic chip, which achieves the detection and correction of arbitrary single-qubit errors at ...Abstract · Article Text · STATE RECONSTRUCTION... · STABILIZER FOR ERROR...
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EUV's Future Looks Even Brighter - Semiconductor Engineering
Feb 20, 2025 · Beyond resolution and LER, defectivity remains a critical issue that directly impacts EUV's viability in high-volume manufacturing. Even minor ...
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Toward Programmable Quantum Processors Based on Spin Qubits ...
We describe a method for programmable control of multiqubit spin systems, in which individual nitrogen-vacancy (NV) centers in diamond nanopillars are coupled ...
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Strongly coupled spins of silicon-vacancy centers inside a ... - NIH
One possible solution is to use the electron spin of a color center in diamond to mediate interaction between a long-lived nuclear spin and a photon. Realizing ...
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Recent progress in hybrid diamond photonics for quantum ... - Nature
May 8, 2025 · This review discusses recent progress and challenges in the hybrid integration of diamond color centers on cutting-edge photonic platforms.
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Machine learning with knowledge constraints for design optimization ...
Jan 2, 2025 · Our findings significantly advance the development of scalable quantum photonic integrated circuits by incorporating machine learning methods.
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Quantized Inverse Design for Photonic Integrated Circuits
Jan 27, 2025 · This paper presents a memory efficient reverse-mode automatic differentiation framework for finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) simulations
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Advances in machine learning optimization for classical and ...
Feb 1, 2024 · This paper will review the most recent strides in ML for optimizing integrated quantum photonics, emphasizing key methodologies, delving into specific ...
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ORCA PT-2
Rack-mounted, room temperature and built with state-of-the-art photonic components, the ORCA PT-2 provides access to quantum computing capabilities now.Missing: simulators | Show results with:simulators
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ORCA Computing Advances Hybrid Quantum–Classical Integration ...
“Our photonic approach integrates directly with NVIDIA accelerated computing and the CUDA-Q software platform to unlock quantum-enhanced ...
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First Electronic-Photonic Quantum Chip Manufactured in ...
Jul 14, 2025 · A photonic-electronic silicon chip fabricated in high-volume commercial semiconductor foundry with a built-in electronic system that monitors and stabilizes ...Missing: Intel | Show results with:Intel
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Silicon Photonics' Fab Future
Jan 1, 2025 · Numerous smaller companies are looking to develop photonic integrated circuits (PICs) for a much wider range of applications, from biosensing to quantum ...
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[2510.18562] Chip-to-chip hyperentanglement distribution and ...
Oct 21, 2025 · The quantum repeater is based on various key technologies, including quantum entanglement swapping, quantum memory, and entanglement ...
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Quantum optical memory for entanglement distribution
Nov 7, 2023 · For this reason, quantum memories were proposed as part of a quantum repeater [5–11] to extend the communication distance. Quantum memories ...
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Visible-Telecom Entangled-Photon Pair Generation with Integrated ...
Nov 25, 2024 · This study evaluates biphoton pair generation and time–energy entanglement through spontaneous four-wave mixing in various nonlinear integrated photonic ...
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On-chip topological edge state cavities | Light: Science & Applications
Sep 18, 2025 · Our TESC provides a novel and robust on-chip cavity platform, which is promising to unlock a plethora of new applications in photonic integrated ...
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On‐Chip Active Non‐Reciprocal Topological Photonics - Jia - 2025
Apr 10, 2025 · The development of a non-reciprocal topological silicon chip marks a pivotal advancement in communication systems, LiDAR, terahertz technologies ...
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Perovskite Microwires for Room Temperature Exciton‐Polariton ...
Aug 29, 2025 · In this work, using non-equilibrium Bose-Einstein condensation in a monocrystalline perovskite waveguide, the first room-temperature exciton- ...Perovskite Microwires For... · 1 Introduction · 3 Experimental Section
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Room-temperature cavity exciton-polariton condensation in ... - NIH
Jun 5, 2025 · Here, we demonstrate room-temperature polariton condensation in a thin film of monodisperse, colloidal CsPbBr3 quantum dots, placed in a tunable ...Results · Perovskite Qd... · Synthesis Of Cspbbr Qds
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Room-temperature continuous-wave pumped exciton polariton ...
Jan 29, 2025 · We demonstrate continuous-wave optically pumped polariton condensation with an exceptionally low threshold of ~0.53 W cm −2 and a narrow linewidth of ~0.5 meV.