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Linum

Linum is a genus of approximately 215 species of herbaceous flowering plants in the family Linaceae, belonging to the order Malpighiales.^[1] These plants are typically annual or perennial herbs growing 30–100 cm tall, featuring slender, erect stems with a short taproot, alternate linear to lanceolate leaves, and showy flowers with five petals, sepals, and stamens, often in blue, white, yellow, or other colors depending on the section.^[2] The fruits are small, five-celled capsules (bolls) containing 8–10 seeds each.^[2] The genus exhibits significant morphological and genetic diversity, divided into five sections—Cathartolinum, Dasylinum, Linum, Linopsis, and Syllinum—based on characters such as petal color, style number, and seed traits, though phylogenetic studies indicate ongoing revisions including the potential inclusion of segregate genera like Cliococca.^[3] Native to temperate and subtropical regions worldwide, with the highest diversity in the Mediterranean Basin and southwestern Asia, Linum species are distributed across Europe, Asia, North and South America, and parts of Africa and Australia, often inhabiting open grasslands, mountains, and disturbed areas.^[3] While many species are wild and serve ecological roles as pioneer plants in disturbed habitats, the genus is economically significant primarily through Linum usitatissimum (common flax or linseed), cultivated globally for its strong bast fibers used in linen textiles, ropes, and canvases, as well as its seeds rich in alpha-linolenic acid for edible oil, animal feed, and industrial applications like paints and varnishes.^[4] Other species, such as Linum perenne (perennial flax) and Linum grandiflorum (flowering flax), have ornamental value in horticulture.^[3] Taxonomically, Linum accounts for the majority of the roughly 255 species in Linaceae, with ongoing phylogenetic studies suggesting potential reclassification of some segregate genera back into Linum based on molecular data.^[3] The genus's chromosome numbers vary widely (2n = 16 to 72), contributing to its adaptability and hybridization potential, though this also complicates taxonomy.^[5] Ecologically, Linum species support pollinators with their nectar-rich flowers and contribute to soil stabilization, while some show promise in phytoremediation due to their ability to accumulate heavy metals.^[2]

Taxonomy and Etymology

Etymology

The genus name Linum derives from the Latin linum, meaning "flax," a term used since ancient times to refer to the plant yielding fibers for linen production.^[6]^[7] Carl Linnaeus formally coined the genus in his 1753 publication Species Plantarum, designating Linum usitatissimum—the economically vital common flax—as the type species.^[8] The word linum traces to Ancient Greek linon (λίνον), both stemming from the Proto-Indo-European root lino- or lín-, denoting flax and the linen fabric produced by twisting its fibers; cognates appear in Old English līne ("linen") via Proto-Germanic līną.^[9]^[7]^[10]

Classification

The genus Linum belongs to the family Linaceae in the order Malpighiales, situated within the rosids clade of the eudicots.^[1]^[11] Approximately 200–230 species are recognized in Linum, though taxonomic revisions continue based on molecular phylogenetic analyses that have highlighted the need for re-evaluating sectional boundaries and related genera.^[1]^[12]^[13] The genus is traditionally divided into about five major sections—though some classifications propose up to 11, and others recognize six including Cliococca—differentiated primarily by floral morphology, seed coat structure, and capsule features; notable sections include Linum (encompassing core Eurasian species such as the cultivated flax), Linastrum (predominantly Mediterranean taxa), Cathartolinum (North American species), Dasylinum (South American representatives), and Syllinum (predominantly yellow-flowered species), with some studies recognizing Stellerolinum as a distinct Asian lineage or proposing Cliococca as a sixth section.^[14]^[15]^[16]^[3] The type species is Linum usitatissimum L., as designated in the original description of the genus.

Phylogenetic Position

Linum serves as the type genus of the Linaceae family, which encompasses approximately 14 genera and around 300 species distributed worldwide, primarily in temperate regions.^[17] The family is placed within the order Malpighiales, and molecular phylogenetic analyses have confirmed its monophyly, with two main subfamilies: the temperate Linoideae, to which Linum belongs, and the tropical Hugonioideae.^[18] Within Linoideae, Linum is positioned in a broader monophyletic clade that includes close relatives such as the segregate genera Hesperolinon and Sclerolinon, based on analyses of plastid genes including rbcL, matK, ndhF, and trnL-F, as well as nuclear ITS regions. These studies reveal that Linum sensu lato is paraphyletic, with Hesperolinon and Sclerolinon nested within the yellow-flowered subclade alongside certain Linum sections like Linopsis, Syllinum, and Cathartolinum, while the blue-flowered core of Linum forms a distinct monophyletic group. This phylogenetic structure highlights evolutionary relationships shaped by geographic isolation and floral trait evolution across continents. Recent molecular studies (as of 2022) continue to support the monophyly of several sections while suggesting reevaluations for others, such as Linopsis.^[3] The fossil record of Linaceae remains sparse, with the earliest confirmed records consisting of pollen grains and infructescences from the Late Cretaceous Infratrappean Deccan sequences in India, morphologically akin to modern Linum and Reinwardtia.^[19] Molecular clock estimates, calibrated using these and Paleocene pollen fossils, indicate that the divergence of Linaceae subfamilies occurred around 60 million years ago during the early Paleocene, near the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary, aligning with post-extinction recovery in angiosperm diversification.^[18] Hybridization events between Linum sections and closely related taxa have been documented, particularly in North American and Mediterranean species complexes, leading to polyploidy and morphological intermediacy that exacerbate taxonomic challenges within the genus.^[20] Such reticulate evolution, evidenced by cytogenetic studies in polyploid groups like Linum suffruticosum, underscores the role of introgression in blurring sectional boundaries and complicating phylogenetic resolution.^[21]

Description

Vegetative Characteristics

Linum species are predominantly herbaceous annuals, biennials, or perennials, with rare occurrences as subshrubs, featuring erect or ascending stems that typically range from 10 to 100 cm in height and are often branched in the upper portions.^[22]^[23] These stems are generally terete, glabrous to sparsely hairy, and provide structural support for the foliage and emerging inflorescences. The root systems consist of a primary taproot accompanied by fibrous lateral branches, which can extend up to 90-120 cm in depth under favorable conditions, enabling efficient anchorage and nutrient uptake in well-drained substrates.^[13]^[24] The leaves of Linum are characteristically alternate, simple, and sessile, lacking stipules, with blades that are linear to lanceolate in shape, measuring 5-40 mm in length, and featuring entire margins without glandular teeth in most cases.^[22]^[25] Surfaces are often glaucous or glabrous, contributing to a somewhat waxy or bluish appearance that aids in reducing water loss, though some species exhibit pubescence. These leaves are typically three-nerved and arranged spirally along the stem, sometimes caducous in early development.^[22] Variations in vegetative morphology occur across Linum sections; for instance, species in section Dasylinum, such as Linum hirsutum, display broader, platyphyllous leaves compared to the narrower forms prevalent in section Linum.^[26] The inflorescences arise terminally from these branched stems, but vegetative traits remain consistent in supporting overall plant architecture.^[22]

Reproductive Structures

The inflorescences of Linum species are typically cymose or racemose, borne at the apex of erect stems and consisting of 1 to 50 flowers per stem, depending on the species and environmental conditions.^[27] Flowers in the genus Linum are actinomorphic and bisexual, exhibiting radial symmetry and typically hypogynous structure.^[17] The calyx comprises five persistent sepals that are unequal in size, with the inner two often overlapped by the outer three, and margins that are translucent, ciliate, toothed, or glandular.^[27] The corolla consists of five free petals, varying in color from blue, yellow, white, to rarely red, and measuring 5 to 20 mm in length. The androecium includes five stamens with filaments connate at the base and versatile anthers.^[28] The gynoecium is superior, formed from 2 to 5 carpels that fuse to create an ovary appearing (4–)10-loculed due to false septa intruding from the septa walls, with two ovules per locule and styles equal in number to the carpels, often free or basally connate.^[29]^[30]^[27] The fruit is a septicidal, dehiscent capsule, typically 5 to 10 mm in diameter, that splits into (4–)10 valves to release the seeds.^[28]^[27] Each capsule generally contains 4 to 10 angular seeds, though the exact number varies by species and conditions, with cultivated L. usitatissimum averaging around 6 seeds per capsule.^[31] The seeds are flat, oval, and 2 to 5 mm long, often shiny and light brown, with a mucilaginous coat that swells upon wetting in many species.^[32]^[31] Certain Linum species exhibit heterostyly, a dimorphic floral polymorphism with long-styled (pin) and short-styled (thrum) morphs that promotes outcrossing by discouraging self-pollination.^[33] This trait occurs in sections such as Linastrum and is maintained at roughly equal ratios in populations to enhance genetic diversity.^[33]

Distribution and Habitat

Native Range

The genus Linum, comprising approximately 200–230 species, is predominantly native to the Northern Hemisphere, with the majority of its diversity concentrated in temperate and subtropical regions. Eurasia hosts the largest number of species, estimated at around 100, spanning from the Mediterranean Basin through Central Asia to Siberia; key areas include Turkey (with about 54 taxa), the Balkans, Anatolia, and regions in Russia, Iran, and northwest India. In North America, roughly 50 species occur natively, particularly in the western United States, including Mexico, where they are adapted to diverse habitats from prairies to montane areas. North Africa supports approximately 20 species, mainly in the Mediterranean coastal regions of Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia, often in semi-arid environments.^[1]^[17]^[34]^[35] Species diversity is notably lower in the Southern Hemisphere, with isolated distributions reflecting limited historical dispersal. In South America, native Linum species are primarily found in the Andean regions of Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, and Peru, numbering fewer than 20 and belonging to sections adapted to high-altitude grasslands. Temperate South Africa harbors about 14 endemic species, concentrated in the Cape Floristic Region's fynbos and renosterveld shrublands. Australia features a single native species, Linum marginale, endemic to southeastern temperate woodlands and grasslands. These southern occurrences represent peripheral extensions from northern origins, linked to ancient vicariance or long-distance dispersal events.^[1]^[36]^[37] The primary centers of diversity for Linum are the Mediterranean Basin and the California Floristic Province, where high endemism correlates with temperate grasslands, shrublands, and chaparral biomes that favor the genus's herbaceous growth forms. The Mediterranean region, including western Asia, is considered the likely center of origin, supporting the densest concentrations of species due to climatic stability and habitat heterogeneity. In California, multiple endemic species thrive in serpentine soils and coastal prairies, contributing to the province's status as a global biodiversity hotspot.^[38]^[39]^[40] The origin of Linum usitatissimum, the cultivated flax, remains uncertain but is traced to wild progenitors in the Near East, with domestication likely occurring around 8000 BCE in regions east of the Mediterranean, such as modern-day Turkey and Iran. Archaeological and genetic evidence points to a single domestication event from pale flax (L. bienne) in this area, marking the transition from wild gathering to intentional cultivation in Neolithic agrarian societies.^[41]^[42]^[13]

Introduced Distributions

Linum species, primarily L. usitatissimum, have been widely introduced beyond their native Eurasian ranges through agricultural cultivation, establishing in temperate zones across Europe, North America, Asia, and Australia for fiber and oil production.^[24]^[43] This species, originating from the eastern Mediterranean and Near East, is now grown commercially in regions such as Canada, the United States, India, and Argentina, where it has become naturalized in agricultural fields and roadsides.^[24]^[41] Several Linum species have naturalized as weeds in disturbed areas outside their native distributions. For instance, L. usitatissimum has established feral populations in southern South America, including Argentina and Chile, as well as in parts of Africa where it persists in abandoned fields and waste places.^[43]^[24] Ornamental introductions, such as L. grandiflorum native to North Africa, have escaped cultivation and naturalized in Mediterranean-like climates, including California, southern Europe, and scattered sites in Asia and South America.^[44]^[45] The invasive potential of introduced Linum species remains low, with limited ecological disruption reported, though some like L. usitatissimum have established in Pacific islands including New Zealand.^[46]^[43] Similarly, L. perenne, introduced from Eurasia, has naturalized in western and central North America but does not aggressively displace native flora.^[47] Introductions are generally confined to areas with suitable climates, as Linum species prefer USDA hardiness zones 5-9, with perennial forms showing sensitivity to severe frosts that restricts spread in colder regions.^[48]^[49] These patterns contrast with the species' native Eurasian core, where distributions are shaped by natural evolutionary processes rather than human-mediated dispersal.^[41]

Ecology

Pollination and Seed Dispersal

Linum species are primarily entomophilous, with pollination facilitated by a range of insects including bees (Hymenoptera such as bumblebees, digger bees, and leaf-cutting bees), flies (Diptera, particularly generalist and muscoid flies), and butterflies (Lepidoptera, including skippers).^[50]^[51]^[52] Flowers typically open for a single day, offering nectar and abundant pollen as rewards to attract these visitors, which promotes efficient pollen transfer during this brief period.^[50] In species like Linum lewisii, small bees and flies are key pollinators in montane habitats, where visitation rates vary seasonally but ensure reproductive success even in cooler conditions.^[50] Most Linum species are self-compatible, allowing autogamous self-pollination, but many promote outcrossing through heterostyly, a dimorphic style polymorphism where long- and short-styled morphs facilitate reciprocal pollen transfer between compatible individuals.^[53] Heterostyly has evolved multiple times within the genus, particularly in Mediterranean lineages, enhancing cross-pollination efficiency while reducing self-interference.^[54] Autogamy is more prevalent in some forms, including facultatively cleistogamous flowers that remain closed and self-fertilize without insect mediation, providing reproductive assurance in pollinator-scarce environments.^[55] Flowering in temperate species generally occurs from spring through summer, aligning with peak insect activity, whereas subtropical taxa may bloom year-round in suitable climates.^[56] Seed dispersal in Linum is predominantly ballistic, achieved through the explosive dehiscence of dry, septicidal capsules that split into 10 segments, propelling small, flattened seeds away from the parent plant.^[57] This mechanism is aided by secondary vectors: wind carries lightweight seeds over short distances, while external attachment to animals (epizoochory) occurs via sticky mucilage that envelops seeds upon hydration.^[58] The mucilage, produced by epidermal cells on the seed coat, becomes adhesive when wet and hardens upon drying, promoting soil adhesion that enhances germination by preventing erosion or displacement.^[58] In cultivated Linum usitatissimum, selective breeding has sometimes reduced dehiscence for easier harvest, but wild forms retain these adaptive traits for natural spread.^[59]

Biotic Interactions

Linum species, particularly L. usitatissimum, serve as hosts to various insect pests, including aphids such as the potato aphid (Macrosiphum euphorbiae) and green peach aphid (Myzus persicae), which feed on sap and can transmit viral diseases, leading to stunted growth and reduced yields.^[60]^[61] Among Lepidoptera, larvae of species like the capsule borer (Helicoverpa armigera) and semilooper (Thysanoplusia orichalcea) damage flax by feeding on foliage, buds, and developing seeds, potentially causing significant defoliation and seed loss. Fungal pathogens also pose major threats; Fusarium wilt, caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lini, is a soil-borne disease that leads to vascular wilting and plant death, particularly in warm, moist conditions.^[62]^[63] Pasmo, induced by Septoria linicola (teleomorph Mycosphaerella linicola), manifests as leaf spots and stem lesions during late growth stages, exacerbated by high humidity and reducing seed quality.^[64]^[65] Mutualistic interactions are prominent in Linum, with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) forming common associations that enhance nutrient uptake, especially phosphorus, in nutrient-poor soils.^[66]^[67] These symbioses improve plant growth and stress tolerance by extending root systems and facilitating mineral acquisition, as demonstrated in studies with Funneliformis mosseae on L. usitatissimum roots.^[68] Unlike many Fabaceae, Linaceae species like Linum do not form nitrogen-fixing root nodules with rhizobia, though AMF indirectly support nitrogen dynamics through improved overall nutrition; any reported nitrogen benefits remain minimal and debated.^[69]^[70] Linum exhibits allelopathic potential through cyanogenic glycosides, such as linamarin, present in seeds and potentially released from roots, which inhibit the growth of nearby competitor plants by releasing hydrogen cyanide upon hydrolysis.^[71]^[72]^[73] These compounds act as chemical defenses, suppressing weed germination and contributing to Linum's competitive edge in natural habitats.^[74] Certain Linum species, notably L. usitatissimum, act as pioneer plants in disturbed habitats, facilitating ecological succession and contributing to soil stabilization through their fibrous root systems. Additionally, they show promise in phytoremediation, accumulating heavy metals such as cadmium, lead, zinc, and copper from contaminated soils, aiding in environmental restoration.^[75]^[76] In ecosystems, Linum provides valuable forage for wildlife, with species like L. lewisii offering nutritious herbage for deer, antelope, and livestock, while seeds serve as food for birds during fall and winter.^[77]^[78] Fields of cultivated L. usitatissimum support diverse pollinator communities, attracting up to 19 insect species including bees and flies, thereby enhancing local biodiversity despite the crop's primary self-pollination.^[79] This role underscores Linum's contribution to agroecological interactions beyond cultivation.^[80]

Cultivation

Historical Development

The cultivation of Linum usitatissimum, commonly known as flax, originated in the Near East during the Neolithic period, with archaeological evidence from the Fertile Crescent indicating domestication around 8000 BCE. Seeds, capsules, and textile impressions from aceramic and early Neolithic sites in regions such as modern-day Iraq, Syria, and Jordan suggest early use for both fiber and oil production, marking flax as one of the earliest domesticated crops alongside cereals.^[81]^[81] By the early 3rd millennium BCE, flax cultivation had advanced significantly in ancient Egypt, where linen artifacts demonstrate sophisticated textile production from flax fibers. The Tarkhan Dress, a V-neck linen garment excavated from a First Dynasty tomb near Cairo, dates to approximately 3483–3102 BCE and represents the oldest known woven clothing, highlighting flax's role in elite burial practices and daily wear.^[82]^[82] Flax spread westward to Europe during the Neolithic Linearbandkeramik period (ca. 5500–4500 BCE), with cultivated seeds appearing north of the Alps, and became more established by the Bronze Age (3rd millennium BCE), supporting widespread textile industries. Flax has been recorded in Chinese texts since the Zhou Dynasty (1046–256 BCE) and cultivated for over 2,000 years primarily for oil and medicinal purposes, with the earliest archaeological evidence dating to the 7th century AD; fiber cultivation began in the early 20th century.^[83]^[83]^[84]^[85] European colonists introduced flax to the Americas in the early 17th century, with records of cultivation in New France by 1617 and in Jamestown by 1619, initially for self-sufficiency in textiles amid labor shortages.^[13]^[86] A key milestone in flax utilization occurred in 18th-century Europe, particularly the Netherlands, where linseed oil production industrialized through windmill-based pressing and trade via the Sound Strait, supplying paints, lubricants, and soaps across the continent; innovations like the 1795 hydraulic press further mechanized extraction. In the 19th century, selective breeding emerged for ornamental varieties of garden flax, adapting Linum species for horticultural appeal in European landscapes.^[87]^[87] During the 19th and early 20th centuries, breeding efforts focused on improving fiber length and oil content, with Russian programs developing high-quality landraces known as "kryazhs" through mass selection of tall plants, establishing Russia as Europe's primary fiber exporter by 1900. Post-World War II genetic improvements emphasized disease resistance, incorporating diverse germplasm into breeding programs worldwide to enhance yield stability against pathogens like rust, alongside selections for oilseed traits.^[88]^[88]^[89]

Modern Practices

Modern flax cultivation emphasizes optimized agronomic practices tailored to soil, climate, and varietal needs to maximize yields for seed or fiber production. Flax (Linum usitatissimum) thrives in well-drained silt loams or clay loams with a pH range of 6.0 to 7.0, as these soils provide adequate fertility and water-holding capacity without waterlogging risks.^[90] Cool temperate climates with average temperatures of 15–25°C during the growing season are ideal, particularly in regions near 45° latitude where short-season conditions support rapid maturation.^[90] Sowing typically occurs in spring (early to mid-May in northern latitudes) or autumn for winter varieties, ensuring shallow seed placement at 1–4 cm depth to promote uniform emergence.^[91] Crop rotation is a cornerstone of sustainable flax production, with intervals of at least three to four years recommended to mitigate soil-borne diseases such as Fusarium wilt and pasmo.^[31] Seeding rates vary by purpose: 40–60 kg/ha for fiber production to achieve dense stands (175–200 plants/m²), and 30–50 kg/ha for seed to allow for better branching and capsule development.^[90] Varietal selection focuses on disease-resistant and lodging-tolerant cultivars, such as CDC Bethune or AAC Bravo, which enhance adaptability to local conditions.^[91] Emerging dual-purpose cultivars, which balance seed and fiber yields, are gaining traction in integrated systems to improve farm profitability.^[92] Harvesting techniques differ based on end use: for fiber, plants are pulled by hand or machine at early bloom (85–100 days after sowing) to preserve stem length, followed by field retting; for seed, direct combining occurs at physiological maturity when 75–90% of bolls have turned brown, targeting ≤10% seed moisture.^[90] Typical yields range from 1–2 t/ha of fiber under optimal management and 0.8–1.5 t/ha of seed in dryland conditions, with irrigation boosting potential in water-limited areas.^[91] As of 2023, major producers included Russia, Kazakhstan, Canada, and China, which together accounted for the majority of global output of approximately 3.5 million tonnes, alongside efforts in organic systems that prioritize regenerative rotations.^[93]^[94]

Uses

Industrial Applications

The primary industrial application of Linum usitatissimum, commonly known as flax, involves the extraction of bast fibers from its stems for the production of linen textiles, ropes, and canvases. These fibers are renowned for their high tensile strength, ranging from 24 to 70 cN/tex, which enables durable applications in both apparel and technical textiles. Linen's exceptional breathability, attributed to its hollow fiber structure that facilitates moisture wicking and air circulation, makes it ideal for summer clothing and upholstery.^[95]^[96] Linseed oil, derived from flax seeds, serves as a versatile drying oil in the manufacturing of paints, varnishes, and coatings, where it undergoes oxidative polymerization to form a tough, protective film upon exposure to air. This process is driven by the oil's high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids, particularly alpha-linolenic acid at approximately 50% of total composition, which promotes rapid drying and adhesion. Additionally, linseed oil has emerged as a feedstock for biofuels, with its fatty acid profile supporting efficient transesterification into biodiesel, offering a renewable alternative to petroleum-based fuels.^[97]^[98]^[99] Flax seeds also contribute to animal feed through the byproduct linseed meal, which remains after oil extraction and provides a protein-rich supplement (typically 30-40% crude protein) for livestock diets, enhancing nutritional value without compromising digestibility. Global flaxseed production, which supports these applications, reached approximately 2.7 million tons in 2023, with major contributions from regions like Canada and Russia. Emerging uses include the incorporation of flax fibers into biodegradable plastics, where their natural reinforcement improves mechanical properties in eco-friendly composites. Furthermore, lignans such as secoisolariciresinol diglucoside extracted from flax seeds hold pharmaceutical potential due to their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties, with ongoing research into therapeutic formulations.^[100]^[101]^[94]^[102]^[103]

Ornamental and Other Uses

Several species of Linum are valued in ornamental gardening for their vibrant flowers and adaptability to various landscapes. Linum grandiflorum, an annual herb native to North Africa, features striking deep red flowers with blue pollen and is commonly planted in borders and beds for its compact growth and prolonged blooming period from spring to summer.^[45] Linum flavum, a perennial species from Europe, produces bright yellow flowers in early summer and thrives in well-drained soils, making it suitable for rock gardens and xeriscapes where it tolerates drought and poor fertility.^[104] Linum narbonense, another European perennial, displays vivid blue flowers on slender stems and is prized for its drought tolerance and graceful habit, often used in mixed borders or as a low-maintenance accent in sunny, dry sites.^[105] Breeding programs have focused on enhancing ornamental traits in perennial Linum species, such as flower color and longevity, to develop cultivars for garden and cut-flower applications.^[106] Beyond decoration, Linum seeds, particularly from L. usitatissimum, serve culinary purposes due to their nutritional profile, including incorporation into breads and baked goods for added texture and flavor, as well as use in dietary supplements rich in alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), an omega-3 fatty acid that supports heart health.^[107] The seeds' mucilage content provides herbal benefits, acting as a mild laxative by absorbing water to promote bowel regularity and exhibiting anti-inflammatory properties through modulation of cytokine production.^[108] In traditional medicine, Linum has been employed in Ayurvedic and Chinese systems for treating skin ailments; linseed oil, derived from the seeds, is applied topically as a moisturizer and wound healer due to its emollient and soothing effects on irritated or inflamed skin.^[109] Modern research highlights the anticancer potential of lignans, polyphenolic compounds abundant in Linum species like L. narbonense, which inhibit tumor growth by inducing apoptosis and disrupting cell proliferation in various cancer models.^[110]^[111] Environmentally, Linum species function as cover crops to prevent soil erosion, with their fibrous roots stabilizing soil on slopes and their quick growth providing ground cover during off-seasons, while incorporation as green manure enhances soil organic matter and nutrient cycling.^[112]

Species

Diversity and Sections

The genus Linum encompasses approximately 200–230 species of annual and perennial herbs, widely distributed across temperate and subtropical regions of the world.^[1]^[14] This diversity reflects significant regional endemism, particularly in North America, where more than 30 species occur, many confined to specific habitats such as prairies, woodlands, and coastal dunes.^[22] Traditionally, Linum is classified into five sections based on floral morphology, seed characteristics, and molecular data: section Linum (approximately 50 species, primarily Eurasian with characteristic blue flowers); section Cathartolinum (14 species of annuals native to North America); and the remaining sections (Dasylinum, Syllinum, and Linopsis), each with 5–30 species.^[113] A 2022 phylogenetic study confirmed monophyly of four sections (Cathartolinum, Dasylinum, Linum, Syllinum) but found Linopsis polyphyletic, proposing a new monotypic section Stellerolinon for L. stelleroides to render sect. Linum monophyletic.^[3] These sections are further distinguished by cytological traits, including chromosome numbers ranging from 2n=16 to 84, and the production of mucilaginous seeds that aid in adaptation to arid environments.^[13]^[114] Speciation within Linum is largely influenced by polyploidy, which has generated cytogenetic variation, and habitat fragmentation, leading to isolated populations in diverse ecosystems.^[113] Recent taxonomic revisions, informed by DNA barcoding using chloroplast and nuclear markers, have clarified phylogenetic relationships and prompted splits among closely related taxa.^[113] Conservation concerns affect several Linum species, which are classified as rare or threatened owing to habitat loss from urban development, agriculture, and invasive species encroachment.^[115]^[116] Examples include L. arenicola (federally endangered in the United States) and L. westii (state-endangered), highlighting the need for targeted protection of endemic populations.^[115]^[117]

Selected Species

Linum usitatissimum, commonly known as cultivated flax, is an annual herbaceous plant in the Linaceae family, characterized by erect, corymbosely branched stems reaching 90-120 cm in height, simple linear-lanceolate leaves, and pale blue flowers with five petals.^[13] Native to regions from Türkiye to Iran, it has been cultivated for over 8,000 years originating in the Fertile Crescent, including areas like Egypt, Iraq, and Syria, and is now widely distributed in temperate zones worldwide, with major production in Canada, Russia, China, India, and Argentina.^[41]^[13] Its significance lies primarily in industrial applications, where stems provide bast fibers for linen textiles and seeds yield linseed oil used in paints, varnishes, and as a nutritional source rich in omega-3 fatty acids, with Canada producing approximately 10% of global flaxseed output as of 2024 (257,500 metric tonnes out of 2.7 million tonnes).^[13]^[118]^[94] Linum lewisii, or prairie flax, is a perennial forb growing 12-36 inches tall, featuring narrow, alternate, sessile leaves and light blue flowers in racemes or cymes that bloom from mid-May to early July.^[119] Native to subarctic and temperate North America from Alaska to northern Mexico and eastward to Minnesota, it thrives in diverse habitats including mixed grass prairies, sagebrush steppes, piñon-juniper woodlands, and coniferous forest openings at elevations of 1,000-6,000 feet.^[120]^[119] Indigenous peoples across its range utilized its stems for cordage, string, baskets, mats, fishing nets, and snowshoes, while the plant served medicinal purposes, such as boiling the herb for treatments of respiratory issues, colds, coughs, and rheumatic pains.^[121] Its ecological value includes erosion control, wildlife forage, and enhancement of biodiversity in restoration projects.^[119] Linum grandiflorum, known as Moroccan or scarlet flax, is an annual herb 10-60 cm tall with glabrous, glaucous stems that are ascending or decumbent at the base, linear to lanceolate leaves 10-30 mm long, and bright red to maroon petals 15-30 mm wide in few-flowered cymes.^[122] Native to Algeria and Tunisia in the subtropical Mediterranean biome, it has been introduced to disturbed areas in the United States (e.g., California, Florida, Texas), southern South America, central Europe, and Asia.^[44]^[122] Valued ornamentally for its vibrant, long-blooming flowers from April to September, it is popular in cutting gardens, pollinator habitats, and borders, with cultivars in red, pink, and white offering heat, drought, and humidity tolerance while self-seeding readily.^[45] Linum flavum, the golden flax, is a perennial species up to 60 cm tall, distinguished by its bright yellow flowers and compact growth habit, belonging to the temperate biome.^[123] Native to central and southern Europe extending to northern Türkiye, including countries like Albania, Austria, Bulgaria, Italy, and Ukraine, it prefers well-drained, calcareous soils in sunny positions.^[123] Its ornamental appeal, particularly in cultivars like 'Compactum' that reach 15-30 cm, makes it a favored choice for rock gardens, alpine borders, and containers, where it provides summer-long yellow blooms and attracts pollinators while tolerating drought and poor soils.^[124] Linum narbonense, perennial blue flax, is a mound-forming herbaceous perennial with lance-shaped, dark green leaves and large azure-blue flowers featuring deeper blue veins, growing to about 50 cm in height.^[125] Native to the western and central Mediterranean region, encompassing Algeria, France, Italy, Morocco, Portugal, and Spain, it inhabits grassy and rocky areas in the temperate biome.^[125] Noted for its extended blooming period and fuller habit compared to some relatives, it holds ornamental significance in gardens for its sky-blue displays and drought tolerance, often used in borders and as a long-lived alternative to annual flaxes.^[126]

References

[1]
https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:24945-1
[2]
Phylogenetic Analysis and Flower Color Evolution of the Subfamily ...
Jun 15, 2022 · Gray) Small with 13 species, originally confined in Linum, were segregated from this genus based on morphological characteristics [18,19,20,21].
[3]
Linum usitatissimum L. - USDA Plants Database Plant Profile General
Family. Linaceae DC. ex Perleb - Flax family ; Genus. Linum L. · - flax ; Species. Linum usitatissimum L. · - common flax ...Missing: botany | Show results with:botany
[4]
department of agriculture - usda aphis
the only member of the genus grown as a crop, although some Linum species have limited ornamental use. Linum usitatissimum grows throughout the temperate ...
[5]
LINUM Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster
The meaning of LINUM is the type genus of Linaceae comprising herbaceous ... Word History. Etymology. New Latin, from Latin, flax. The Ultimate Dictionary ...
[6]
lín- 'flax, linen' - Proto-Indo-European Roots
Probably, the name of this plant was borrowed by Indo-Europeans coming to Europe fropm some aboriginal ethnic group.Missing: etymology linum
[7]
Lectotypification of the Linnaean name Linum campanulatum ...
The genus Linum Linnaeus (1753: 277) consists of about 200 species distributed in temperate and tropical regions of the world. The Mediterranean area can be ...
[8]
linum - Wiktionary, the free dictionary
Alternatively, Fick proposed derivation as a passive past participle from Proto-Indo-European *lei- (“to flow, pour”) because flax is soaked in water during its ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[9]
Linen - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
"Linen" originates from Old English līn, from Proto-Germanic *linam, likely borrowed from Latin linum, meaning flax; it denotes cloth made from woven flax ...
[10]
Linum L. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science
The taxonomic review of the genus Linum L. (Linaceae) of the flora of Russia and adjacent states. Novosti Sistematiki Vysshikh Rastenii 41: 99-165. Flora ...
[11]
Linum | Taxonomy - PubChem
Linum ; Scientific Name. Linum ; Rank. genus ; Domain. Eukaryota ; Lineage. Eukaryota; Viridiplantae; Streptophyta; Magnoliopsida; Malpighiales; Linaceae ; Dates.
[12]
(PDF) Molecular Phylogenetic Studies in the Linaceae and Linum ...
Oct 21, 2015 · (2009) revealed the potential need for a revised taxonomy of Linum and its. sections and segregates, but that study left many questions ...
[13]
The Biology of Linum usitatissimum L. (Flax) - inspection.canada.ca
May 15, 2019 · The genus Linum, to which L. usitatissimum belongs, contains approximately 230 species differing in chromosome number from 2n = 16, 18, 30, 36 ...<|separator|>
[14]
Linum - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Linum refers to a genus of annual flowering plants, commonly known as flax, which is recognized for its dietary and medicinal significance due to the ...Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
[15]
Retrotransposon-Based Molecular Markers for Analysis of Genetic ...
The genus is subdivided by Ockendon and Walters into five sections: Linum, Dasylinum (Planch.) Juz., Linastrum (Planchon), Bentham, Syllinum Griseb., and ...
[16]
Clarification of the Position of Linum stelleroides Planch ... - MDPI
L. stelleroides has pantoporate pollen grains with 12 pores, whereas the members of the other three sections have tricolpate pollen, except for a few polyploid ...Missing: Linastrum | Show results with:Linastrum
[17]
Linaceae - FNA - Flora of North America
Nov 5, 2020 · Genera 10–14, species ca. 260 (4 genera, 52 species in the flora). Two subfamilies are generally recognized in Linaceae, the mostly herbaceous, ...
[18]
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8339.2010.01096.x
[19]
https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu22-12752
[20]
Biosystematic studies in the North American species of Linum ...
A third trend, toward greater outcrossing, is considered probable. Hybridizations between and within species indicate that evolution has occurred mainly by the ...
[21]
Cytogenetic diversity in the polyploid complex Linum suffruticosum ...
A high cytogenetic diversity was found with five major cytotypes being detected (diploids, tetraploids, hexaploids, octoploids and decaploids) and with new ...
[22]
Linum in Flora of North America @ efloras.org
Herbs or subshrubs, annual, biennial, or perennial, glabrous or hairy. Stems usually erect or spreading to ascending, sometimes decumbent or ascending from ...
[23]
Linum usitatissimum L. - idseed
Sepals are egg-shaped, length: 6-9 mm and petals are egg-shaped, length; 10-15 mm (FNA 1993+). Vegetative Features. Plants are 20-100 cm tall with erect stems ...
[24]
Linum usitatissimum (flax) | CABI Compendium
Its taproot and secondary roots typically reach a depth of 50 cm, with ... The small root system also makes the plant subject to lodging if high winds ...
[25]
Linum - PlantNET - FloraOnline
Description: Erect herbs, glabrous or almost so. Leaves alternate, entire, sessile; stipules absent. Inflorescence terminal, cymes, usually forming corymbs.<|control11|><|separator|>
[26]
[PDF] Linum hirsutum subsp. platyphyllum, stat. nov. (Linaceae) - SEKJ
Mar 13, 2006 · Linum hirsutum belongs in the section Dasylinum. It is a highly polymorphic species (Davis 1957,. 1967) and represented by five subspecific ...
[27]
Linum - Jepson Herbarium - University of California, Berkeley
Inflorescence: raceme or cyme. Flower: inner 2 sepals overlapped by outer 3, all margins generally translucent, generally ciliate or toothed, glandular or not; ...
[28]
Linaceae - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The genus Linum in the family Linaceae consists of about 230 species,271 which can be divided into six sections based on morphological characters:272 Linum, ...
[29]
[PDF] Fl. China 11: 35–37. 2008. 3. LINUM Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 1: 277. 1753.
Ovary 5-loculed or appearing 10-loculed by intrusion of false septa, with 2 ovules per locule; styles 5, filiform; stigmas capitate. Capsule splitting into 10 ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[30]
THE LINACEAE IN THE SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES - jstor
Fruit a septicidal capsule [or drupe] ; seeds often with a muci- laginous epidermis, embryo straight [or slightly curved]. (Linaceae sensu. Hutchinson, 1967; ...
[31]
Flax | Iowa State University Extension and Outreach Alternative ...
Each capsule contains 4 to 10 seeds; North Dakota tests indicate 6 seeds per capsule is the average. Glossy in appearance, flax seeds have traditionally been ...
[32]
LINUM L. [family LINACEAE] on JSTOR - Global Plants
Fruit a 4–5-locular, 8–10-valved capsule. Seeds smooth and flat, with little or no endosperm present; testa becoming mucilaginous on wetting; embryo straight.Missing: per | Show results with:per
[33]
Floral Biology and Self-Incompatibility in Linum - ResearchGate
Aug 5, 2025 · The present study demonstrated the floral traits, breeding system, fruit and seed set, and morph ratio in distylous N. arbor-tristis. The ...
[34]
Linum aksehirense (sect. Dasylinum, Linaceae), a new species from ...
Dec 10, 2019 · With 54 taxa ( Yılmaz 2018 ), Turkey is one of the most important centres of genetic diversity for the genus Linum. The new species ...<|separator|>
[35]
A new taxon of Linum (Linaceae) from NW Anatolia, Turkey
Aug 7, 2025 · The Balkan Peninsula and Anatolia are among the most important distribution areas and diversity centers of Linum in the world. The high rate of ...
[36]
Linum (flax genus) - biodiversity explorer
About 230 species (temperate and subtropical regions worldwide), of which 14 species are native to southern Africa and a further five species are cultivated in ...<|separator|>
[37]
A revision of the genus Linum in southern Africa - Nordic Society Oikos
Thirteen species are endemic; one ranges as far north as Angola and Tanzania. Among the new species two are heterostylous, the first described for the genus ...
[38]
Linum marginale - Wikipedia
Linum marginale, commonly known as native flax or wild flax, is a species of flowering plant in the family Linaceae and is endemic to Australia.Missing: Africa | Show results with:Africa
[39]
Evolution of blue-flowered species of genus Linum based on high ...
Dec 28, 2017 · The members of the section Dasylinum had the largest chromosomes found in flax (3.5-6 μm). Among three studied specimens, L. hirsutum ssp.
[40]
Salt Tolerance of Sea Flax (Linum maritimum L.), a Rare Species ...
The Mediterranean area is one of the main centres of diversity for this genus and harbours about 75 species [28]. The genus has economic importance ...2. Results · 2.3. Germination Of Seeds... · 4. Materials And Methods
[41]
Linum - FNA - Flora of North America
Nov 5, 2020 · 1753. Nancy R. Morin. Common names: Flax. Etymology: Latin lin, flax ... Species of Linum in the flora have been placed in three sections of the ...
[42]
Linum usitatissimum L. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science
The native range of this species is Türkiye to Iran. It is an annual and grows primarily in the temperate biome. It is used to treat unspecified medicinal ...
[43]
Locus-specific view of flax domestication history - PMC
The archaeological record shows that flax was domesticated for oil and/or fiber use more than 8000 years ago in the Near East (Helbaek 1959; van Zeist and ...
[44]
Linum usitatissimum in Flora of North America @ efloras.org
Dak., Tenn., Tex., Vt., Va., Wash., W.Va., Wis., Wyo.; Eurasia; introduced also in c Mexico, Central America, s South America, Pacific Islands (New Zealand).Missing: distributions regions
[45]
Linum grandiflorum Desf. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science
Native to: Algeria, Tunisia. Introduced into: Alabama, Assam, Austria, Baleares, Bangladesh, California, Colorado, East Aegean Is., Florida, Germany, ...
[46]
Linum grandiflorum (Common Flax, Flowering Flax, Red Flax ...
Distribution: Introduced into the United States, Southern South America, Northern Africa, Central Europe and Asia. Whole Plant Traits: Plant Type: Annual ...
[47]
Linum usitatissimum: info from PIER (PIER species info)
Nov 26, 2008 · Present on Pacific Islands? yes. Primarily a threat at high elevations? no. Risk assessment results: High risk, score: 9.5 (Go to the risk ...
[48]
Linum perenne - FNA - Flora of North America
Nov 5, 2020 · Distribution. Generated Map; Legacy Map. Loading map... Created with ... Introduced; B.C., Ont., Yukon, Ariz., Colo., Idaho, Ill., Iowa ...
[49]
Linum usitatissimum (Common Flax, Flax, Linseed)
Common flax is a short-lived annual subshrub with pale blue flowers, used for linen and linseed oil. It is native to Turkey and Iran.
[50]
Linum perenne (Perennial Flax) - Gardenia.net
Compare All Linum. Requirements. Hardiness, 5 - 9. What's My Zone? Heat Zones, 7 - 9. What's My Zone? Climate Zones, 2, 2A, 2B, 3, 3A, 3B, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, ...Missing: suitability USDA
[51]
Fly pollination of Linum lewish (Linaceae)
Sep 1, 1994 · This study examines the reproductive biology of Linum lewisii Pursh. (Linaceae), a polyphilic species visited by small bees and generalist ...
[52]
[PDF] Pollinator-Friendly Plants for the Northeast United States
Value to Beneficial Insects- bumblebees, digger bees, leaf-cutting bees, butterflies, and skippers. Return to Table of Contents Page. Page 28. Linum perenne- ...
[53]
[PDF] Plants for Pollinators in the Inland Northwest - Xerces Society
Linum lewisii, Lewis flax. Origin: native. Mature height: 1-2 ft. Growth Rate ... Attracts: butterflies, bees, flies; larval host of some hairstreak ...
[54]
Three‐dimensional reciprocity of floral morphs in wild flax (Linum ...
May 23, 2006 · This form of heterostyly would appear on morphological grounds to be far more efficient in dispersing pollen between compatible morphs than the ...
[55]
Style polymorphism in Linum (Linaceae): a case of Mediterranean ...
One of the lineages where heterostyly and related stylar conditions appear more frequently is Linum (Linaceae). This group is particularly suitable for ...
[56]
https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Linum%20perenne
[57]
https://www.fs.usda.gov/rm/pubs_journals/2022/rmrs_2022_innes_p001.pdf
[58]
[PDF] Assessment of biogeographic variation in traits of Lewis flax (Linum ...
Feb 4, 2022 · We adapted to non-uniform germination by dividing seedlings for each common garden based upon (i) a desire to have as much germplasm as possible ...
[59]
water-dependent adhesive and frictional properties of Linum ...
Fully hydrated mucilage with its low viscosity gives optimal sliding conditions for endozoochory, whereas water loss provides conditions for the epizoochory. We ...
[60]
Factors in Dehiscence of the Flax Fruit | Botanical Gazette
A study was made of the mechanism of dehiscence of the capsules in three varieties of flax (Linum usitatissimum L.): Punjab 47, an indehiscent variety; Marine, ...
[61]
How to Grow and Care for Flax Plants - The Spruce
Jan 16, 2024 · Flax plants are prone to pests like flax bollworms, grasshoppers, cutworms, and potato aphids. While the latter three are general pests, the ...
[62]
(PDF) Efficacy of different concentrations of flax plant oil Linum ...
Aug 6, 2025 · The green peach aphid, Myzus persicae, is a significant insect pest worldwide. The potential for using Linum usitatissimum flax seed oil to ...
[63]
Fine-mapping of a major locus for Fusarium wilt resistance in flax ...
Jan 21, 2024 · Abstract. Fusarium wilt, caused by the soil-borne fungal pathogen Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lini, is a devastating disease in flax. Genetic ...
[64]
Assessment of the resistance of varieties and collection samples of ...
Among the flax diseases caused by fungal pathogens, the most harmful are: fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum Schlecht. emend. Snyder et. Hansen), anthracnose ...
[65]
Orbitides and free polyamines have similarly limited fungicidal ...
Jun 9, 2022 · lini and Septoria linicola are causes of fusarium wilt and pasmo, which are two commercially significant diseases of flax (Linum usitatissimum).
[66]
First report of the sexual stage of the flax pathogen Mycosphaerella ...
Oct 15, 2020 · Mycosphaerella linicola, anamoph Septoria linicola, is the causal agent of pasmo, a disease affecting both flax and linseed (Linum usitatissimum) ...Missing: Fusarium | Show results with:Fusarium
[67]
Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) depends on arbuscular mycorrhizal ...
The contribution of indigenous arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) to growth and phosphorus (P) uptake by oilseed flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) was examined.Missing: associations | Show results with:associations
[68]
Contribution of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) in Improving the ...
This study investigated the potential of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) inoculation to enhance the growth and yield performances of flax under different ...
[69]
Endomycorrhizal association of Funneliformis mosseae with ... - NIH
Mar 20, 2015 · In our study, we report the successful establishment of endomycorrhizal association of F. mosseae with transformed roots of Linum usitatissimum L. (linum) on ...
[70]
Biological nitrogen fixation in non-legume plants - PMC
The highly specific and most efficient processes for nitrogen fixation involve the formation of root nodules on legumes and non-legumes.
[71]
Part I. (cont.) The legumes that can fix nitrogen - Reed College
Jul 31, 1997 · Nitrogen fixation occurs in the root nodules that contain bacteria ( Bradyrhizobium for soybean, Rhizobium for most other legumes). Almost all ...
[72]
Linum usitatis Flax, Common flax PFAF Plant Database
The seed of some strains contain cyanogenic glycosides in the seed though the toxicity is low, especially if the seed is eaten slowly. It becomes more toxic if ...
[73]
Linum usitatissimum - Useful Temperate Plants
The seed also contains cyanogenic glycosides (prussic acid). In small quantities these glycosides stimulate respiration and improve digestion, but in excess ...
[74]
[PDF] Cyanogenic glycosides can function as nitrogen reservoir for flax ...
Mar 19, 2021 · Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) is a well-known cyanogenic plant, commonly used in various ar- eas of human life, but synthesises several CGs,.
[75]
[PDF] Cyanogenic glycosides: Alternative insecticides? - Korea Science
Cyanogenic glycosides are polar and water soluble compounds, and are one group of the potentially toxic constituents which is found in some root and seed crops.
[76]
Lewis Flax | USU
Lewis Flax has fair forage for both livestock and wildlife during spring and winter. Birds use the seeds and capsules in fall and winter.
[77]
[PDF] BLUE FLAX - USDA Plants Database
Blue flax is distributed throughout the midwest to the northeastern portions of the United States. For a current distribution map, please consult the Plant.
[78]
[PDF] (Linum usitatissimum L.) - CABI Digital Library
the diversity, abundance and foraging activity of insect visitors/pollinators on linseed. The species diversity was high with 19 insect species visiting the ...
[79]
Native Blue Flax (Linum lewisii) - Gilpin County Extension
Because Blue flax stays green throughout the growing season, it provides forage to native herbivores, and it resists fire. Birds use the seed in fall and winter ...
[80]
(PDF) New research on the cultural history of the useful plant Linum ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Flax (Linum usitatissimum) was domesticated more than 8000 years ago in the Fertile Crescent region (Karg, 2011) . Pollen and plant ...
[81]
UCL Petrie Museum's Tarkhan Dress: world's oldest woven garment
Feb 15, 2016 · The Tarkhan Dress, a V-neck linen shirt currently on display in the UCL Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, has been confirmed as the world's oldest woven ...
[82]
New research on the cultural history of the useful plant Linum ...
Oct 16, 2011 · The oldest European archaeobotanical evidence for cultivated flax derives from archaeological sites located north of the Alps and is dated to ...
[83]
Flax use in ancient China: Archaeobotany evidence from the ...
Jun 19, 2025 · The earliest flax (Linum sp.) remains were excavated at the Ashaonao site, located on the eastern edge of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (D'Alpoim ...
[84]
Flax Production in the Seventeenth Century - National Park Service
Aug 3, 2023 · In 17th-century Jamestown, flax was promoted, but not commercially successful. Farmers grew small amounts for their own use. The plant was ...
[85]
[PDF] Linseed oil - UvA-DARE (Digital Academic Repository)
The late sixteenth- to eighteenth-century Sound toll registers show that most linseed oil passing this sea strait came from the Dutch republic, while un-.
[86]
The Genetic Landscape of Fiber Flax - PMC - PubMed Central
At the beginning of the 20th century, Russia became the main supplier of fiber flax of the highest quality to the European market, producing the crop in the ...
[87]
[PDF] Aspects of resistance of flax and linseed (Linum usitatissimum ...
Therefore a crop rotation is recommended of 6-7 years. Breeding for disease resistance. World wide, breeding programs for disease resistance in flax and.
[88]
[PDF] Oilseed Crops: Flax - OSU Extension Service
Flax plants grow from 12 to 48 inches high. The flowers have five petals and form a five-celled boll that can contain up to. 10 seeds. Flowering continues until ...
[89]
None
Summary of each segment:
[90]
A Mini Review on Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) as a Case Study
Mar 1, 2023 · At a farm level, the adoption of dual-purpose (DP) cultivars could increase the profits of farmers [121]. Even though the majority of the ...
[91]
Flax Profile | Agricultural Marketing Resource Center
Currently flax is produced on about 12 million acres globally with the largest areas of production in Kazakhstan, Russia, Canada, Europe, and China.
[92]
The structure of flax is fiber flax. The length of its stem is 80
Flax structure ; Specific strength, cN/tex, 24–70, 20–35 ; Elongation, %, 2–3, 6–8 ; Module, kg/g, 0,9, 1,0 ; Degree of polymerization, 36000, 10000.
[93]
Flax - Define Textile
Strength: Tenacity of flax fiber is 57.4 CN/Tex, wet strength is 20% higher than dry state. Color and luster: Flax fiber is brownish or yellowish or grey in ...
[94]
Comprehensive Characterization of Drying Oil Oxidation and ...
Aug 27, 2024 · Drying oils like linseed oil are composed of multifunctional triglyceride molecules that can cure through three-dimensional free-radical ...Introduction · Results and Discussion · Conclusions · Supporting Information
[95]
Linseed oil as a potential resource for bio-diesel: A review
This review paper describes the production of linseed oil, its properties, composition and future potential for bio-diesel.
[96]
A comprehensive review of the health benefits of flaxseed oil in ...
Jul 18, 2023 · Flaxseed typically yields 35–45% oil, containing 9–10% of saturated fatty acids (palmitic and stearic), about 20% monounsaturated fatty acids ( ...
[97]
Linseed meal - Feedipedia
Linseed meal is the by-product of oil production from linseeds (Linum usitatissimum L.). Linseeds are primarily used for the production of linseed oil.
[98]
Flaxseed Meal and Its Application in Animal Husbandry: A Review
Flaxseed meal (FSM) is rich in protein, α-linolenic acid, dietary fiber, flaxseed gum, and other bioactive substances. The total protein content of these ...
[99]
Flaxseed Market Update – October 2024 - Seedea
Oct 15, 2024 · In 2023, both Russia and Kazakhstan—two of the largest producers—experienced sharp declines. Global flaxseed production dropped sharply to 2.70 ...
[100]
Recent advances in biodegradable polymers for sustainable ...
Aug 19, 2022 · It is a renewable, and biodegradable material. Great attention increased for flax fiber-reinforced plastic composites because of its great ...
[101]
Secoisolariciresinol Diglucoside of Flaxseed and Its Metabolites - NIH
Secoisolariciresinol (SECO) diglucoside (SDG) is one of the essential dietary lignans, found in high levels in flaxseed (Frank et al., 2004). Along with α- ...
[102]
Waterwise Plants for Lincoln and Southeast Nebraska
Flax, Golden Linum flavum. Bloom Color: Yellow; Bloom Time: June-July; Height: 12-24”; Spread: 12-24”; Remarks: Dislikes heavy clay soil. Amend soil with gravel ...
[103]
[PDF] UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF , - ars-grin.gov
Mar 1, 2019 · LINUM NARBONENSE L. Linaceae. Narbonne flax. An attractive herbaceous perennial from southern Europe, with linear leaves and a graceful ...
[104]
[PDF] A Perennial Flax (Linum spp.) Breeding Program Using Ideotype ...
This thesis describes a perennial flax breeding program using ideotype models to select for oilseed, garden, and cut flower cultivars.
[105]
Flaxseed—a potential functional food source - PMC - NIH
Flaxseed serves as the best omega 3 fatty acid source to the non-fish eaters. Edible flaxseed products include the whole flaxseed, ground meal and extracted oil ...Missing: culinary | Show results with:culinary
[106]
Unveiling the potential of linseed mucilage, its health benefits, and ...
This review primarily focuses on different extraction techniques used for linseed mucilage, its mechanism of action in terms of health benefits, and potential ...Missing: ballistic | Show results with:ballistic
[107]
Effect of a Semisolid Formulation of Linum usitatissimum L. (Linseed ...
According to Chinese traditional medicine and ayurvedic medicine, linseed oil is indicated for the treatment of wounds and as a moisturizer and dermal ...Missing: ailments | Show results with:ailments
[108]
Lignans: a versatile source of anticancer drugs - PMC - NIH
Previous studies revealed that the most remarkable bioactivity of lignan class of molecules is anticancer. They are derived from the oxidative dimerization ...
[109]
Linum narbonense: A new valuable tool for biotechnological ... - NIH
The aim of this study was to establish a bioreactor culture of Linum narbonense (Linaceae) as a renewable source of potent anticancer arylnaphtalene lignan ...
[110]
[PDF] Flax Cover Crop Fact Sheet - Natural Resources Conservation Service
» Erosion control. Good. » Lasting residue. Good. » Quick grower. Good. » Drought tolerance. Very good. » Low fertility tolerance. Good. » Shade tolerance. Fair.Missing: manure | Show results with:manure
[111]
(PDF) The Phylogeny of Linum and Linaceae Subfamily Linoideae ...
PDF | The genus Linum consists of over 180 species, the most famous being L. usitatissimum, the source of linen and linseed oil. The eight genera of.
[112]
Sand Flax (Linum arenicola) | U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
The primary threats to sand flax are habitat destruction and fragmentation from urban development, fire suppression, invasive plants, and sea level rise. Its ...
[113]
Sandplain Wild Flax Guide - New York Natural Heritage Program
Feb 23, 2011 · Linum intercursum Bickn. Listed as Threatened by New York State: likely to become Endangered in the foreseeable future. For animals, taking, ...
[114]
[PDF] WEST'S FLAX Linum westii Rogers Synonyms: none Family
West's flax is a perennial herb with 20-50cm stems, narrow leaves, pale yellow flowers, and grows in wet flatwoods, open sun. It is endangered in FL.
[115]
[PDF] BLUE FLAX LEWIS FLAX - Linum perenne L. Linum lewisii Pursh
Blue flax is native to Eurasia and has been planted successfully throughout the United States. For current distribution, consult the Plant Profile page for this.
[116]
Linum lewisii Pursh | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science
Sep 1, 2025 · The native range of this species is Subarctica America to N. Mexico. It is a perennial and grows primarily in the temperate biome. Taxonomy ...
[117]
Linum lewisii (Blue Flax, Lewis flax, Prairie flax, Western blue flax)
This plant self-seeds easily. The root system is a deep taproot. For best results, seed in late fall to early spring; seeding in late summer is not recommended ...
[118]
Linum grandiflorum - FNA - Flora of North America
Nov 5, 2020 · Herbs, annual, 10–60 cm, glabrous, glaucous. Stems ascending or sometimes decumbent at base, usually freely branched.Missing: significance | Show results with:significance
[119]
Linum flavum L. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science
The native range of this species is Europe to N. Türkiye. It is a perennial and grows primarily in the temperate biome. Taxonomy · Images · General information.
[120]
Rock Garden Plants | Colorado State University Extension Website
Jun 1, 2000 · Linum flavum 'Compactum' Dwarf golden flax, 10-15 in. Sun, Well drained, Yellow, May-July, Dark green foliage. Nepeta x 'Psfike' Little Trudy ...Missing: ornamental | Show results with:ornamental
[121]
Linum narbonense L. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science
The native range of this species is W. & Central Medit. It is a perennial and grows primarily in the temperate biome.
[122]
Narbonne blue flax, Linum narbonense - Plant Select
This Mediterranean form of blue flax is much more long-lived and fuller than the western native species. Blooming for months on end, the deep sky blue ...Missing: distribution significance