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Pee

Urine, commonly referred to as pee, is a liquid by-product of the body's metabolic processes, produced by the kidneys to eliminate waste materials, excess water, and regulate electrolyte balance.^[1] It consists primarily of water (approximately 95%), with the remaining solutes including urea (about 2%, derived from amino acid breakdown), creatinine (0.1%), uric acid (0.03%), and various inorganic ions such as chloride, sodium, and potassium.^[2] The kidneys filter approximately 180 liters of blood plasma daily to form this fluid, which reflects the body's need to maintain homeostasis by excreting nitrogenous wastes and adjusting solute concentrations.^[3] Once produced, urine travels through the ureters to the bladder for temporary storage before being expelled via the urethra during urination, a process essential for preventing toxicity and supporting overall physiological equilibrium.^[1] In humans, the typical daily urine output ranges from 800 to 2,000 milliliters, varying based on hydration, diet, and health factors, and its composition can include trace amounts of over 3,000 metabolites that provide diagnostic insights into metabolic and renal function.^[4]^[5]

Terminology and Etymology

Definition and Usage

"Pee" is an informal euphemism in English for urine, the liquid waste product excreted by the kidneys through the urinary system, as well as for the act of urination itself.^[6] As a noun, it directly refers to the substance or the instance of expulsion, while as a verb, it describes the process of voiding urine.^[7] This term is widely recognized in standard dictionaries as colloquial and suitable for everyday speech but not formal or medical contexts.^[6] In English-speaking contexts, "pee" is commonly used in children's language during potty training and early development, where it serves as a child-friendly alternative to more explicit terms, often appearing in phrases like "go pee-pee."^[8] Among adults, it features prominently in casual conversations, such as requesting a "pee break" during travel or work, and in media representations of informal dialogue, including literature, film, and television.^[9] Examples include expressions like "I need to take a pee" in North American English or "go for a pee" in British English, highlighting its versatility across dialects.^[7] Unlike formal scientific terminology, "pee" contrasts sharply with precise medical terms such as "urine," which denotes the fluid's biological role, or "micturition," the physiological process of bladder emptying.^[6] This distinction underscores "pee"'s role as a polite, accessible substitute rather than a clinical descriptor. The term emerged in the late 18th century as a euphemistic abbreviation of the more vulgar "piss," reflecting a historical shift toward milder language in polite society during the 18th and 19th centuries.^[10]^[9]

Origins of the Term

The term "pee" originated as a euphemistic abbreviation of "piss," the older English word for urination, which itself derives from Old French pissier (12th century) and ultimately from Vulgar Latin pissiare, an imitative formation mimicking the sound of the act.^[10]^[11] This polite or childish variant first appeared in English around 1788, initially as a transitive verb meaning "to spray with urine," before evolving circa 1825 to denote the act of urination directly.^[6] The euphemistic shift likely arose to soften the vulgarity of "piss" in polite conversation, particularly in contexts involving children or formal settings, reflecting broader linguistic patterns of abbreviation for taboo subjects.^[12] Over the 19th and early 20th centuries, "pee" gained traction in English literature and children's books as a milder alternative, appearing in narratives aimed at young audiences to describe bodily functions without coarseness.^[13] Regional variations emerged, such as the American reduplicated form "pee-pee," recorded from 1923, often used in infantile or humorous contexts, while in British English, "wee" or "wee-wee" (from around 1925) served a similar euphemistic role, possibly influenced by onomatopoeia or nursery rhymes.^[10]^[14] These forms spread through oral traditions and printed media, embedding "pee" in everyday language, especially for early childhood potty training.^[15] Phonetically, "pee" retains onomatopoeic qualities inherited from "piss," imitating the hissing or splashing sound of urine flow, which facilitated its adoption in language acquisition among toddlers who often reduplicate simple sounds for familiarity.^[16] This auditory resemblance, combined with its brevity, made it an intuitive choice for young speakers learning to verbalize needs.^[11] Related English slang terms include "tinkle" (a light, tinkling sound euphemism from the early 20th century), "number one" (contrasting with "number two" for defecation, popularized in mid-20th-century children's usage), and "widdle" (a British variant akin to "wee").^[17] These equivalents highlight the euphemistic creativity in avoiding direct references to urination across dialects.^[18]

Physiology of Urination

Anatomy of the Urinary System

The urinary system, also known as the renal system, consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra, which collectively function to filter blood, produce urine, and maintain fluid and electrolyte balance in the body.^[19] The kidneys are the primary filtration units, located retroperitoneally on either side of the spine just below the rib cage, each measuring approximately 11-14 cm in length and shaped like beans.^[20] Internally, each kidney contains about 1 million nephrons, the microscopic functional units responsible for urine formation. A nephron comprises a glomerulus—a network of capillaries surrounded by Bowman's capsule—followed by a renal tubule that includes the proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, and collecting duct; these structures facilitate blood filtration, reabsorption of essential substances, and secretion of wastes.^[21]^[20] From the kidneys, urine travels through the ureters, paired muscular tubes about 25-30 cm long that extend from the renal pelvis to the bladder, propelled by peristaltic contractions occurring every 10-15 seconds to prevent backflow and potential infections.^[21] The urinary bladder, a hollow, muscular organ situated in the pelvic cavity, serves as a temporary storage sac, capable of holding up to 400-500 mL of urine in adults before triggering the urge to void.^[19] The urethra, the final conduit, carries urine from the bladder to the external urethral orifice; it measures approximately 4 cm in females and 20 cm in males, with the shorter length in females contributing to a higher risk of urinary tract infections by allowing easier bacterial ascent to the bladder.^[22]^[23] Control of urine flow is maintained by two urethral sphincters: the internal urethral sphincter, composed of smooth muscle at the bladder's neck and involuntarily controlled by the autonomic nervous system, and the external urethral sphincter, made of striated muscle that provides voluntary control via somatic innervation.^[24] The internal sphincter remains contracted during urine storage through sympathetic innervation from the thoracolumbar spinal cord (T10-L2), while relaxation occurs via parasympathetic signals from the sacral spinal cord (S2-S4) during voiding.^[25] The external sphincter is innervated by the pudendal nerve (S2-S4), enabling conscious regulation of urination, with overall coordination involving sensory feedback from bladder stretch receptors to the brain.^[24] Labeled anatomical diagrams illustrating these structures, such as sagittal views of the urinary tract and nephron cross-sections, are recommended for visual clarity in educational contexts.^[26]

Mechanism of Urine Production and Excretion

Urine production begins in the nephrons of the kidneys through three sequential processes: glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion.^[27] Glomerular filtration occurs in the glomerulus, where blood plasma is passively filtered across a semipermeable barrier consisting of fenestrated endothelium, basement membrane, and podocyte foot processes, driven by hydrostatic pressure of approximately 55 mmHg.^[27] This process produces a filtrate containing water, ions, glucose, amino acids, and small molecules, but excludes blood cells and most proteins, at a rate known as the glomerular filtration rate (GFR).^[27] The GFR is governed by Starling forces and can be expressed as:

\text{GFR} = K_f \left[ (P_{GC} - P_{BS}) - \sigma (\pi_{GC} - \pi_{BS}) \right]

where K_f is the filtration coefficient reflecting membrane permeability and surface area, P_{GC} is glomerular capillary hydrostatic pressure (favoring filtration), P_{BS} is Bowman's space hydrostatic pressure (opposing filtration), \sigma is the reflection coefficient for proteins, \pi_{GC} is glomerular capillary oncotic pressure (opposing filtration due to protein concentration), and \pi_{BS} is Bowman's space oncotic pressure (typically near zero, favoring filtration).^[3] A normal GFR in adults is approximately 120-125 mL/min, or about 180 L/day, though most filtrate is subsequently reabsorbed.^[27]^[3] Following filtration, tubular reabsorption in the renal tubules recovers essential substances from the filtrate back into the bloodstream. In the proximal convoluted tubule, about 65% of sodium ions (Na⁺), water, glucose, and amino acids are reabsorbed via active transport and osmosis; the descending loop of Henle reabsorbs water passively, while the ascending loop actively reabsorbs Na⁺, potassium (K⁺), and chloride (Cl⁻) without water.^[27] The distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts fine-tune reabsorption, with aldosterone promoting Na⁺ retention and parathyroid hormone (PTH) enhancing calcium (Ca²⁺) uptake, ensuring plasma homeostasis.^[27] Tubular secretion complements reabsorption by actively transporting additional wastes and excess ions from the peritubular capillaries into the tubular lumen, primarily in the proximal and distal tubules as well as collecting ducts.^[27] This includes secretion of K⁺, hydrogen ions (H⁺) for pH regulation, ammonia, creatinine, and organic acids or bases such as drugs and metabolites, preventing their accumulation in the body.^[27] The net result of these processes yields urine at an average daily output of 1-2 liters in healthy adults, varying with intake.^[28] Excretion of urine, or micturition, is regulated by the micturition reflex, a spinobulbospinal pathway coordinated by the pontine micturition center in the brainstem.^[29] During the filling stage, the bladder accommodates up to 400-600 mL of urine as the detrusor muscle (bladder wall smooth muscle) relaxes under sympathetic inhibition, while the internal urethral sphincter and external urethral sphincter maintain closure via sympathetic and somatic (pudendal nerve) inputs, respectively, preventing leakage.^[29] Stretch receptors in the bladder wall signal the spinal cord and pons when volume reaches a threshold, triggering the voiding stage: parasympathetic preganglionic neurons from sacral segments (S2-S4) release acetylcholine to contract the detrusor via M3 muscarinic receptors, while nitric oxide relaxes the internal sphincter, and inhibition of somatic inputs relaxes the external sphincter, expelling urine.^[29] Voluntary control from higher brain centers can delay this reflex until socially appropriate.^[29] Urination frequency, typically 6-7 times per day, is influenced by hydration status, with increased fluid intake elevating output, and by diuretics, which inhibit reabsorption to promote diuresis.^[28] The mammalian urinary system evolved as an adaptation for efficient waste removal and fluid balance, featuring nephrons with juxtamedullary loops of Henle that establish a medullary osmotic gradient for concentrated urine production, conserving water in terrestrial environments.^[30] Hormonal mechanisms, such as aldosterone for sodium regulation and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) for water reabsorption via aquaporins, further refined osmoregulation, distinguishing mammalian kidneys from those of earlier vertebrates.^[30]

Composition of Urine

Chemical Constituents

Human urine is primarily composed of water, which constitutes approximately 95% of its volume, serving as the main solvent for waste elimination. The chief nitrogenous waste is urea, derived from protein metabolism in the liver, with typical daily excretion ranging from 10 to 35 grams in adults. Other key organic components include creatinine, a byproduct of muscle metabolism excreted at rates of 955–2936 mg per day in males and 601–1689 mg per day in females, and uric acid, the end product of purine metabolism, with normal daily output below 750 mg.^[2] Urine also contains various ions and salts essential for maintaining electrolyte balance, including sodium (41–227 mmol/day), potassium (17–77 mmol/day), chloride (40–224 mmol/day), calcium (less than 250 mg/day in males and 200 mg/day in females), magnesium (51–269 mg/day), and phosphates. The pH of urine typically ranges from 4.5 to 8.0, with an average around 6.0, reflecting the kidneys' role in acid-base regulation. These inorganic constituents help excrete excess salts and maintain osmotic equilibrium in the body.^[2]^[31] Trace organic compounds in urine encompass hormones such as oxytocin and angiotensin II, vitamins like ascorbic acid, and a diverse array of metabolites including citric acid and amino acid derivatives, totaling over 3,000 detectable species. These elements play a critical role in homeostasis by facilitating the removal of metabolic byproducts, regulating fluid and electrolyte levels, and providing indicators of physiological status. For instance, the excretion of excess salts via these ions supports overall ionic balance.^[32]^[2] The composition of urine varies based on factors such as diet and hydration status. A high-protein diet increases urea excretion due to elevated protein breakdown, while adequate hydration dilutes urine solutes, reducing concentrations of urea and other components.^[33]^[2]

Physical Characteristics

Urine typically exhibits a pale yellow to amber color, primarily due to the presence of urochrome, a pigment derived from the breakdown of hemoglobin.^[34] This coloration can vary from light straw-yellow in well-hydrated individuals to darker amber shades when dehydration concentrates the urine.^[35] Dietary factors may also influence hue; for instance, consumption of beets or blackberries can temporarily tint urine reddish or pinkish.^[35] The odor of urine is generally mild and described as aromatic or slightly nutty, but it arises from the breakdown of urea into ammonia, which imparts a subtle ammoniacal scent upon exposure to air.^[20] Certain foods can alter this temporarily; asparagus, for example, produces a distinctive sulfurous aroma due to the metabolism of asparagusic acid into volatile sulfur compounds like methanethiol.^[36] Urine density, measured as specific gravity, normally ranges from 1.005 to 1.030, reflecting the concentration of solutes relative to water and varying with hydration status—higher values indicate more concentrated urine from reduced fluid intake.^[37] Daily urine volume in adults typically falls between 800 and 2,000 milliliters, influenced by fluid consumption and influenced by overall intake, with averages around 1,500 milliliters under normal conditions.^[4] Fresh urine is usually clear and transparent, with no visible sediment, though slight cloudiness may occur from mucus or phosphates.^[35] Occasional foaminess can appear upon urination due to the presence of proteins or rapid flow, but it dissipates quickly in normal samples.^[35]

Health and Medical Aspects

Normal Variations and Abnormalities

Normal urination patterns in healthy adults typically involve voiding 4 to 8 times per day, with an average frequency of 5.5 to 6.7 voids.^[38] The volume per void generally ranges from 200 to 400 mL, aligning with a functional bladder capacity of approximately 300 to 400 mL.^[39] Total daily urine output for adults is normally 800 to 2,000 mL, assuming adequate fluid intake of about 2 liters per day.^[40] These patterns vary by age and gender. Infants urinate frequently, often every 1 to 3 hours or 4 to 6 times per day, with newborns voiding about once per hour at an average volume of 23 mL per void.^[41]^[42] In children, frequency decreases gradually, reaching 3 to 7 voids per day by school age.^[43] Gender differences are minimal in healthy individuals, though men may have slightly higher voided volumes due to larger bladder capacity, averaging up to 700 mL compared to 500 mL in women.^[44] Abnormalities in urination frequency, volume, or characteristics often signal underlying health issues. Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are common, affecting 50% to 60% of women at least once in their lifetime.^[45] Symptoms include a burning sensation during urination (dysuria), frequent urges to void small amounts, and lower abdominal pain.^[46] UTIs arise from bacterial invasion of the urinary tract, leading to inflammation; dehydration exacerbates risk by concentrating urine and reducing flushing of bacteria.^[47] Urinary incontinence involves involuntary urine leakage and affects millions, with types including stress incontinence, where leakage occurs during activities like coughing or exercising due to weakened pelvic floor muscles, and urge incontinence, characterized by a sudden, intense need to urinate followed by leakage from bladder overactivity.^[48] Kidney stones form when urine contains excess crystal-forming substances, such as calcium or uric acid, that the fluid cannot dilute, leading to crystallization and aggregation into solid masses that cause severe flank pain, hematuria, and obstructive symptoms.^[49] Key risk factors for these abnormalities include dehydration, which promotes stone formation and UTIs by increasing urinary concentration; diabetes mellitus, which induces polyuria (excessive urination over 2.5 liters daily) due to osmotic diuresis from high blood glucose, heightening infection risk; and in males, prostate issues like benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), which enlarges the gland and obstructs urine flow, causing frequency, urgency, and incomplete emptying.^[50]^[51]^[52]^[53] Variations in urine composition, such as elevated solute levels, can contribute to these conditions by favoring crystal precipitation.^[54]

Diagnostic Uses in Medicine

Urine analysis, known historically as uroscopy, has been employed for diagnostic purposes since ancient times, with early practitioners like Hippocrates in the 4th century BC examining urine's color, texture, sediment, odor, and volume to infer internal imbalances.^[55] By the medieval period, uroscopy evolved into a more systematic practice, including sensory assessments such as taste and smell, and reached its peak as a visual science with tools like the "Urine Wheel" chart correlating urine appearance to diseases.^[55] The transition to modern urinalysis occurred in the 19th century, spurred by advancements in microscopy and chemistry; for instance, Richard Bright's work in the 1820s linked albuminuria to kidney disease, while the invention of the dipstick in the mid-20th century enabled rapid chemical testing.^[35] Post-19th century milestones include the 1983 correlation of pyuria with bacteriuria for infection diagnosis and the 2002 validation of dipstick sensitivity for urinary tract infections (UTIs).^[55] Contemporary urinalysis serves as a cornerstone for diagnosing and monitoring various conditions by evaluating urine's physical, chemical, and microscopic properties. The macroscopic examination assesses color (typically yellow), clarity (clear), odor, and specific gravity (1.002-1.035), with abnormalities like cloudiness or hematuria signaling potential infections, dehydration, or trauma.^[35] Chemical analysis, often via dipstick tests, detects parameters such as pH (normal 4.5-8.0), glucose (negative in health), protein (≤150 mg/day), ketones, bilirubin, nitrites, and leukocyte esterase; elevated glucose may indicate uncontrolled diabetes, while proteinuria suggests kidney damage, and nitrites or leukocytes point to UTIs.^[56] Microscopic examination reveals cellular elements, including red blood cells (0-5 per high-power field), white blood cells, casts (e.g., hyaline ≤5 per low-power field), crystals, and bacteria, aiding in identifying glomerulonephritis, stones, or infections.^[35] Specific diagnostic applications leverage these components for targeted conditions. Pregnancy testing detects human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in urine, with over-the-counter assays sensitive to levels >20-25 mIU/mL as early as one day post-missed period, confirming implantation via immunoassay. Drug screening identifies metabolites like benzoylecgonine for cocaine or 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC for cannabis, with detection windows varying by usage (e.g., up to one week for intermittent users), using immunoassays followed by confirmatory mass spectrometry.^[57] For diabetes monitoring, urine glucose testing, though less precise than blood tests, screens for glycosuria (threshold ~180 mg/dL blood glucose) in resource-limited settings or as a backup, with historical roots in 19th-century methods but now supplemented by hemoglobin A1c.^[58] Advanced methods provide quantitative insights into renal function. The 24-hour urine collection measures total protein excretion (≥3 g/day indicating nephrotic syndrome) and creatinine clearance, calculated as (urine creatinine × volume) / plasma creatinine to estimate glomerular filtration rate (normal 90-120 mL/min), aiding in chronic kidney disease staging and preeclampsia evaluation.^[59] Imaging techniques, such as ultrasound, complement urine analysis by visualizing structural issues; it detects hydronephrosis, stones, or tumors in kidneys and bladder without radiation, often prompted by abnormal urinalysis findings like persistent hematuria.^[60] Recent advancements as of 2025 have further enhanced urinalysis capabilities, including automated urinary sediment analyzers like the FUS-3000 Plus for improved efficiency and accuracy in microscopic examination, digital urine testing systems such as Alpha Labs UTS for dipstick-free point-of-care analysis, and molecular-based technologies for rapid UTI pathogen identification, reducing diagnostic turnaround time and addressing antibiotic resistance challenges.^[61]^[62]^[63]

Language and Taboos

In English-speaking cultures, urination is often discussed through euphemisms to maintain politeness and avoid direct reference to bodily functions, serving as a strategy for face-saving in social interactions. Common phrases include "powder one's nose," primarily used by women to imply a trip to the restroom for privacy reasons, and "spend a penny," a British idiom originating from the cost of using public pay toilets in the early 20th century. Other examples encompass "take a leak," "wee," and "tinkle," which soften the act in casual conversation while adhering to norms of decorum.^[64] Societal taboos surrounding urination manifest in legal prohibitions against public acts, often classified under indecent exposure or disorderly conduct statutes to preserve public decency. In the United States, public urination is illegal nationwide, typically resulting in misdemeanor charges with penalties such as fines up to $500, up to one year in jail, or community service, and in some states like California or Georgia, it may escalate to a sex offense requiring offender registration if witnessed by minors. These laws underscore broader etiquette norms discouraging visible urination in shared spaces. Gender-segregated restroom facilities, a key enforcement mechanism, trace their origins to 19th-century hygiene movements amid cholera outbreaks and urbanization, when sanitarians promoted separate spheres ideology to shield women—viewed as morally vulnerable—from mixed environments; Massachusetts enacted the first such U.S. law in 1887, mandating facilities for female workers, with over 40 states following by 1920.^[65]^[66]^[67] Media representations of urination frequently employ humor to navigate taboos, appearing in potty training advertisements that use lighthearted scenarios to normalize the process for children and parents, such as animated characters celebrating successful toilet use to reduce parental anxiety. In literature and television, it surfaces comically, as in HBO's Succession, where urination symbolizes power dynamics and vulnerability among elites, or in children's books like the Captain Underpants series, which incorporates scatological gags for comedic relief. However, formal speech and professional media largely avoid direct mentions, reflecting persistent cultural reticence to discuss elimination openly.^[68]^[69] Cross-cultural attitudes toward urination reveal varying taboos, with stricter norms in Japan emphasizing cleanliness and privacy—evidenced by surveys showing 60% of men urinate seated at home to minimize splash and odor, a practice promoted for hygiene in shared living spaces—contrasted against more casual European approaches, such as Germany's "Sitzpinkler" campaigns encouraging men to sit for tidiness, or informal tolerances in some urban settings where public relief is occasionally overlooked if discreet. In both regions, overt discussion remains taboo in polite company, though Japan's focus on domestic etiquette heightens avoidance compared to Europe's pragmatic public discourse.^[70]^[71]

Historical and Symbolic Roles

In ancient Egypt, urine examination, known as uroscopy, was a foundational diagnostic practice, with physicians inspecting its color, consistency, and odor to assess health conditions as documented in medical papyri like the Ebers Papyrus from around 1550 BCE.^[72] This method reflected an early empirical approach to medicine, where urine served as a window into internal bodily states.^[73] Similarly, in ancient Rome, urine played a practical role in sanitation and industry; public latrines, or foricae, collected it systematically for reuse in fulling cloth, leveraging its ammonia content as a natural detergent, a practice so economically significant that Emperor Vespasian imposed a tax on urine collectors in the 1st century CE.^[74] These communal facilities, often accommodating dozens, integrated urine management into urban infrastructure, highlighting its value beyond mere waste.^[75] During the medieval and Renaissance periods, urine found agricultural application as a nutrient-rich fertilizer, particularly in Europe where it was collected from households and latrines to enrich soil for crops, a tradition echoing Roman practices but adapted to feudal farming systems.^[76] In alchemical pursuits, urine was viewed as a prima materia essential for various transmutative processes.^[77] Symbolically, urine appeared in religious texts as a marker of purity and impurity; in the Hebrew Bible, such as Leviticus 15, bodily discharges including urine rendered individuals ritually unclean, necessitating purification rites to restore communal holiness, while Proverbs 5:15 metaphorically invoked "drinking waters" from one's own spring—interpreted by some scholars as alluding to urine—to symbolize fidelity and prosperity.^[78] These references underscored urine's dual role in denoting both vital life force and defilement requiring separation from the sacred.^[79] The 20th century marked a profound shift in urine's handling with the widespread adoption of indoor plumbing, beginning in urban areas post-1900 and reaching over 90% of U.S. households by the 1970s, which privatized excretion and reduced communal collection, diminishing its visibility in daily life and industry.^[80] In art and literature, urine emerged as a provocative symbol during this era, notably in Marcel Duchamp's 1917 readymade Fountain—a signed porcelain urinal—that challenged artistic conventions and elevated everyday waste to critique bourgeois excess.^[81] Surrealist influences extended this, with works like Andres Serrano's 1987 Piss Christ, immersing a crucifix in urine to provoke debates on sacrilege and cultural taboos, positioning urine as a metaphor for societal overindulgence and moral decay.^[82] Across cultures, urine held symbolic weight in fertility rites, such as in ancient Hindu and Tantric traditions where it was deemed sacred and incorporated into rituals for purification and procreation, believed to channel vital energies.^[79] In Zoroastrianism and Hinduism, cow urine featured in ceremonies symbolizing renewal and abundance, applied in agricultural blessings to invoke prosperous yields. More broadly, urine often metaphorized societal excess in historical narratives, representing the superfluous or corruptible aspects of human endeavor, from alchemical wastes to literary depictions of unchecked desire.^[83]

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Could Evening Dietary Protein Intake Play a Role in Nocturnal ... - NIH
Aug 5, 2020 · Accordingly, an increase of urinary urea excretion due to high protein diet may lead to urea-induced osmotic diuresis. This study aims to ...
[33]
The Effect of Hydration on Urine Color Objectively Evaluated in CIE ...
Oct 26, 2020 · As dehydration increases, the concentration of yellow urochrome in urine increases as less water is being voided.
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Urinalysis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Physical examination describes the volume, color, clarity, odor, and specific gravity. ... USG is defined as the ratio between the density of urine and the ...
[35]
Microbiota and Malodor—Etiology and Management - PMC - NIH
For example, shortly after ingestion of asparagus urine might have a distinct sulfurous smell (reminiscing cooked cabbage) in some individuals. Although exact ...
[36]
Urine specific gravity test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia
Aug 20, 2023 · The normal range for urine specific gravity is 1.005 to 1.030. Normal value ranges may vary slightly among different laboratories. Some labs ...
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Urine 24-hour volume: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia
Aug 20, 2023 · The urine 24-hour volume test measures the amount of urine produced in a day. The amounts of creatinine, protein, and other chemicals released into the urine ...
[38]
Urinary frequency in community-dwelling women: What is normal?
This number is consistent with published estimates for normal urinary frequency of 5.5 to 6.7 voids per day. ... urine production and a decrease in nighttime ...
[39]
A healthy bladder: a consensus statement - PMC - NIH
Normal functional bladder capacity in adults ranges from approximately 300 to 400 ml (58,59). Although the International Continence Society defines urinary ...
[40]
Urine 24-hour volume: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia
Aug 20, 2023 · The normal range for 24-hour urine volume is 800 to 2,000 milliliters per day (with a normal fluid intake of about 2 liters per day). The ...
[41]
Baby's First Days: Bowel Movements & Urination - HealthyChildren.org
Nov 14, 2024 · Your baby may urinate (pee) as often as every one to three hours or as infrequently as four to six times a day.
[42]
Voiding pattern in healthy newborns - PubMed
All newborns voided with a stream, about once per hour, with a median volume of 23 mL. For each voiding parameter, there was a large inter- and intra-individual ...
[43]
The Prevalence of Bowel and Bladder Function During Early ... - NIH
Most children urinated 3–7 times a day (67%). The urinary frequency decreased in older children (Fig. 1C). We found a correlation between the children's age ...Missing: gender | Show results with:gender
[44]
In brief: How does the urinary system work? - InformedHealth.org
Mar 29, 2022 · About 1.7 liters of urine are produced like this each day. The urine passes from the kidneys through the ureter into the urinary bladder, where ...
[45]
An introduction to the epidemiology and burden of urinary tract ... - NIH
Between 50% and 60% of adult women will have at least one UTI in their life, and close to 10% of postmenopausal women indicate that they had a UTI in the ...
[46]
Urinary tract infection (UTI) - Symptoms and causes - Mayo Clinic
Sep 26, 2025 · Common symptoms of urinary tract infection include: A burning feeling when urinating. A strong urge to urinate that doesn't go away.
[47]
Dehydration - Symptoms & causes - Mayo Clinic
May 2, 2025 · Long-lasting or repeated bouts of dehydration can cause urinary tract infections, kidney stones and even kidney failure. Seizures ...
[48]
Urinary incontinence - Symptoms and causes - Mayo Clinic
Feb 9, 2023 · Stress incontinence. Urine leaks when you exert pressure on your bladder by coughing, sneezing, laughing, exercising or lifting something heavy.Diagnosis and treatment · Bladder control problems · Adult bed-wetting: A concern?
[49]
Kidney stones - Symptoms and causes - Mayo Clinic
Apr 4, 2025 · Kidney stones develop when the urine contains more crystal-forming substances than the fluid in the urine can dilute.
[50]
Urination - excessive amount: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia
Jul 1, 2023 · An excessive volume of urination for an adult is more than 2.5 liters (about 67 fluid ounces or about 2.6 quarts) of urine per day.
[51]
Diabetes - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
It often presents asymptomatically, but when symptoms develop, patients usually present with polyuria, polydipsia, and weight loss. On physical examination of ...
[52]
Urinary tract infections in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus - NIH
Factors that were found to enhance the risk for UTI in diabetics include age, metabolic control, and long term complications, primarily diabetic nephropathy and ...Missing: polyuria dehydration
[53]
Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) - Symptoms and causes
Sep 24, 2024 · Common symptoms of BPH include: Frequent or urgent need to pee, also called urination. Peeing more often at night.Diagnosis and treatment · Enlarged prostate: Does diet... · Care at Mayo Clinic
[54]
Renal Calculi, Nephrolithiasis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Renal calculi are a common cause of blood in the urine (hematuria) and pain in the abdomen, flank, or groin. They occur in 1 in 11 people at some time in their ...Renal Calculi... · Etiology · Treatment / Management
[55]
Urinalysis in Medical Diagnosis: the Historical and Contemporary ...
It can be a useful guiding tool in diagnosing various conditions such as kidney stones, infections, diabetes, acute or chronic kidney injury, and metabolic ...
[56]
Urinalysis - Mayo Clinic
Oct 24, 2023 · A urinalysis is a test of your urine. It's used to detect and manage a wide range of disorders, such as urinary tract infections, kidney disease and diabetes.
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Drug Testing - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Drug testing detects the presence or absence of a drug or its metabolites in a biological sample. This process can be completed in a variety of settings and ...
[58]
Urine testing for diabetic analysis - PMC - NIH
Although not as accurate as a blood glucose test, urine testing can be used as a screening tool in patients known to have diabetes.
[59]
24-Hour Urine Collection and Analysis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Oct 6, 2024 · The average daily creatinine excretion is 18 to 25 mg/kg for males and 15 to 20 mg/kg for females. A lower-than-expected creatinine excretion ...
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Urinary Tract Imaging - NIDDK
Bladder ultrasound can give information about the bladder wall, diverticula (pouches) of the bladder, bladder stones, and large tumors in the bladder. Kidney ...What is the urinary tract? · What symptoms could require... · What are the imaging...
[61]
[PDF] Euphemistic expressions and strategies used by Egyptian speakers ...
Jan 2, 2020 · usually use expressions such as 'powder one's nose' or 'take a leak' to excuse themselves from ... They also mentioned the example: “spend a penny ...
[62]
Public Urination Laws and Penalties - Criminal Defense Lawyer
Nov 18, 2022 · Peeing in Public is Illegal Under State Law Though less common, a harsher approach is to charge people who pee in public with indecent exposure ...
[63]
How did bathrooms get to be separated by gender in the first place?
Jun 11, 2016 · The 'natural' separation of men and women in these spaces arose less than 200 years ago, as part of a pervasive ideology of separation and dominance.
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The Weird History of Gender-Segregated Bathrooms | Live Science
May 9, 2016 · The first gender-segregated public restroom on record was a temporary setup at a Parisian ball in 1739, said Sheila Cavanagh, a sociologist at ...
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Just laugh! Potty training humor to make you LOL - Kandoo Kids
This hilarious potty training humor will help you laugh, even while your toddlers are smearing poop on the walls. From funny jokes to potty training truths, ...
[66]
Piss and Power in “Succession” | The New Yorker
Nov 16, 2021 · In “Succession,” too, peeing isn't in and of itself a sign of domination, although the ability to control when and where to pee, for oneself and ...
[67]
Toilet Habits: Japanese Men Prefer to Sit When at Home | Nippon.com
Jan 16, 2025 · A survey found that on average men preferred sitting to standing while urinating, with higher percentages for younger and married men.
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Wayward aiming Japanese men take a seat in smallest room
Dec 13, 2007 · The poll of married couples by Matsushita Electric Works revealed that 49% of men urinate while sitting down following complaints from their ...
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A brief history of urine examination - From ancient uroscopy to 21st ...
The art of uroscopy (Greek ouron-urine and skopeo-examination), the visual inspection of urine, is as old as the history of mankind.
[70]
The History of Urinalysis. From ancient practices to modern ...
Urinalysis began in ancient Egypt, Babylon, India, and China. It evolved with the 19th-century germ theory, the 1950s dipstick, and now uses digital tech.
[71]
Money Does Not Stink: The Urine Tax of Ancient Rome
Jul 12, 2015 · Ancient laundries even used to collect urine in giant clay pots which were placed out in public for people to relieve themselves. Eventually, so ...
[72]
Urine in ancient Rome - IMPERIUM ROMANUM
Mar 14, 2023 · Urine was used to cleaning everything from clothes to floors, and even to clean the streets in Rome itself. In fact, there were public urinals ...
[73]
From Urine to Fertilizer: How the Ancient Romans Teach ... - P2Green
To recover phosphorus and other vital nutrients from wastewater and organic residues, and return them to agricultural soils, reducing our dependence on chemical ...
[74]
The Aurora of the philosophers by Paracelsus | Sacred Texts Archive
Dissolve this in its own aquafortis, and throw it into cold water, adding a little of the crocus of Mars, so that it may sink to the bottom of the vessel as ...
[75]
Spirituality in the Laws of Purity - Jewish Theological Seminary
Apr 5, 2003 · According to this theory, one becomes impure upon contact with death or with the loss of potential life. Indeed, the greatest source of impurity ...
[76]
The historical relevance of urine and its future implications - GIN
Jan 26, 2018 · An interesting and future perspective use of the urine could be its use as fertilizer for agriculture. In fact the substances content in the ...
[77]
When Did Indoor Plumbing Become Common?
Jun 16, 2025 · Plumbing Becomes Accessible: 1900s to Post-War America. The 20th century marked real progress in making plumbing available to more households:.
[78]
How Duchamp's Urinal Changed Art Forever | Artsy
May 9, 2017 · Let's take a moment to recall that Monsieur Duchamp took a urinal, turned it upside down, signed it “R. Mutt,” and submitted it to a salon; the ...
[79]
A Secret History of the Pissing Figure in Art | The New Yorker
Sep 20, 2017 · By the fifteenth century, he'd grown brazen and begun to multiply—“processions of urinating children set about inundating paintings and ...
[80]
Cow urine - Wikipedia
It has a sacred role in Zoroastrianism and Hinduism. Urophagia, the consumption of urine, was used in several ancient cultures for various health, healing, and ...
[81]
Troubled Waters: Reading Urine in Medieval Medicine
Apr 19, 2023 · Urine could be used to uncover an individual's sexual history. The water of a “constant virgin” would be “wan and extremely calm”, and ...

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