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Pickering emulsion

A Pickering emulsion is a type of emulsion consisting of two immiscible liquids, such as oil and water, that is stabilized exclusively by solid colloidal particles adsorbed at the liquid-liquid interface, without the use of molecular surfactants.^[1] These particles, which must be partially wettable by both phases, form a robust, densely packed armor around the emulsion droplets, providing exceptional mechanical and thermodynamic stability against coalescence and Ostwald ripening.^[2] The phenomenon was first observed by British physiologist Walter Ramsden in 1903, who noted the ability of solid particles to form persistent emulsions, and was subsequently elaborated by chemist Spencer Umfreville Pickering in 1907, after whom the emulsions are named.^[3]^[4] The key advantage of Pickering emulsions over traditional surfactant-stabilized ones lies in their irreversible particle adsorption, which creates a high energy barrier to droplet merging, often resulting in shelf-life stability exceeding months or years under ambient conditions.^[2] This stability stems from the particles' partial hydrophobicity and hydrophilicity, quantified by the contact angle at the interface, typically around 90° for optimal stabilization of oil-in-water or water-in-oil systems.^[5] Additionally, the absence of surfactants reduces potential issues like skin irritation, environmental persistence, or toxicity, making Pickering emulsions particularly appealing for health-sensitive applications.^[2] Pickering emulsions have gained significant interest in recent decades for their versatility, with applications spanning food science for encapsulating bioactive lipids and flavors to enhance nutritional delivery and shelf life; pharmaceuticals for sustained drug release and improved bioavailability of poorly soluble compounds; cosmetics for stable, natural-ingredient formulations; and materials engineering for templating porous structures or advanced composites.^[6]^[7] Emerging research emphasizes sustainable stabilizers, such as biopolymer nanoparticles or natural minerals, to align with green chemistry principles and broaden industrial scalability.^[8]

Definition and Fundamentals

Definition

A Pickering emulsion is a type of emulsion comprising two immiscible liquids, typically oil and water, where one liquid is dispersed as droplets within the other.^[9] Unlike conventional emulsions stabilized by molecular surfactants, Pickering emulsions rely exclusively on solid particles that adsorb at the oil-water interface to prevent droplet coalescence.^[10] The term "Pickering emulsion" originates from the observations of Spencer Umfreville Pickering, who in 1907 described the stabilization of such systems using solid particles.^[4] These emulsions exhibit high stability due to the irreversible adsorption of particles at the interface, forming a robust physical barrier.^[10] Pickering emulsions can form as either oil-in-water (O/W) or water-in-oil (W/O) systems, with the type determined by the wettability of the stabilizing particles.^[11]

Key Characteristics

Pickering emulsions are distinguished by their exceptional long-term stability, primarily arising from the formation of a densely packed layer of solid particles at the oil-water interface, which provides steric hindrance that effectively prevents droplet coalescence and Ostwald ripening. This physical barrier contrasts with surfactant-stabilized emulsions, where molecular surfactants can desorb more readily, leading to instability over time. Studies have demonstrated that such emulsions can remain stable for months or even years under ambient conditions, making them suitable for applications requiring durability without additional stabilizers.^[1] The typical droplet sizes in Pickering emulsions range from submicron scales (e.g., around 300 nm) to several micrometers (up to 50 μm), depending on the emulsification method and particle properties, often resulting in uniform appearance and enhanced resistance to creaming or sedimentation. Furthermore, the attachment of solid particles to the interface is highly irreversible, with adsorption energies typically exceeding $10^4 k_B T (where k_B T is the thermal energy at room temperature), ensuring that particles remain bound even under shear or thermal fluctuations.^[12] A key advantage of Pickering emulsions is their environmental friendliness, as they eliminate the need for synthetic surfactants, thereby reducing potential toxicity and ecological impact in formulations used in cosmetics, food, or biomedical applications. This surfactant-free nature enhances biocompatibility, particularly when natural or food-grade particles like cellulose or starch are employed. Additionally, their versatility allows for the formation of either oil-in-water or water-in-oil emulsions by tuning the hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity balance of the particles, typically controlled via the three-phase contact angle (θ < 90° for oil-in-water and θ > 90° for water-in-oil).^[1]^[13]

History

Discovery

The discovery of Pickering emulsions occurred within the broader investigations into colloid chemistry in the early 20th century, where researchers explored the behavior of finely divided particles in liquid systems. Spencer Umfreville Pickering, a British chemist, published his seminal findings in 1907 in the Journal of the Chemical Society. In this work, he described the formation of remarkably stable emulsions using inorganic particles as the sole stabilizing agents, without the addition of conventional emulsifiers such as soaps.^[14] Pickering's experiments involved simple mixing of oils, such as benzene or olive oil, with aqueous suspensions of finely divided inorganic particles. He focused particularly on basic salts and metal hydroxides, including hydrated iron oxides (like ferrous hydroxide and higher oxides of iron) and precipitates such as those formed by adding sodium carbonate to copper sulfate solutions. These particles, when dispersed in water and agitated with oil, adsorbed at the oil-water interface, leading to the unexpected creation of stable emulsions—either oil-in-water or water-in-oil depending on the particle type and conditions.^[14] The stability observed was a key surprise, as Pickering noted that these emulsions exhibited exceptional permanence compared to those prepared with traditional methods: "Besides the facility and certainty with which these emulsions can be made, they possess the advantage of being much more permanent than emulsions made with soap. No single instance has yet occurred in which any one of them has de-emulsified spontaneously." This observation highlighted the potential of particle-interface stabilization, laying the groundwork for understanding colloid-based emulsification.^[14]

Subsequent Developments

Although Walter Ramsden independently observed the stabilization of emulsions by solid particles in 1903, prior to Spencer Umfreville Pickering's seminal 1907 publication, it was Pickering's work that formalized the concept of particle-stabilized emulsions, distinguishing them from surfactant-based systems due to their enhanced durability.^[15] Research on Pickering emulsions experienced a revival in the mid-20th century, particularly through the studies of J.H. Schulman and colleagues in the 1940s and 1950s, who investigated the role of particle wettability in emulsion formation and stability using barium sulfate particles to demonstrate how contact angles at the oil-water interface determine the preferred emulsion type (oil-in-water or water-in-oil).^[15] By the 1960s, early industrial interest emerged, with studies exploring the use of solid emulsifiers to enhance emulsion stability.^[15] The field saw a significant resurgence in the late 1990s and 2000s, driven by Bernard P. Binks' research on synthesizing and modifying particles with tailored wettability—through techniques like silanization of silica—to achieve controlled emulsion types and improved performance, laying the groundwork for more predictable particle-based stabilization.^[16]^[15] A pivotal review by Binks in 2002, published in Current Opinion in Colloid & Interface Science, synthesized these advancements, comparing particle behavior to traditional surfactants and highlighting their potential in interfacial science, which spurred further academic and applied interest up to the late 20th century.

Stabilization Mechanism

Particle Adsorption

In Pickering emulsions, solid particles adsorb at the oil-water interface through a process driven by the reduction in interfacial free energy, where particles spontaneously migrate to the interface upon emulsification to minimize the system's overall energy. This adsorption is facilitated by the particles' partial wettability by both the oil and water phases, allowing them to position themselves at the interface and form a physical barrier that prevents droplet coalescence.^[17]^[10] The effectiveness of particle adsorption depends on the three-phase contact angle θ, measured through the aqueous phase, which characterizes the particles' affinity for each phase. For stable emulsions, θ typically ranges from 60° to 120°, with values closer to 90° providing optimal stabilization due to balanced wetting properties that maximize interfacial attachment. Particles with θ < 90° preferentially stabilize oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions, while those with θ > 90° favor water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions. Partial wettability requires θ between approximately 20° and 160° for positive adsorption energy, but narrower ranges ensure sufficient stability.^[18] Once adsorbed, particles form a densely packed monolayer—or occasionally multilayer—at the droplet surface, creating an armored coating that imparts exceptional stability. The irreversibility of this adsorption is quantified by the desorption energy ΔE, given by

\Delta E = \pi r^{2} \gamma (1 \pm \cos \theta)^{2}

where r is the particle radius, \gamma is the oil-water interfacial tension, and the \pm sign is chosen based on the phase into which the particle is desorbed (+ for desorption into oil in O/W systems, - for desorption into water in W/O systems); this energy is often on the order of 10^4 to 10^6 kT (where kT is thermal energy), far exceeding thermal fluctuations and thus preventing desorption under normal conditions. Representative examples include hydrophobically modified silica particles (θ > 90°) for stabilizing W/O emulsions and hydrophilic clay particles like laponite (θ < 90°) for O/W emulsions.^[18]^[19]

Thermodynamic Basis

The adsorption of solid particles at the oil-water interface in Pickering emulsions minimizes the system's interfacial free energy by replacing high-energy fluid-fluid contact with lower-energy fluid-solid interfaces. This thermodynamic driving force is particularly effective for particles with partial wettability, where the three-phase contact angle θ (measured through the aqueous phase) lies between approximately 20° and 160°, allowing the particles to straddle the interface and reduce the effective interfacial area exposed. For stable emulsions, θ in the 60°-120° range provides high desorption energy.^[18] The magnitude of this energy gain is quantified by the desorption energy ΔE required to remove a spherical particle from the interface into one of the bulk phases, given by

\Delta E = \pi r^{2} \gamma (1 \pm \cos \theta)^{2}

where r is the particle radius, \gamma is the oil-water interfacial tension, and the \pm sign applies depending on the desorption phase (+ for into oil, - for into water). For typical values (e.g., r \approx 1 \, \mu \mathrm{m}, \gamma \approx 10-50 \, \mathrm{mN/m}, \theta \approx 90^\circ), ΔE ranges from $10^{4} to $10^{6} k_\mathrm{B}T (with k_\mathrm{B} Boltzmann's constant and T temperature), far exceeding thermal fluctuations and rendering adsorption effectively irreversible.^[18]^[19] This high desorption barrier contrasts sharply with surfactant-stabilized emulsions, where molecular adsorption is reversible due to desorption energies of only 10-50 k_\mathrm{B}T, allowing dynamic exchange and equilibrium at the interface; in Pickering systems, the energetic penalty suppresses Brownian-induced detachment, conferring exceptional kinetic stability against coalescence.^[17] Particle size influences the thermodynamics through the r^2 scaling: smaller particles yield lower ΔE per particle (e.g., halving r quarters ΔE), but require greater numbers for complete interfacial coverage, often resulting in enhanced overall stability due to denser packing and reduced Ostwald ripening.^[19] Entropy contributions arise from particle crowding at the interface, where restricted mobility and packing reduce configurational entropy, promoting a jammed state that imparts rigidity to the shell and further stabilizes the emulsion against deformation.^[10]

Preparation Methods

Particle Selection

Solid particles suitable for stabilizing Pickering emulsions must meet specific criteria to ensure irreversible adsorption at the oil-water interface, providing mechanical barriers against coalescence. These particles are typically colloidal in nature, with sizes ranging from 1 nm to 100 μm, which allows them to form densely packed layers around emulsion droplets without significantly altering the overall rheology. Smaller nanoparticles (e.g., 10-100 nm) enable finer droplet control and enhanced stability, while larger microparticles (up to 100 μm) suit coarser emulsions but may limit responsiveness to stimuli. A critical property is moderate hydrophobicity, quantified by the three-phase contact angle θ at the oil-water interface, ideally between 40° and 140° to achieve partial wettability. Particles with θ < 90° preferentially stabilize oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions, protruding more into the aqueous phase, whereas those with θ > 90° favor water-in-oil (W/O) configurations. This range ensures sufficient energy of desorption (often >10^6 kT) for robust attachment, as derived from thermodynamic models.^[20] Optimal stability occurs near θ ≈ 90°, where particles balance affinity for both phases.^[20] Common stabilizers fall into inorganic, organic, and hybrid categories. Inorganic particles, such as silica nanoparticles, clay minerals (e.g., montmorillonite or laponite), and metal oxides like titanium dioxide or iron oxide, offer high availability and tunable surface chemistry, often yielding emulsions stable for months.^[21] Organic stabilizers include biopolymers and natural nanocrystals, exemplified by chitin nanocrystals derived from crustacean shells, which provide cationic surfaces for O/W emulsions with antimicrobial benefits. Hybrid systems, such as latex particles (e.g., polystyrene), combine synthetic precision with functional modifications for versatile applications. Surface modification is essential to fine-tune wettability and prevent aggregation. Techniques like grafting hydrophobic alkyl chains or silanization of silica surfaces (e.g., using dichlorodimethylsilane) shift the contact angle from hydrophilic (<30°) to moderately hydrophobic (70°-110°), enhancing interfacial activity without compromising biocompatibility. These modifications, often performed via covalent bonding, allow precise control over emulsion type and responsiveness.^[21] Effective particle concentration is generally 0.5-5 wt% relative to the emulsion, sufficient to achieve near-complete interfacial coverage (e.g., hexagonal close-packing) while minimizing viscosity buildup or flocculation. Below 0.5 wt%, incomplete coverage leads to droplet coalescence; above 5 wt%, excess particles may form aggregates in the continuous phase. Ensuring monodispersity poses a significant challenge, as polydisperse particles result in heterogeneous coverage, promoting Ostwald ripening where smaller droplets dissolve into larger ones due to Laplace pressure differences. High-quality synthesis methods, such as controlled polymerization for latex or acid hydrolysis for nanocrystals, are prioritized to maintain narrow size distributions (polydispersity index <0.2).

Emulsification Techniques

Pickering emulsions are typically prepared through mechanical or low-energy processes that facilitate the dispersion of one immiscible phase into another while promoting irreversible adsorption of solid particles at the interface. These methods differ from conventional surfactant-stabilized emulsions by relying on the partial wettability of particles to achieve stabilization during formation. High-shear techniques, such as rotor-stator homogenization and ultrasonication, are widely employed to generate fine droplets by applying intense mechanical energy. Rotor-stator homogenization operates at speeds of 5,000 to 30,000 rpm for durations of 30 seconds to several minutes, producing droplets larger than 1 μm with a broad size distribution, as demonstrated in starch granule-stabilized emulsions. Ultrasonication, using frequencies of 20 to 40 kHz for a few minutes, can achieve smaller droplets ranging from 100 nm to 100 μm, such as in graphene oxide-based systems, though it risks contamination from probe materials. High-pressure homogenization, applying pressures up to 240 bar, further refines droplet sizes to 2–200 μm in protein-stabilized emulsions. These methods are advantageous for their rapidity and cost-effectiveness but can elevate temperatures, potentially altering particle properties. Low-energy approaches offer gentler alternatives, minimizing disruption to sensitive particles. Phase inversion involves gradually altering composition, temperature, or pH to invert the emulsion type (e.g., from oil-in-water to water-in-oil), enabling formation with reduced mechanical input, as seen in wettability-tuned silica particle systems. Membrane emulsification employs porous membranes with pore sizes of 10 nm to 10 μm to extrude one phase into the other, yielding highly uniform droplets (3–9 times the pore size, with <5% variation), exemplified by poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) emulsions. These techniques provide precise control over morphology but are slower and less throughput-oriented compared to high-shear methods. Preparation can occur via one-step or two-step processes, depending on particle dispersion strategy. In one-step processes, oil, water, and particles are directly mixed under shear, allowing simultaneous droplet formation and adsorption, as in spontaneous emulsions stabilized by cyclodextrin nanoparticles yielding ~450 nm droplets. Two-step processes involve pre-adsorbing particles onto one phase (e.g., oil droplets) before dispersing into the continuous phase, enhancing interfacial coverage in complex systems like multiple emulsions with distinct particle types for inner and outer interfaces. The choice influences efficiency, with one-step methods suiting simpler formulations. Key parameters govern droplet characteristics and emulsion quality. Shear rate directly controls size, where higher rates reduce diameters below 10 μm, as in rotor-stator processing at 24,000 rpm producing 300 nm droplets in polymer-stabilized systems. Temperature affects phase viscosity and particle mobility, requiring cooling during high-shear to prevent coalescence, while pH modulates particle charge and wettability, optimizing stability in responsive systems like chitosan-based emulsions. Particle concentration also plays a role, with limited coalescence enabling sizes around 40 μm at 25 mg/mL in poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) setups. Scale-up from laboratory to industrial production presents challenges in maintaining uniformity and stability. Rotor-stator homogenizers are readily scalable for batch processes, while high-pressure systems and static mixers facilitate continuous industrial operation, as applied in food-grade emulsions. Membrane and microfluidic methods, though effective at lab scale for monodisperse droplets, face limitations in throughput and require optimization for commercial viability. Overall, these considerations ensure reproducible Pickering emulsions for applications beyond analytics.

Properties and Stability

Stability Factors

Pickering emulsions exhibit exceptional resistance to coalescence and Ostwald ripening primarily due to the formation of a robust mechanical barrier by adsorbed solid particles at the oil-water interface, which provides steric hindrance and prevents droplet fusion or mass transfer between droplets.^[22] This particle layer, often densely packed, inhibits the thinning of the intervening film between approaching droplets, thereby enhancing long-term physical stability compared to conventional surfactant-stabilized systems.^[23] Additionally, the irreversible adsorption of particles minimizes desorption under stress, further contributing to this resistance.^[24] Environmental factors such as pH, ionic strength, and temperature significantly influence the stability of Pickering emulsions by altering particle charge, wettability, and interfacial interactions. For instance, in emulsions stabilized by chitosan particles, stability is high at pH 7 and above due to favorable electrostatic repulsion, but decreases markedly at pH 2, leading to coalescence and creaming as protonation reduces particle repulsion.^[25] Increasing ionic strength, such as with NaCl concentrations from 100 to 500 mM, enhances stability by screening charges and promoting closer particle packing at the interface, reducing creaming.^[25] Temperature effects vary; emulsions remain stable up to 50 °C, but higher temperatures accelerate coalescence by increasing Brownian motion and weakening interfacial films.^[25] The particle coverage fraction at the droplet interface is critical for stability, with sufficient coverage typically required to form a continuous barrier that fully prevents coalescence, while partial coverage can lead to bridging flocculation where particles share between adjacent droplets, promoting aggregation.^[23]^[26] Insufficient coverage allows thin films to rupture more easily under shear or thermal stress, underscoring the need for optimized particle concentrations during preparation.^[27] Pickering emulsions demonstrate superior tolerance to external stresses like freeze-thaw cycles and high salt concentrations relative to surfactant-based systems, owing to the rigid particle shell that resists ice crystal formation and ionic disruptions. For example, protein particle-stabilized emulsions maintain integrity after multiple freeze-thaw cycles with minimal coalescence or phase separation, outperforming molecular surfactant emulsions that often exhibit extensive creaming.^[28] High salt levels, such as 500 mM NaCl, can even enhance stability in certain systems by compacting the interfacial layer, though excessive salinity may induce flocculation in charge-sensitive particles.^[25] Stability is commonly assessed using techniques such as turbidity measurements to monitor creaming or phase separation over time, where a stable emulsion shows minimal changes in backscattered light intensity.^[29] Optical or confocal microscopy provides visual confirmation of droplet integrity and particle distribution, allowing direct observation of coalescence or flocculation events during storage or stress tests.^[30] These methods enable quantitative tracking of destabilization kinetics without invasive sampling.^[29]

Droplet Morphology

In Pickering emulsions, droplet morphology can vary from spherical to non-spherical shapes, such as ellipsoidal or discal forms, primarily influenced by the shape and packing arrangement of the stabilizing particles. For instance, spherical particles often lead to isotropic, spherical droplets through dense hexagonal close-packing at the interface, while anisotropic particles like cubic or peanut-shaped ones promote non-spherical morphologies via irregular packing or interdigitating stacks. Similarly, non-spherical particles such as rod-like or Janus types can induce ellipsoidal or mushroom-like droplet shapes by asymmetric adsorption and jamming at the oil-water interface.^[31]^[32] Droplet size distributions in these emulsions are typically polydisperse or bimodal, with mean diameters ranging from 1 to 100 μm, depending on factors like particle concentration, emulsification process, and oil type. High-energy methods such as sonication tend to produce smaller, more uniform droplets, while lower-energy approaches yield broader distributions that enhance emulsion versatility for specific uses.^[31]^[33] Interface visualization techniques, particularly confocal laser scanning microscopy, reveal the distinctive particle shells encasing droplets, forming rigid, armored surfaces that distinguish Pickering emulsions from surfactant-stabilized ones. These observations highlight how particles irreversibly adsorb to create a jammed monolayer, as seen in graphene oxide- or bacterial cellulose nanocrystal-stabilized systems, where the shell provides a visible barrier against environmental perturbations.^[31] Under applied stress, Pickering emulsion droplets exhibit enhanced elasticity and resistance to deformation compared to fluid surfactant interfaces, owing to particle jamming that locks the interfacial structure. This rigidity allows droplets to maintain shape during shear or compression, with the jammed particle layer acting like a solid crust that minimally deforms, as demonstrated in assemblies of polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS) particles. Such morphological resilience contributes to overall stability against coalescence by preventing film thinning.^[31] A notable example of advanced droplet morphology occurs in high-internal-phase emulsions (HIPEs), where the dispersed phase exceeds 74% volume fraction, resulting in polyhedral droplets with gel-like interiors due to close particle packing and network formation. Soy glycinin or cyclodextrin-stabilized HIPEs showcase this, with interconnected jammed interfaces yielding deformed, non-spherical shapes that support structural integrity without surfactants.^[31]^[34]

Applications

Food and Cosmetics

Pickering emulsions have gained prominence in the food industry for stabilizing oil-in-water systems such as salad dressings and mayonnaise alternatives, where natural particles like starch granules or proteins serve as emulsifiers to replace synthetic surfactants. For instance, modified rice starch granules have been used to create mayonnaise-like emulsions with improved rheological properties and long-term stability, mimicking the texture of traditional products while using plant-based ingredients.^[35] Similarly, pea protein isolate microgels stabilize high-internal-phase emulsions suitable for low-fat mayonnaise, enhancing viscosity and preventing phase separation under storage conditions.^[36] These particle-stabilized systems also enable the encapsulation of flavors and nutrients, such as essential oils or vitamins, protecting them from degradation and allowing controlled release during digestion.^[37] In cosmetics, Pickering emulsions are employed in creams and lotions, utilizing inorganic particles like silica nanoparticles or clay minerals (e.g., kaolinite and talc) to achieve superior texture and skin compatibility without irritating surfactants. Silica-stabilized emulsions form fine droplets that improve spreadability and provide a matte finish in skincare formulations, while clay particles enable anhydrous systems with glycerin and silicone oils for moisturizing effects.^[2]^[38]^[5] These stabilizers adsorb irreversibly at the oil-water interface, yielding emulsions with enhanced sensory attributes and reduced risk of skin irritation compared to conventional ones. A key advantage of Pickering emulsions in both food and cosmetics is their alignment with clean-label trends, as they eliminate synthetic surfactants and leverage biocompatible particles for extended shelf-life, including resistance to oxidation in oil phases. For example, starch-based Pickering emulsions demonstrate minimal coalescence over months, preserving product integrity without added preservatives. Natural stabilizers like cellulose nanocrystals benefit from generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status for cellulose derivatives, facilitating regulatory approval for food contact and cosmetic use.^[39]^[40]^[41] Research highlights the potential of particle-stabilized emulsions for surfactant-free formulations using clay or silica in lotions to meet demands for eco-friendly, hypoallergenic products.^[42]^[43]

Pharmaceuticals and Biomedicine

Pickering emulsions have gained prominence in pharmaceuticals and biomedicine due to their enhanced stability and biocompatibility, enabling effective encapsulation and delivery of therapeutic agents without the use of potentially irritating surfactants. In drug encapsulation, solid particles such as poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles or liposomes adsorb at the oil-water interface to stabilize emulsions, facilitating the controlled release of hydrophobic drugs like curcumin or paclitaxel.^[44] For instance, PLGA microspheres prepared via silica-stabilized Pickering emulsions demonstrate sustained release profiles over several weeks, attributed to the biodegradable nature of PLGA and the irreversible particle adsorption that prevents premature drug leakage.^[44] Similarly, chitosan-tripolyphosphate (CS-TPP) nanoparticles have been used to encapsulate curcumin in Pickering emulsions, achieving pH-responsive release suitable for targeted intracellular delivery in cancer cells.^[45] In vaccine adjuvants, oil-in-water Pickering emulsions incorporating squalene as the oil phase and protein or inorganic particles like aluminum hydroxide provide superior immune response enhancement compared to traditional surfactant-stabilized systems. These emulsions promote prolonged antigen presentation and stimulate both humoral and cellular immunity; for example, particulate alum-stabilized Pickering emulsions (PAPE) with squalene have shown up to threefold higher IFN-γ production in T cells when used in COVID-19 vaccine formulations.^[46] Protein particles, such as human serum albumin-manganese hybrids, further amplify adjuvant effects by facilitating antigen co-delivery and dendritic cell activation in squalene-based emulsions. For tissue engineering, Pickering emulsions serve as templates to fabricate porous scaffolds with interconnected microstructures essential for cell infiltration and nutrient transport. Gelatin particles, often combined with polysaccharides, stabilize high internal phase emulsions (HIPEs) that, upon polymerization and removal of the oil phase, yield hierarchical macroporous scaffolds with pore sizes ranging from 10 to 100 μm, supporting bone or soft tissue regeneration.^[47] These scaffolds exhibit high biocompatibility and mechanical integrity, as demonstrated in hydroxyapatite/PLGA composites derived from Pickering HIPEs, which promote osteoblast adhesion and proliferation without cytotoxicity. The biocompatibility of Pickering emulsions stems from the absence of surfactants, resulting in reduced cytotoxicity relative to conventional emulsions, with cell viability often exceeding 90% in fibroblast assays. This property makes them ideal for wound dressings, where curcumin-loaded soy protein-stabilized emulsions accelerate diabetic wound healing by modulating inflammation and promoting collagen deposition, achieving a 1.46-fold increase in healing rate compared to controls in animal models.^[48] In clinical contexts, investigational applications include ocular delivery via oligoglycine-functionalized nanodiamond-stabilized emulsions, which enhance corneal retention without ocular irritation, and cancer therapeutics using mannosylated Pickering emulsions for targeted antigen delivery, eliciting strong anti-tumor CD8+ T cell responses in preclinical tumor models.^[49]^[50]

Recent Advances

Novel Stabilizers

Recent developments in Pickering emulsions have emphasized the use of novel stabilizers derived from sustainable, bio-based materials to enhance environmental compatibility and functionality. Chitosan nanoparticles, derived from crustacean shells, have been engineered as effective stabilizers for oil-in-water emulsions, providing steric and electrostatic stabilization due to their cationic nature and ability to adsorb at interfaces. Lignin nanoparticles, obtained from wood processing byproducts, offer amphiphilicity through surface modification, enabling stable emulsions with tunable droplet sizes below 10 μm, as demonstrated in studies on food-grade formulations. Bacterial cellulose nanofibrils, produced via microbial fermentation, form robust interfacial films that prevent coalescence, achieving emulsion stability for over 6 months under ambient conditions. Responsive stabilizers represent a significant innovation, allowing Pickering emulsions to adapt to external stimuli for controlled release applications. pH-sensitive particles, such as those based on poly(acrylic acid) or modified silica, undergo conformational changes at the oil-water interface, enabling triggered destabilization and cargo delivery in response to pH shifts from 4 to 7. Temperature-responsive stabilizers incorporating poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) cores exhibit lower critical solution temperature behavior around 32°C, facilitating reversible emulsion formation and breakup for thermal-triggered encapsulation in biomedical contexts. Nanoscale innovations have introduced high-performance stabilizers like graphene oxide (GO) sheets, which self-assemble at interfaces to create ultra-stable emulsions with droplet sizes as small as 1 μm, owing to their high surface area and π-π interactions. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), such as ZIF-8 nanocrystals, provide porous stabilization for Pickering emulsions, enhancing gas permeability while maintaining long-term stability through coordination bonding at the interface. These materials also impart conductivity, useful for electro-responsive systems. Hybrid systems combining organic and inorganic components have expanded multifunctionality in Pickering stabilizers. For instance, magnetic-responsive hybrids of iron oxide nanoparticles coated with polysaccharides enable magnetically guided emulsion assembly and disassembly, with recovery rates exceeding 95% in recycling applications. Such designs leverage the complementary properties of organic biocompatibility and inorganic durability for enhanced performance. Recent publications from 2020 to 2025 highlight the integration of edible microgels as novel stabilizers, particularly for food emulsions. Protein-based microgels, such as those from whey or soy, form viscoelastic shells around droplets, providing shear-thinning behavior and stability against freeze-thaw cycles, as shown in 2023 studies on low-fat mayonnaise formulations. These advances underscore the shift toward sustainable and stimuli-responsive stabilizers, building on traditional particle adsorption principles without altering core emulsification techniques.

Emerging Applications

In the energy sector, Pickering emulsions stabilized by nanoparticles, such as cellulose nanocrystals, have shown promise for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) through reservoir flooding. These emulsions reduce interfacial tension between oil and water by over 30 mN/m at low concentrations (0.1 wt%), facilitating better oil displacement in porous media while altering rock wettability from oil-wet to water-wet states. For instance, surface-modified cellulose nanoparticles form stable in-situ microemulsions that increase recovery efficiency by up to 6% in sandstone and carbonate reservoirs, offering biodegradability and stability under high-salinity, high-temperature conditions typical of oilfields.^[51] Pickering emulsions serve as effective microreactors in catalysis, particularly for hydrogenation reactions, by providing compartmentalized biphasic environments that enhance mass transfer and selectivity. Particle-armored droplets confine catalysts at the interface, enabling efficient biphasic processes; a 2024 study demonstrated 99.6% selectivity in the hydrogenation of p-chloronitrobenzene to p-chloroaniline using palladium-loaded water-in-oil emulsions. These systems improve reaction rates compared to traditional setups and allow easy catalyst recovery over multiple cycles, with yields reaching 43.3% in selective benzene hydrogenation.^[52] For environmental remediation, functionalized particles in Pickering emulsions enable targeted pollutant adsorption and CO2 capture by leveraging switchable interfacial properties. Triethylenetetramine-functionalized metal-organic frameworks (ZIF-90/TETA) stabilize high internal phase emulsions that respond to CO2/N2 stimuli at ambient pressure, forming hydrophilic species upon CO2 exposure for emulsification and demulsifying reversibly with N2. This mechanism supports CO2 capture through ammonium bicarbonate formation and has been applied as microreactors for reactions like Knoevenagel condensation, integrating remediation with catalyst recycling.^[53] In additive manufacturing, high internal phase emulsions (HIPEs) derived from Pickering systems act as inks for 3D printing lightweight, porous materials with hierarchical structures. Oil-in-water HIPEs stabilized by cellulose nanocrystals and nanofibers are extruded via hot-melt techniques, followed by in-situ crosslinking and oil removal, yielding interconnected macroporous scaffolds with pore sizes of 200 nm to 3 µm. These printed poly-HIPEs exhibit thermo-responsive shape-memory properties, high mechanical strength, and self-recovery, suitable for applications in lightweight composites and scaffolds.^[54] Recent trends in Pickering emulsions include integration with artificial intelligence for optimized design in sustainable catalysis. Machine learning models predict emulsion stability and droplet properties, as demonstrated in deep learning approaches for classifying Pickering emulsion formulations to enhance interfacial catalysis efficiency. 2025 publications highlight AI-driven workflows for generating eco-friendly surfactants and optimizing biphasic catalytic processes, reducing resource consumption while maintaining high yields in green reactions.^[55]

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[PDF] Pickering emulsions: Preparation processes, key parameters ... - HAL
Oct 23, 2019 · Key parameters governing Pickering emulsion type, droplet size and stability. 3.1. Particle wettability: the three-phase contact angle. The ...
[13]
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hybadv.2025.100509
[14]
https://doi.org/10.1039/CT9079102001
[15]
(PDF) Pickering emulsions and dispersions—an early perspective
Dec 12, 2022 · The origin of Pickering (emulsion) stabilization, stabilization of interfaces by particles, is revisited, with emphasis on the earliest papers and patents and ...
[16]
Destabilisation of Pickering emulsions using pH - ScienceDirect.com
Binks and Lumsdon studied the effect of pH on the stability of toluene-in-water emulsions stabilised by partially hydrophobic silica particles (67% SiOH) ...
[17]
An Overview of Pickering Emulsions: Solid-Particle Materials ...
In this article, we give an overview of Pickering emulsions, focusing on some kinds of solid particles commonly serving as emulsifiers.
[18]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1674200121001231
[19]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10054141/
[20]
Starch granule stabilized Pickering emulsions: an 8‐year stability ...
Jan 23, 2020 · One major advantage of Pickering emulsions is their high resistance to destabilization mechanisms such as coalescence and Ostwald ripening.
[21]
Exploring particle-based stabilisation of Pickering emulsions in food ...
Sep 6, 2024 · This review will be discussing on (i) emulsion stability and performance, (ii) solid particles in stabilising Pickering emulsions, (iii) use of PEs in various ...
[22]
Pickering nanoemulsions: An overview of manufacturing processes ...
Ostwald ripening is controlled by the solubility of the dispersed phase in the continuous one. Molecules are transferred from small to large drops due to their ...Missing: resistance | Show results with:resistance
[23]
Effects of environmental factors on the physical stability of pickering ...
The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of chitosan concentration and environmental factors i.e., ionic strength, temperature, and pH on the ...
[24]
Making and breaking bridges in a Pickering emulsion - ScienceDirect
Mar 1, 2015 · Bridging will also only occur between partially coated droplets, as fully coated droplets are mechanically stable to coalescence. Shearing of an ...
[25]
[PDF] Pickering emulsions stabilized by colloidal surfactants - Weitz Lab
Pickering emulsions are emulsions stabilized by colloidal surfactants, i.e. solid particles. Compared with traditional molecular surfactant-stabilized ...
[26]
Freeze-thaw stability of pickering emulsions stabilized by soy and ...
Aug 10, 2025 · In general, the emulsions stabilized by heated SPI and WP exhibited much better freeze-thaw stability against coalescence and creaming, than ...
[27]
Rapid Determination of Emulsion Stability Using Turbidity ...
Feb 18, 2021 · The turbidimetry method offers advantage of rapid determination of stability at a relatively low cost with good accuracy.
[28]
Pickering emulsions: Physicochemical properties and recent ...
This review explores the recent utilization of colloidal particles in stabilizing Pickering emulsions and their potential applications in engineering technology
[29]
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsomega.1c00017
[30]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2773207X25001332
[31]
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eng.2019.08.017
[32]
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2015.11.036
[33]
Rheological and stability of mayonnaise‐based Pickering emulsions ...
This study aimed to characterise the rheological and stability of mayonnaise‐based Pickering emulsions stabilised by native and modified rice starch granules.
[34]
Edible mayonnaise-like Pickering emulsion stabilized by pea protein ...
May 15, 2022 · A mayonnaise-like Pickering emulsion was stabilized by pea protein isolate microgels. NaCl increased droplet size and sucrose improved emulsion's viscosity.
[35]
Recent Advances on Pickering Emulsions Stabilized by Diverse ...
The detachment energy E required for desorption from the interface of a spherical solid particle can be calculated using the formula (5) below (26):. E=πr2γ ...
[36]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308814621028727
[37]
Pickering emulsions in food and nutraceutical technology
Additionally, they may enhance emulsion stability through electrostatic repulsion and steric hindrance, preventing droplet coalescence, Ostwald ripening, or ...Proteins · Polysaccharides · Pickering Emulsion For...
[38]
Review Starch based Pickering emulsions: Fabrication, properties ...
Starch based Pickering emulsions have storage and process stability. Starch based Pickering emulsion polymerization is more environmentally friendly.
[39]
Nanocellulose and its modified forms in the food industry ...
Nov 4, 2024 · Powdered cellulose has been affirmed GRAS through the experience of safe use in food prior to January 1, 1958, and in re-evaluations by FDA ...
[40]
Pickering Emulsions: A Novel Tool for Cosmetic Formulators - MDPI
Jun 27, 2022 · This review tries to provide an updated perspective that can help the cosmetic industry in the exploitation of Pickering emulsions as a tool for designing new ...
[41]
Pickering Emulsions: A Novel Tool for Cosmetic Formulators
Jul 5, 2022 · This review tries to provide an updated perspective that can help the cosmetic industry in the exploitation of Pickering emulsions as a tool for designing new ...
[42]
https://www.mdpi.com/2079-9284/9/4/68
[43]
https://www.pharmaexcipients.com/news/pickering-emulsions-cosmetic/
[44]
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2012.03.054
[45]
Oil Recovery Improvements Based on Pickering Emulsions ...
Jan 19, 2025 · This Review highlights the great potential of nanocellulose-based Pickering emulsions to make EOR processes more sustainable.
[46]
Pickering Emulsions in Catalytic Processes - Guzmán - 2024
Jul 1, 2024 · Pickering emulsions offer significant advantages in catalytic processes, including improved extraction efficiency, a wider range of operational variables.
[47]
Ambient CO 2 /N 2 Switchable Pickering Emulsion Emulsified by ...
CO2-reponsive chemical functional groups were grafted onto the surface of silica particles. Particles with only CO2-switchable functional groups were ...
[48]
4D printing of poly-Pickering high internal phase emulsions to ...
Feb 5, 2024 · We report on the fabrication of thermo-responsive macroporous polymerized-high internal phase emulsions (poly-HIPEs) through 3D printing of Pickering-type ...Missing: lightweight | Show results with:lightweight
[49]
[PDF] Artificial intelligence in colloid and interface science
Oct 28, 2025 · (a) Overview of ML based workflow to incorporate reinforced deep learning to generate new surfactant molecules with ideal target properties ...