Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Feces

Feces, also known as stool, is the solid or semisolid waste material expelled from the digestive tract of animals, primarily consisting of undigested food residues, bacteria, mucus, and sloughed intestinal cells.^[1] In humans, it represents the end product of digestion after the absorption of nutrients in the stomach, small intestine, and colon.^[2] The composition of human feces is approximately 75% water and 25% dry matter, with the dry solids dominated by bacterial biomass (25–54%), undigested carbohydrates and fiber, proteins, fats, and inorganic minerals such as ash.^[3]^[4] The median pH of feces is around 6.6, reflecting the microbial fermentation processes in the gut.^[5] Feces form in the large intestine (colon), where water and electrolytes are reabsorbed from the liquid chyme delivered from the small intestine, concentrating the material into a more solid form suitable for defecation.^[3]^[6] Biologically, feces serve the essential function of excreting indigestible dietary components, metabolic byproducts, and excess bacteria from the gastrointestinal tract, thereby maintaining homeostasis and preventing toxicity.^[7] The term derives from the Latin faex (plural faeces), meaning "dregs" or "sediment," underscoring its origin as residual matter.^[8] In medical contexts, variations in feces color, consistency, and frequency—typically ranging from three times daily to three times weekly in healthy adults—can indicate dietary habits, hydration status, or underlying conditions such as infections, malabsorption, or gastrointestinal disorders.^[2] Beyond human health, feces contribute to ecological nutrient cycling by returning organic matter and nitrogen to soil ecosystems upon decomposition.^[4]

Characteristics

Composition

Feces in mammals primarily consist of water, which makes up approximately 75% of the total mass, with the remaining 25% comprising dry matter including undigested food residues, bacterial biomass, proteins, fats, inorganic salts, and cellular debris from the intestinal lining.^[4] The dry matter is dominated by bacterial biomass, accounting for 25-54% of the solids, alongside indigestible fibers, polysaccharides, and ash from minerals.^[5] Bile pigments such as stercobilin, derived from the breakdown of heme, contribute to the characteristic brown coloration of feces in many mammals.^[9] The composition varies significantly with dietary intake; high-fiber diets increase fecal bulk and water content due to greater undigested residues, while carnivorous diets typically result in smaller, firmer output with higher proportions of proteins and fats relative to fiber.^[10] For instance, herbivorous mammals produce larger volumes with elevated cellulose content, whereas in carnivores, the output is more concentrated with reduced water retention.^[11] Microbially, feces harbor a diverse gut microbiota, with dominant phyla including Bacteroidetes (e.g., Bacteroides species) and Firmicutes (e.g., Clostridium and Lactobacillus genera), comprising over 80% of identifiable bacteria in healthy adults; these communities can also include potential pathogens such as certain Escherichia or Salmonella strains depending on health status.^[12] The fecal pH typically ranges from 6.6 to 7.5, reflecting a mildly acidic to neutral environment influenced by microbial fermentation.^[5] Odor arises primarily from volatile compounds like indole and skatole, produced via bacterial breakdown of tryptophan in dietary proteins.^[13] In humans, average daily fecal output is 100-250 grams of wet weight, varying by diet, hydration, and individual physiology, with dry mass around 25-30 grams.^[10]

Formation and Physiology

Feces formation begins with the ingestion of food, which undergoes mechanical and chemical breakdown in the mouth and stomach through mastication and gastric secretions, respectively. In the small intestine, enzymatic digestion and nutrient absorption occur primarily via the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum, where pancreatic enzymes and bile facilitate the breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, leaving undigested residues and waste products. These remnants then enter the large intestine, where water and electrolytes are reabsorbed, compacting the material into solid feces; this process is mediated by the colon's haustral contractions and mass movements that propel contents toward the rectum for temporary storage.^[14] The gut microbiota plays a crucial role in the large intestine by fermenting undigested carbohydrates and fibers, producing short-chain fatty acids for host energy and gases such as hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and methane as byproducts; this microbial activity contributes to the volume and odor of feces while aiding in vitamin synthesis. Peristaltic movements, triggered by rectal distension, initiate the defecation reflex, which involves relaxation of the internal anal sphincter via parasympathetic signals from the sacral nerves and voluntary control of the external sphincter. The gastrocolic reflex, a neural and hormonal response stimulated by gastric distension post-meal—often involving gastrin and cholecystokinin—enhances colonic motility and promotes defecation shortly after eating.^[15]^[3]^[16] In humans, the normal gastrointestinal transit time from ingestion to defecation ranges from 24 to 72 hours, with the majority (up to 90%) spent in the colon; this duration is influenced by factors such as diet composition (e.g., high-fiber intake accelerates transit), age (slower in elderly due to reduced motility), and physical activity levels. Evolutionary adaptations in defecation vary across vertebrates: birds and reptiles retain a cloaca—a multifunctional chamber combining digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts for efficient waste elimination in lightweight bodies—while mammals evolved a separate anus, allowing specialized rectal storage and voluntary control to support diverse terrestrial lifestyles.^[17]^[18]^[19]

Ecology

Role in Ecosystems

Feces play a crucial role in nutrient recycling within ecosystems by returning essential elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon to the soil, thereby preventing their loss from food webs and supporting overall ecosystem productivity. In terrestrial systems, herbivore feces deposit these nutrients directly onto the ground, where they are broken down by microbes and incorporated into the soil, facilitating the availability for plant uptake and sustaining primary production. For instance, in grassland ecosystems, bison feces provide significant amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, sulfur, and magnesium, which benefit soil microbes, plants, and other organisms. Similarly, in aquatic environments like coral reefs, fish feces contribute diverse nutrient pools that enhance nutrient availability for reef communities. This recycling process is vital for maintaining nutrient balance, as animal excretory products can supply up to substantial portions of the nitrogen and phosphorus required for ecosystem function. Feces also facilitate seed dispersal, a process known as endozoochory, where animals consume fruits or seeds, and viable seeds pass through the digestive tract to be deposited in feces at distant locations. This mechanism aids plant reproduction by moving seeds away from the parent plant, reducing competition and predation risks, and often providing natural fertilization from the surrounding dung. Frugivorous birds, mammals like primates and bats, and even large herbivores contribute to this, promoting forest regeneration and biodiversity; for example, elephant dung in African savannas contains seeds of various tree species that germinate after dispersal.^[20]^[21] Decomposers, particularly coprophagous insects such as dung beetles (family Scarabaeidae), are key to processing feces and amplifying its ecological benefits. These insects feed on and bury fecal matter, accelerating its decomposition and integrating nutrients into the soil profile, which aerates the ground and improves soil structure. By fragmenting dung, dung beetles create substrates for microbial activity, enhancing the breakdown of organic matter and the release of nutrients like nitrogen and carbon for plant use. Additionally, their activities reduce parasite loads in pastures by burying feces before fly larvae or pathogens can proliferate, thereby limiting disease transmission among herbivores and promoting healthier populations. In ecosystems without sufficient dung beetle activity, feces can persist on the surface for extended periods, hindering nutrient return and increasing pest issues. In grazing ecosystems such as savannas, fecal deposits act as natural fertilizers that directly influence plant growth and community dynamics. Herbivores redistribute nutrients through feces during foraging, concentrating them in areas of high grazing activity, which stimulates microbial growth and accelerates nutrient cycling to support vegetation productivity. This process can enhance net primary production by increasing soil nutrient availability, as seen in systems where fecal nitrogen deposition primes organic matter decomposition and boosts plant biomass. In African savannas, for example, large herbivores like elephants and zebras contribute to nutrient hotspots via feces, fostering diverse plant growth that sustains the broader food web. Fecal runoff from land to aquatic systems can negatively impact water quality by contributing to eutrophication, where excess nutrients trigger algal blooms and oxygen depletion. In watersheds, nutrients from animal feces, including phosphorus and nitrogen, are mobilized by rainfall and transported into streams, rivers, and coastal waters, exacerbating hypoxic conditions and harming aquatic life. This runoff is a significant nonpoint source of pollution, with unmanaged fecal deposits leading to elevated nutrient loads that disrupt ecosystem balance. For instance, in agricultural and wild landscapes, livestock and wildlife feces alike contribute to these effects, underscoring the need for natural barriers like riparian zones to mitigate transport. Feces from ruminants also influence climate through methane emissions, a potent greenhouse gas produced during anaerobic decomposition in fecal matter. Globally, methane from livestock manure management accounts for approximately 10% of anthropogenic methane emissions, contributing to atmospheric warming and climate feedback loops in ecosystems. In natural grazing systems, wild ruminant feces emit methane at lower scales, but domestic herds amplify this role, with emissions arising from microbial fermentation in dung pats. These releases, while smaller than enteric fermentation from the animals themselves, still affect global carbon budgets and highlight feces' dual positive and negative ecological impacts.

Animal Feces Variations

Animal feces exhibit significant variations across species, primarily influenced by dietary habits, physiological adaptations, and environmental factors. These differences reflect evolutionary strategies for nutrient extraction, waste management, and ecological interactions. In herbivores, feces are typically large and fibrous, consisting of indigestible plant material that forms compact pellets to facilitate efficient expulsion and minimize water loss in arid habitats. For instance, rabbits produce two distinct types of fecal matter: hard, round pellets from the initial digestion and softer cecotropes—nutrient-rich clusters formed in the cecum that are re-ingested to maximize absorption of vitamins and proteins produced by gut bacteria.^[22]^[23] Larger herbivores like elephants generate massive quantities of dung, with adults producing approximately 100 kg per day due to their high-volume, low-nutrient plant-based diet, resulting in fibrous masses rich in undigested cellulose.^[21] Carnivores, adapted to protein-rich diets, produce compact scats that are dense and often contain undigested remnants such as hair, bones, and feathers, aiding in identification of prey species through scat analysis. Wolf feces, for example, are typically cylindrical and tapered, with a high protein content that darkens the color when meat intake is predominant; these scats frequently include identifiable hairs and bone fragments from ungulates like deer.^[24] Beyond digestion, carnivore scats serve behavioral roles, such as territorial marking, where wolves strategically deposit them at trail junctions or crossroads to communicate pack boundaries via scent.^[25]^[26] Omnivores display more variable fecal consistency, reflecting their mixed diets of plant and animal matter, which can lead to semi-solid or slurry-like forms depending on recent intake. In pigs, for instance, manure varies from fibrous when plant-heavy to more liquid with higher protein content, making it suitable for anaerobic digestion processes that yield biogas through microbial breakdown of organic components.^[4]^[27] Aquatic animals often release dispersed waste that integrates rapidly into the water column, differing markedly from terrestrial forms. Fish feces, typically small pellets or clouds, contribute to marine snow—aggregates of organic detritus including fecal matter that sink toward the seafloor, transporting nutrients and carbon to deeper ecosystems.^[28]^[29] Birds and reptiles, as uricotelic species, excrete nitrogenous waste primarily as uric acid rather than urea, resulting in characteristic white droppings that combine semisolid feces with urates and minimal urine to conserve water in flight or terrestrial lifestyles. This uric acid-based paste appears as the white cap atop darker fecal material, efficiently eliminating waste without excessive hydration.^[30]^[31]^[32]

Human Feces

Health and Medical Aspects

Human feces serve as a primary vector for fecal-oral transmission of pathogens, leading to significant global health burdens. Pathogens such as Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., and norovirus are commonly spread through contaminated food, water, or direct contact, resulting in nearly 1.7 billion cases of childhood diarrhoeal disease annually.^[33] These infections disproportionately affect children under five, causing an estimated 340,000 deaths (95% uncertainty interval 244,000–480,000) in this age group in 2021, underscoring the critical need for improved sanitation to interrupt transmission.^[34] Stool analysis provides essential diagnostic insights into various gastrointestinal conditions. The fecal occult blood test detects hidden blood in stool samples, serving as a key screening tool for colorectal cancer by identifying potential bleeding from polyps or tumors.^[35] Similarly, ova and parasite examinations identify intestinal parasites like Giardia or Entamoeba histolytica through microscopic analysis of stool specimens.^[36] For inflammatory bowel diseases such as Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, fecal calprotectin testing measures neutrophil-derived proteins as a non-invasive marker of gut inflammation, with elevated levels indicating active disease in nearly 99% of cases.^[37] Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) has emerged as a highly effective therapy for recurrent Clostridium difficile infections, restoring gut microbial balance by transferring healthy donor microbiota. Clinical trials report efficacy rates of 80-90% after a single treatment, establishing FMT as a standard intervention for cases resistant to antibiotics.^[38] The Bristol Stool Scale further aids clinical assessment by classifying feces into seven types based on shape and consistency, where types 1-2 indicate constipation and types 6-7 suggest diarrhea, facilitating the diagnosis and management of bowel disorders.^[39] Alterations in fecal composition can reflect underlying nutritional deficiencies, particularly in fat malabsorption. Steatorrhea, characterized by greasy, foul-smelling, floating stools due to excess undigested fat, signals conditions like pancreatic insufficiency or celiac disease, where the body fails to absorb dietary lipids effectively.^[40] This symptom highlights broader malabsorption syndromes, prompting further evaluation to address potential deficiencies in fat-soluble vitamins such as A, D, E, and K.^[41]

Collection and Disposal

The collection and disposal of human feces has undergone substantial historical evolution, transitioning from rudimentary pit latrines to more advanced sanitation infrastructure. Pit latrines, simple excavations for waste accumulation, were prevalent in many societies before the 19th century, often requiring manual emptying by laborers known as "night soil men."^[42] The advent of the flush toilet in the mid-19th century revolutionized disposal in Europe, with widespread adoption following innovations in water carriage systems; by 1848, the UK government required new houses to incorporate water-closets or ash-pit privies to improve urban hygiene.^[43]^[42] This shift facilitated the connection of toilets to emerging sewer networks, reducing direct environmental contamination but necessitating coordinated waste management. Contemporary systems for feces collection and disposal emphasize treatment to protect public health and the environment. Septic tanks, common in rural or decentralized settings, function as on-site anaerobic digesters where bacteria break down organic solids in the absence of oxygen, separating liquids for soil percolation while retaining sludge for periodic pumping.^[44] In urban areas, centralized sewage treatment plants collect wastewater via pipes and employ anaerobic digestion in large-scale reactors to stabilize sludge, converting it into biogas and biosolids through microbial hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and methanogenesis.^[45] These processes reduce the volume of untreated waste discharged into waterways, though they require energy inputs and maintenance to handle the influx from connected populations. Proper implementation of such systems is essential to minimize pathogen dissemination, a concern addressed in medical contexts.^[46] Global disparities in access to safe feces disposal remain a critical challenge. As of 2024, WHO and UNICEF data indicate that 3.4 billion people lack safely managed sanitation services, with 354 million resorting to open defecation due to inadequate infrastructure in low-income regions.^[47] Despite progress, with open defecation more than halving between 2015 and 2024, challenges persist in achieving universal access by 2030. This practice contributes to waterborne diseases and environmental pollution, underscoring the need for scalable solutions in developing areas. Waterless alternatives like composting toilets provide sustainable options for remote or water-scarce locations. These self-contained units promote aerobic decomposition of feces and carbon additives, where thermophilic bacteria thrive at temperatures of 45–70°C to mineralize organics into a stable, humus-like compost suitable for soil amendment under regulated conditions.^[48]^[49] The scale of human feces production amplifies the urgency of effective disposal systems. Healthy adults excrete an average of 128 grams of wet feces daily, leading to a global output of approximately 1 million metric tons per day given a population of about 8.2 billion.^[10]^[50]

Uses of Feces

Fertilizer and Agriculture

Feces from animals and humans serve as valuable organic amendments in agriculture, supplying essential nutrients like nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) to enhance crop growth and soil fertility.^[51] Known collectively as manure for animal sources and night soil for human excreta, these materials improve soil quality when applied judiciously, though their use requires careful management to mitigate potential hazards.^[52] Different manure types vary in nutrient profiles, influencing their agricultural applications. Cow manure, often considered high in nitrogen relative to other elements, typically contains about 0.45% total N, 0.18% P₂O₅, and 0.33% K₂O on a dry weight basis for solid forms.^[51] Chicken manure, by contrast, is richer in phosphorus and nitrogen, with solid layer manure averaging 1.9% N, 1.75% P₂O₅, and 1.1% K₂O.^[51] Night soil, derived from human feces and historically prominent in Asian agriculture, was mixed with other materials like plant ashes to form nutrient-dense fertilizers such as tu-fen in China, providing balanced N-P-K for intensive rice cultivation.^[53] These variations allow farmers to select manures based on crop demands, with application rates generally ranging from 5 to 20 tons per hectare depending on soil tests and manure type to avoid nutrient overload.^[54] The agronomic benefits of manure application are well-documented, primarily through enhanced soil physical and biological properties. By adding organic matter, manure improves soil structure, promoting better aeration, water retention, and aggregation that prevent erosion.^[52] It also stimulates microbial activity, fostering diverse soil biota that aid in nutrient cycling and organic matter decomposition.^[52] Furthermore, manure can reduce reliance on synthetic fertilizers; integrated applications have shown potential to meet 20-30% of crop nitrogen needs while maintaining yields, thereby lowering input costs and environmental impacts from chemical runoff.^[55] Despite these advantages, risks associated with manure use necessitate precautions. Animal manures may accumulate heavy metals like copper and zinc from feed additives, which can persist in soil and enter the food chain at elevated application rates.^[56] Antibiotics from livestock treatments similarly contaminate manure, potentially promoting antibiotic resistance genes in soil microbiomes.^[56] Pathogens such as E. coli and Salmonella pose health threats if not addressed; however, proper composting at 55-60°C for at least three days effectively reduces these by killing most viable organisms.^[57] Historically, fecal materials enriched agriculture in various civilizations. In ancient Egypt, farmers supplemented the nutrient-rich silt deposited by annual Nile floods—naturally augmented by upstream organic wastes—with animal manures to boost fertility for crops like wheat and barley.^[58] In Asia, particularly China and Japan, night soil collection and application became a systematic practice by the Han dynasty (circa 200 BCE), supporting dense populations through efficient nutrient recycling in paddy fields.^[53]

Energy Production

Feces serve as a valuable resource for energy production through processes like anaerobic digestion and pyrolysis, converting organic waste into biofuels such as biogas and biochar while promoting sustainability. Anaerobic digestion, the primary method for biogas generation, involves the breakdown of fecal matter in oxygen-free environments, producing methane-rich gas that can be used for cooking, heating, or electricity. Pyrolysis, a thermochemical process, heats feces in the absence of oxygen to yield biochar, syngas, and bio-oil, offering an alternative pathway for energy recovery and carbon stabilization. These technologies are particularly relevant in resource-limited settings, where they address waste management challenges alongside energy needs.^[59] Biogas production from human feces occurs via anaerobic digestion, a multi-stage biological process comprising hydrolysis, where complex organic compounds in feces are broken down into simpler sugars and amino acids by hydrolytic bacteria; acidogenesis, in which acidogenic bacteria ferment these into volatile fatty acids, alcohols, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide; and methanogenesis, where methanogenic archaea convert the intermediates into methane (typically 50-70% of biogas) and carbon dioxide. Experimental studies on fresh human feces have demonstrated methane yields ranging from 0.2 to 0.4 m³ per kg of dry matter, with a mean of approximately 0.393 m³/kg, equivalent to about 14 MJ/kg of energy potential. In India, toilet-linked biogas plants exemplify practical implementation; for instance, systems in Gujarat's villages integrate household toilets with digesters to process fecal sludge, generating sufficient biogas for cooking fuel while eliminating the need for frequent septic tank emptying. These plants, often scaled for 4-6 users, produce 1-2 m³ of biogas daily, supporting rural energy access.^[60]^[61]^[62] Pyrolysis of human feces involves heating dried material to 400-600°C, yielding biochar (a stable carbon-rich solid) alongside combustible gases and oils. Biochar production from feces achieves yields of about 30-35% of the input dry mass, with the process recovering approximately 30% of the input energy in the form of syngas and bio-oil, while the biochar itself facilitates long-term carbon sequestration by locking away up to 50% of the original carbon content in stable forms resistant to decomposition. This dual benefit enhances energy output and mitigates climate impacts, as the non-char products can be combusted or refined for fuel. Studies on simulated feces confirm improved combustion properties and energy densification at moderate temperatures, making pyrolysis viable for decentralized waste-to-energy systems.^[63]^[64]^[65] Scalability of these technologies varies by context: rural areas favor small-scale, household-level digesters or pyrolyzers, which are cost-effective (under $1,000 per unit) and suitable for dispersed populations, as seen in Indian community plants processing 50-100 kg of waste daily. Urban settings require centralized facilities to handle higher volumes from sewage systems, with examples including larger biogas plants in developing cities that integrate fecal sludge from public toilets. Globally, the potential from human feces biogas in developing regions is substantial, capable of generating energy equivalent to powering up to 18 million homes annually, representing a significant portion—potentially 5-10%—of household energy needs in areas with limited access to electricity or clean fuels.^[59]^[62]^[66] Environmentally, these methods yield substantial gains by capturing methane—a potent greenhouse gas—from feces that would otherwise decompose openly or in landfills, reducing emissions by up to 90% compared to traditional open burning or unmanaged disposal. Biogas utilization displaces fossil fuels, further lowering net CO₂ equivalents, while pyrolysis's biochar sequesters carbon for centuries, contributing to soil health without additional energy inputs. In developing regions, widespread adoption could avert millions of tons of GHG emissions yearly, aligning with sustainable development goals for clean energy and waste reduction.^[67]^[68]^[64]

Fossilized Feces and Paleontology

Fossilized feces, known as coprolites, are trace fossils that preserve the excrement of ancient animals through mineralization processes occurring over geological timescales, often involving the replacement of organic material with minerals such as phosphates, calcium, and silicates.^[69]^[70] This preservation can retain microscopic details, including undigested bone fragments, seeds, pollen, and parasites, providing direct evidence of prehistoric diets and behaviors. For instance, coprolites attributed to Tyrannosaurus rex have been found to contain pulverized bone shards from hadrosaur prey, indicating the dinosaur's powerful digestive capabilities and carnivorous habits. These structures form in sedimentary environments where rapid burial and chemical alteration prevent decay, distinguishing them from body fossils by revealing behavioral rather than anatomical information.^[69] Analytical techniques for coprolites have advanced significantly, enabling non-destructive examination and detailed reconstruction of ancient ecosystems. Computed tomography (CT) scanning, including micro-CT and X-ray tomographic microscopy, allows researchers to visualize internal structures like embedded inclusions without fragmentation, revealing contents such as muscle fibers or plant remains.^[71]^[72] Stable isotope analysis, often combined with compound-specific approaches, assesses dietary signatures by measuring ratios of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen isotopes, which can confirm herbivory in dinosaurs or mixed diets in early humans.^[73] Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and biochemical assays further identify biomarkers and biosignatures, such as lipids or DNA fragments, to link coprolites to specific taxa and environments.^[74]^[75] These methods have, for example, demonstrated evidence of dinosaur herbivory through preserved plant microfossils in coprolites from the Late Cretaceous.^[76] Notable discoveries underscore the value of coprolites in paleontology. In 2013, researchers analyzed a 66-million-year-old Tyrannosaurus rex coprolite from Saskatchewan, Canada, which contained bone fragments from a hadrosaur, degraded by stomach acid, offering insights into the predator's feeding efficiency just before the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction.^[77] Bone collagen from skeletons at Herculaneum, preserved by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, has been studied using stable isotope methods to reveal diets rich in seafood and cereals among Roman inhabitants.^[73] Other finds include coprolites from the Upper Permian of Russia, preserving fish scales and bone, which illuminate carnivorous interactions in pre-dinosaur ecosystems.^[78] Coprolites play a crucial role in tracking paleobiological events, such as extinction dynamics and migration patterns, by documenting dietary shifts and species interactions across time. For example, analyses of Pleistocene coprolites from giant lizards reveal lost ecological roles following megafaunal extinctions, including seed dispersal networks disrupted around 50,000 years ago.^[76] In human contexts, coprolite studies trace migration and adaptation, with evidence from the Great Basin showing dietary reliance on sagebrush and fish during the Younger Dryas period, linking to population movements.^[79] The oldest known coprolites date back to the Cambrian period, over 500 million years ago, though fungal fossils associated with biomineralization processes in coprolites contribute to understanding the microbial record, which extends over a billion years. In 2025, a 236-million-year-old coprolite yielded the oldest known butterfly scales, providing insights into Triassic insect predation. Additionally, hexapod scales were found in a Permian dicynodont coprolite, revealing early herbivore diets.^[80]^[81]^[82] Overall, these fossils provide irreplaceable data on biodiversity changes and environmental pressures leading to mass extinctions.^[76] A key distinction exists between coprolites and paleofeces: coprolites typically refer to mineralized animal feces from deep time, undergoing full permineralization, whereas paleofeces describe desiccated or mummified human excrement preserved in arid archaeological sites without extensive mineralization.^[75] This differentiation aids in contextualizing finds, with paleofeces often yielding direct human genetic and parasitic data from the Holocene.^[83]

Terminology

Etymology and Definitions

The word feces originates from the Latin faex (plural faeces), meaning "dregs" or "sediment," a term attested in classical Latin texts from the 1st century BCE. This root initially denoted the lees or residue left after wine fermentation, symbolizing waste or impurities. The English term entered the language around 1400 via Old French feces, first referring broadly to sediments or dregs before acquiring its specific sense of bodily excrement by the 1630s.^[84]^[85] In medical and biological contexts, feces is formally defined as the solid or semi-solid waste matter discharged from the large intestine through the anus, consisting primarily of undigested food residues, intestinal bacteria, mucus, and sloughed epithelial cells, but excluding urine. Biologically, it represents intestinal excreta, the end product of digestion after nutrient absorption in the small intestine and bacterial fermentation in the colon.^[1]^[86]^[87] Scientifically, terminology distinguishes feces from colloquial or specialized uses; in ecology, "scat" specifically denotes the feces of wild animals, aiding in non-invasive studies of diet, health, and population dynamics without implying human waste. Cultural linguistic shifts are evident in historical euphemisms, such as the Victorian-era term "night soil" for human excreta collected nocturnally from cesspits, which masked the material's nature amid prevailing social decorum.^[88]^[89] Related terms include egesta, which broadly encompasses all indigestible matter expelled via the digestive tract (such as feces), in contrast to excreta, which refers to metabolic byproducts like urine, sweat, and carbon dioxide removed to maintain homeostasis.^[90]

Synonyms and Regional Terms

In English, common synonyms for feces include stool, dung, poop, and crap, while the medical term is bowel movement, referring to the expulsion of waste from the intestines.^[91]^[92] Specific terms exist for animal feces, such as guano for the accumulated droppings of bats or seabirds, valued historically as fertilizer.^[93] Scat denotes the feces of wild animals, particularly carnivores, used in tracking and ecology.^[94] Frass refers to the excrement produced by insects, often appearing as fine powder in infested areas.^[95] Regional variations include caca in Spanish and French, a childish or informal word for excrement derived from onomatopoeic roots mimicking defecation sounds.^[96]^[97] In Indian contexts, particularly Ayurveda, mutra-mala encompasses urine (mutra) and feces (mala) as bodily wastes essential for maintaining physiological balance.^[98]^[99] Slang terms like doo-doo emerged in the 20th century as child-derived language for feces, entering broader informal use around the mid-1950s through nursery speech and popular media.^[100]^[101] In polite speech, avoidance of direct terms for feces increased in the 19th century with the adoption of euphemisms like lavatory, originally meaning a place for washing but extended to denote toilet facilities to sidestep vulgarity amid rising sanitation awareness.^[102]^[103]

Disgust and Taboos

Disgust toward feces is a fundamental human emotion that serves as an adaptive mechanism for avoiding potential disease transmission. Psychologists Paul Rozin and April Fallon characterized disgust in 1987 as a revulsion at the prospect of oral incorporation of offensive substances, with feces representing a core elicitor due to its association with contamination and pathogens.^[104] This response likely evolved to protect against fecal-oral transmission of infectious agents, as supported by later models framing disgust as part of the behavioral immune system that motivates avoidance of disease cues.^[105] The development of disgust sensitivity intensifies in early childhood, particularly following toilet training around age two, when feces transitions from a neutral or attractive substance to a primary source of aversion. Rozin and colleagues noted a potential latency period after training, with full disgust toward feces emerging within the first eight years of life as children internalize cultural norms around contamination.^[106] This heightened sensitivity post-toileting helps reinforce hygiene behaviors essential for preventing health risks like diarrheal diseases.^[107] Cultural taboos surrounding feces often amplify this evolutionary aversion through religious and social prohibitions. In Hinduism, the caste system has historically linked manual scavenging—the manual removal of human excrement from dry toilets and drains—to untouchability, designating Dalit communities as inherently impure for performing such tasks and subjecting them to social exclusion, violence, and denial of basic rights.^[108] Similarly, Islamic jurisprudence mandates tahara (ritual purity), requiring istinja—the thorough washing of the anus with water after defecation—to remove impurities and enable acts of worship, underscoring feces as a source of najasa (filth) that disrupts spiritual cleanliness.^[109] Gender differences in disgust sensitivity further shape these responses, with women typically exhibiting stronger reactions to pathogen-related stimuli like feces than men, a pattern observed across cultures in the 2010s. Cross-cultural validations of disgust scales, such as those by Tybur et al. in 2011 involving samples from diverse societies, confirmed higher female sensitivity to pathogen disgust domains, potentially linked to evolutionary pressures on reproduction and childcare. This disparity persists in surveys measuring aversion to fecal cues, influencing behaviors like hygiene compliance.^[110] Historical practices illustrate varying societal accommodations to these taboos. Ancient Romans utilized public foricae—communal latrines often integrated with bathhouses—where users sat side-by-side over channels flushed by water, reflecting a pragmatic approach to collective waste management despite shared exposure.^[111] In contrast, medieval Europe relied more on private chamber pots emptied into cesspits or streets, heightening personal disgust through intimate handling and irregular disposal, which exacerbated urban sanitation challenges.^[112] Modern efforts to mitigate fecal-related disgust and risks include World Health Organization handwashing initiatives, which promote soap use after defecation to interrupt fecal-oral transmission pathways. Systematic reviews indicate these campaigns reduce diarrheal incidence by approximately 30% in community settings, fostering normalized hygiene without overriding innate aversions.^[113]

Modern Representations

In contemporary media, the poop emoji (💩), introduced in Unicode 6.0 in 2010 and officially documented in Emoji 1.0 in 2015, has become a staple for lighthearted expressions of bodily functions, often appearing in viral social media challenges that normalize discussions around excretion.^[114] These challenges, prevalent on platforms like TikTok, include creative drawing tutorials and acting skits that humorously engage users with the emoji, fostering community interaction while subtly educating on hygiene. A notable example is WaterAid's 2015 #GiveAShit campaign, which leveraged customizable poop emojis via a mobile app to raise awareness about the global sanitation crisis that at the time affected approximately 2.3 billion people, blending humor with advocacy to promote donations and education on safe waste disposal.^[115]^[116] In art and literature, Marcel Duchamp's 1917 readymade sculpture Fountain—a signed porcelain urinal—challenged artistic conventions by elevating everyday plumbing associated with bodily waste into high art, sparking debates on aesthetics and taboo that influenced scatological themes in modern works.^[117] Similarly, the animated series South Park, airing since 1997, frequently employs scatological humor centered on feces to satirize social issues, as seen in episodes like "More Crap" (2007), where characters compete in defecation feats to critique celebrity culture and excess. Jokes and memes often draw from psychological interpretations, such as Sigmund Freud's analysis in Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905), which links early childhood fascination with feces during the anal stage to adult traits like orderliness and, in extreme cases, coprophilia—an erotic interest in excrement—framing such humor as a release of repressed instincts. The "pull my finger" prank, a longstanding gag involving simulated flatulence triggered by pulling the joker's finger, exemplifies this in popular culture, with roots in mid-20th-century American folklore where it serves as an accessible, physical comedy rooted in digestive gases.^[118] Advertising has long incorporated fecal-related themes through innuendo, as in Procter & Gamble's Charmin toilet paper campaigns featuring Mr. Whipple, launched in 1964 and running until 1985, where actor Dick Wilson portrayed a grocer scolding shoppers for squeezing the "soft" product, significantly boosting sales through humorous emphasis on absorbency and comfort.^[119]^[120] In activism, 2020s social media memes have increasingly tied feces to sustainability, promoting "humanure"—composted human waste—as a climate-friendly alternative to flushing toilets, which consume vast water resources and contribute to methane emissions; for instance, studies show properly composted humanure supports crop growth comparable to commercial fertilizers, reducing reliance on synthetic inputs amid global warming concerns.^[121] These memes, shared on platforms like Instagram and Reddit, use ironic imagery of poop piles transforming into fertile soil to advocate for eco-toilets, reflecting a shift toward viewing waste as a resource in the fight against environmental degradation.^[122]

References

[1]
Definition of feces - NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms
The material in a bowel movement. Feces is made up of undigested food, bacteria, mucus, and cells from the lining of the intestines. Also called stool.Missing: review | Show results with:review<|control11|><|separator|>
[2]
Bowel Movements | BM - MedlinePlus
May 24, 2023 · Another name for stool is feces. It is made of what is left after your digestive system (stomach, small intestine, and colon) absorbs nutrients ...Missing: biology composition
[3]
Physiology, Defecation - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Nov 13, 2023 · Feces are composed of 75% water and 25% solid material. Fecal solid components include the following: Undigested food components like cellulose ...
[4]
The Characterization of Feces and Urine: A Review of the Literature ...
3.2. Composition. Feces are composed of water, protein, undigested fats, polysaccharides, bacterial biomass, ash, and undigested food residues. The major ...
[5]
The Characterization of Feces and Urine: A Review of the ... - PubMed
Sep 2, 2015 · Feces had a median pH of 6.64 and were composed of 74.6% water. Bacterial biomass is the major component (25-54% of dry solids) of the organic ...
[6]
Large Intestine & Colon: Function, Anatomy & Location
Your large intestine turns food waste into poop. It includes your cecum, colon, rectum and anus. It's a tube that runs from your small intestine to your ...
[7]
Physiology, Gastrointestinal - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Apr 8, 2023 · The main functions of the GI system include ingestion and digestion of food, nutrient absorption, secretion of water and enzymes, and excretion of waste ...
[8]
fece - Middle English Compendium - University of Michigan
Forms, fēce n. Also fex. Etymology, OF *fece & L faex, pl. faeces. Definitions (Senses and Subsenses). 1. (a) A sedimentary deposit; sediment, dregs, lees; ...
[9]
Intestinal microbial metabolite stercobilin involvement in the chronic ...
Apr 15, 2020 · Stercobilin, a brown pigment in feces, is formed by catabolic conversion by intestinal bacteria. Metabolites formed by intestinal bacteria, such ...
[10]
The Characterization of Feces and Urine: A Review of the Literature ...
May 29, 2015 · Results showed that the median fecal wet mass production was 128 g/cap/day, with a median dry mass of 29 g/cap/day. Fecal output in healthy ...
[11]
Fecal weight, colon cancer risk, and dietary intake of ... - PubMed
Data from other populations of the world show average stool weight to vary from 72 to 470 g/day and to be inversely related to colon cancer risk (r = -0.78).
[12]
The Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio of the human microbiota changes ...
Jun 9, 2009 · In healthy adults, 80% of the identified fecal microbiota can be classified into three dominant phyla: Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes and ...
[13]
Screening of skatole-degrading bacteria and control of human fecal ...
Jun 24, 2023 · Volatile fatty acids, sulfur compounds, indole, skatole, and amines are commonly blamed for the odor of human feces (Moore et al. 1987). Two- ...
[14]
Physiology, Large Intestine - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
The large intestine has 3 primary functions: absorbing water and electrolytes, producing and absorbing vitamins, and forming and propelling feces toward the ...Introduction · Function · Mechanism · Pathophysiology
[15]
Physiology, Gastrocolic Reflex - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
The use of stimulant laxatives like sennosides or bisacodyl will augment the gastrocolic reflex and helps in improved colonic contractions and defecation. Go to ...Introduction · Cellular Level · Function · Mechanism
[16]
Gut microbiota functions: metabolism of nutrients and other food ...
Bacterial gas production in the intestinal tract. Gas is an inevitable product of microbial fermentation in anaerobic ecosystems, including the alimentary tract ...
[17]
Gastrointestinal Transit: How Long Does It Take?
Finally, transit time is influenced by such factors as psychological stress and even gender and reproductive status. Several techniques have been used to ...
[18]
[PDF] BOWEL FUNCTION ANATOMY - Michigan Medicine
The bowel is considered to be a part of the digestive or gastrointestinal system. It is designed to help the body absorb nutrients and fluids from the foods we ...Missing: definition biology composition
[19]
EVOLUTIONARY CO-OPTION OF AN ANCESTRAL CLOACAL ...
The cloaca evolved at the base of the craniate lineage as a single orifice for the digestive, urinary and reproductive tracts, as found in birds or squamates.Missing: reptiles anus
[20]
The Scoop on Poop - San Diego House Rabbit Society
Jan 6, 2025 · Rabbits produce two types of droppings, fecal pellets (the round, dry ones you usually see in the litterbox) and cecotropes.Missing: elephant dung
[21]
The Mystery of Rabbit Poop
Cecotropes are not feces. They are nutrient-packed dietary items essential to your companion rabbit's good health.Missing: characteristics | Show results with:characteristics
[22]
8 unexpected uses for elephant dung - Africa Geographic
Nov 6, 2015 · An estimated 130,000 elephants occur seasonally in Botswana, meaning they produce about 13,000 metric tons of manure daily in that country!
[23]
Signs of a wolf - Suurpedot.fi
They slightly resemble dog poop. Wolf droppings usually have hairs and bone fragments in them. The darker a wolf's droppings are, the more meat it has eaten.Wolf Tracks · Other Signs Of A Wolf · Wolf DroppingsMissing: composition | Show results with:composition
[24]
The importance of crossroads in faecal marking behaviour ... - PubMed
For wolves (Canis lupus) scats play an important function in territorial marking behaviour. Depositing scats at strategic sites such as crossroads and on ...Missing: carnivore scat composition
[25]
Scent marking in wolves Canis lupus inhabiting managed lowland ...
Jun 13, 2020 · In wolves Canis lupus, scent marking plays an important role in territory defence. In Europe, studies on patterns of scent marking in wolves ...Methods · Wolf Population Within Study... · Locations Of Wolf Markings
[26]
Boosting manure biogas production with the application of ...
The results showed that chemical and/or biological pretreatments were more effective for omnivore manure (e.g., swine, chicken), while physical and a ...
[27]
Marine Snow: A Staple of the Deep | Smithsonian Ocean
The flakes in the ocean are made up of poop from animals, decaying animals and and other types of organic matter that slowly make their way to the seafloor.Missing: aquatic | Show results with:aquatic
[28]
What is marine snow? - NOAA's National Ocean Service
Nov 5, 2020 · In addition to dead animals and plants, marine snow also includes fecal matter, sand, soot, and other inorganic dust. The decaying material ...Missing: waste fish
[29]
Abnormal Droppings in Birds - VCA Animal Hospitals
The urates are usually white and are composed of uric acid crystals. The third component, which is often not recognized by owners, is clear liquid urine.
[30]
Why are bird droppings mostly white, considering the things birds eat?
Aug 4, 2021 · The white in bird droppings is predominantly uric acid excreted by the kidneys. Unlike mammals, birds don't excrete the products of protein breakdown as ...
[31]
Do birds pee? | Natural History Museum
This is because birds also release their more solid faeces at the same time as their uric acid 'pee'. Most birds release uric acid and faeces simultaneously.<|control11|><|separator|>
[32]
Diarrhoeal disease - World Health Organization (WHO)
Mar 7, 2024 · WHO fact sheet on diarrhoeal disease provides key facts and information on scope, causes, prevention and treatment, and WHO response.
[33]
Screening for Colorectal Cancer - CDC
Feb 26, 2025 · Stool tests The guaiac-based fecal occult blood test (gFOBT) uses the chemical guaiac to detect blood in the stool. It is done once a year. For ...Use of Colorectal Cancer... · Risk Factors · Symptoms
[34]
Ova and Parasite Test: MedlinePlus Medical Test
Oct 30, 2023 · An ova and parasite test looks for intestinal parasites and their eggs (ova) by checking a sample of your stool (poop) under a microscope.
[35]
The Use of Fecal Calprotectin in Inflammatory Bowel Disease - PMC
Nearly 99% of patients who have active IBD have elevated fecal calprotectin levels. At the same time, 15% to 20% of patients with IBS have mildly elevated ...
[36]
Effect of Oral Capsule– vs Colonoscopy-Delivered Fecal Microbiota ...
Nov 28, 2017 · Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) is the most effective therapy for RCDI, with reported efficacy between 60% and 90% after a single ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[37]
Bristol Stool scale: Stool types and what they mean
Experts consider types 1 and 2 to be uncharacteristically hard and indicative of constipation, while types 6 and 7 are unusually loose and may indicate diarrhea ...What is it? · Chart · Stool types · Healthy bowel
[38]
Steatorrhea (Fatty Stool): Definition, Causes, Treatment
Steatorrhea means there's too much fat in your stool (poop). It's a symptom of fat malabsorption. That means your digestive system is having trouble breaking ...Missing: deficiency | Show results with:deficiency
[39]
Overview of Malabsorption - Gastrointestinal Disorders
May 4, 2022 · Steatorrhea—fatty stool, the hallmark of malabsorption—occurs when > 7 g/day of fat are excreted. Steatorrhea causes foul-smelling, pale ...
[40]
A Brief History of The Flush Toilet
In 1848, the government decreed that every new house should have a water-closet (WC) or ash-pit privy. "Night soil men" were engaged to empty the ash pits.
[41]
A brief history of the toilet – DW – 11/18/2024
Delayed success for the flushing toilet. It was not until the second half of the 19th century that the flushing toilet began to establish itself in Europe.
[42]
Septic Tanks: Are they Anaerobic Digesters?
The short answer is yes. They utilize the anaerobic digestion process for the treatment (albeit only partial at a slow rate, and not to watercourse discharge ...
[43]
Anaerobic Digestion as a Core Technology in Addressing the Global ...
Anaerobic digestion (AD), coupled with post-treatment, has been identified as a promising technology to contribute to meeting this goal.
[44]
Understanding The Sewage Treatment Plant Process | ADP Enviro
Rating 5.0 (24) Jan 9, 2025 · Anaerobic Digestion. Many sewage treatment plants now use anaerobic digestion to treat sludge. This process breaks down organic matter in the ...
[45]
Progress on household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene 2000 ...
Jul 5, 2023 · 2 out of 5 people still lacked safely managed sanitation. In 2022, 57 per cent of the global population (4.5 billion people) used safely ...
[46]
[PDF] Water Conserving On-Site Wastewater Treatment Systems ...
This is the typical temperature range for most composting toilets. From 113F to 160F – thermophilic bacteria dominate (atypical of most compost systems unless.
[47]
https://washdata.org/reports/jmp-2025-report
[48]
World Population Prospects 2024
It presents population estimates from 1950 to the present for 237 countries or areas, underpinned by analyses of historical demographic trends.Data Portal · Graphs / Profiles · Data Sources · Download Center
[49]
Animal Manure As a Plant Nutrient Resource - Purdue Extension
For instance, the use of a phytase enzyme in poultry and swine rations can reduce the phosphorus content of manure by 25 to 40%. Reducing crude protein levels ...Missing: ratios | Show results with:ratios
[50]
Guidelines for Using Animal Manures and Manure-Based Composts ...
To ensure that pathogens have been killed, the compost pile must reach a high temperature (between 131°F and 140°F) for a sustained period of time (several ...Missing: off | Show results with:off
[51]
A Short History of the Utilization of Nightsoil in Agriculture - J-Stage
Sep 13, 2022 · The first nightsoil and fertilizer materials used in agriculture in China were 'tu- fen' (土糞) and green manure. Tu-fen consists of human and/ ...
[52]
Poultry manure improves soil properties and grain mineral ...
May 13, 2025 · The application of poultry manure at rates of 5, 10, 15, and 20 t ha−1 resulted in lower soil bulk density and increased total porosity and ...
[53]
Influence of fertilizer and manure inputs on soil health: A review
These studies suggest that there is some potential for manure applications to reduce fertilizer usage, increase organic inputs, improve soil health, and ...
[54]
Manure as a Potential Hotspot for Antibiotic Resistance ...
The co-occurrence of heavy metals and antibiotics in manure may increase the HGT pathways of ARGs and promote an increased emergence of antibiotic-resistant ...
[55]
BMPs for pathogen control in manure | UMN Extension
Temperatures within a compost pile can reach 150⁰F. We recommend two cycles of temperatures of at least 131⁰F to kill pathogens. Aeration and uniform heat ...Missing: die- | Show results with:die-
[56]
(PDF) Organic Farming in Ancient Egypt - ResearchGate
Jan 5, 2025 · They relied on manures for food production and horses and oxen for farm power. The agricultural way of life in ancient Egypt was influenced by ...
[57]
Unlocking the potential of biogas systems for energy production and ...
Jul 13, 2024 · Here, we show an improved design of community biogas production and distribution system to overcome these and achieve full co-benefits in developing economies.
[58]
A Review of the Processes, Parameters, and Optimization of ... - NIH
Oct 11, 2018 · The process of anaerobic digestion takes place through four successive stages: hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and methanogenesis; the ...
[59]
Experimental evaluation of fresh human feces biogas and compost ...
Findings from similar studies shows that human feces have a 51 % ash content, 17 % volatile matter, a moisture content ranging from 53 % to 92 % [18], and 32 % ...
[60]
Toilet-linked biogas plants tackle faecal sludge problem in Gujarat's ...
May 23, 2019 · The system not only prevented open defecation, addressed septage issue, but also gave easy access to clean and cheap fuel for cooking needs.
[61]
Pyrolysis of Dry Toilet Substrate as a Means of Nutrient Recycling in ...
Oct 20, 2020 · The yield in this study was comparable to biochar yields with human feces produced at 450 °C and 750 °C (29 and 30% DM [14]). Biochar production ...
[62]
Carbon flows and biochar stability during co-pyrolysis of human ...
Aug 28, 2024 · This article introduces a systematic methodology to calculate carbon flows and storage potential when co-pyrolysing human excreta with wood cover materials.2.3 Biochar Stability... · 3. Results & Discussion · 3.2 Biochar Stability And...
[63]
Characterizing Properties of Biochar Produced from Simulated ...
Mar 1, 2016 · Biochar was produced successfully from simulated human feces. Maximum energy densification and improved combustion properties achieved at 400°C.
[64]
What waste: human excrement can fuel developing world - Phys.org
Nov 4, 2015 · Gas produced by decaying human waste is a potentially major source of energy, providing electricity for millions of homes while improving sanitary conditions ...
[65]
[PDF] Biogas Capture and Utilization: An Effective, Affordable Way to ...
5,6 Biogas capture at many facilities can be an effective, affordable way to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by reducing methane emissions and displacing fossil ...
[66]
Biogas, a Climate and Clean Air Solution with Many Benefits.
Mar 7, 2022 · Biogas can help reduce methane and black carbon emissions while producing cleaner fuel for cooking, lighting, and electricity.
[67]
What is a coprolite? | Natural History Museum
Coprolites are the fossilised faeces of animals that lived millions of years ago. They are trace fossils, meaning not of the animal's actual body.
[68]
The Technological Advance and Application of Coprolite Analysis
Coprolites (mummified or fossilized feces), belonging to the group of ichnofossils, are fossilized remains of feces produced by animals.
[69]
X-ray tomographic microscopy of Eocene coprolites from Pipestone ...
Apr 20, 2023 · This multi-visualization approach provides a means to observe and evaluate differences in the coprolite gross morphology and inclusions across the two size ...
[70]
Combined visual and biochemical analyses confirm depositor and ...
Nov 10, 2020 · In the case of coprolites, X-ray computed tomography (μCT) scanning has been utilised for the past two decades to avoid destructive analysis ...
[71]
[PDF] ISBA9: 9th International Symposium on Biomolecular Archaeology
Jun 1, 2021 · Diet at 79AD Herculaneum: a compound specific stable isotope approach ... Molecular and microscopic analysis of human paleofeces from the salt.<|separator|>
[72]
Fossil Biomarkers and Biosignatures Preserved in Coprolites ... - MDPI
Aug 30, 2022 · In this study we combine a uniquely diverse array of chemical techniques to demonstrate that biomarkers and macromolecular biosignatures from ...
[73]
The what, how and why of archaeological coprolite analysis
Whilst standard light and stereo microscopy is the typical tool for analysing coprolite contents, high resolution tools including Scanning Electron Microscopy ( ...
[74]
Coprolites reveal ecological interactions lost with the extinction of ...
Feb 13, 2018 · Our study demonstrates that HTS sequencing of coprolites provides a powerful tool for resolving key aspects of ancient ecosystems and may ...
[75]
September | 2014 - paleoaerie
Sep 29, 2014 · There was bigger surprise found in the tyrannosaur coprolites. Dr. Chin found traces of undigested muscle. Obviously, it was not original muscle ...
[76]
Residues from the Upper Permian carnivore coprolites from Vyazniki ...
Additionally, using multiple analytical techniques (thin section, acid dissolution, and scanning electron microscope) of the coprolite material from Vyazniki ...<|separator|>
[77]
multiproxy analysis of coprolites from the Paisley Caves, Oregon, USA
Aug 28, 2020 · This study presents new direct evidence for Younger Dryas and early Holocene human diet in the northern Great Basin through multiproxy analysis ...
[78]
Fungal-induced fossil biomineralization - Cell Press
May 24, 2023 · Although the fungal fossil record can be traced back over a billion years, there are only a few recorded examples of fungal roles in ...Missing: oldest | Show results with:oldest
[79]
CoproID predicts the source of coprolites and paleofeces ... - PubMed
Apr 17, 2020 · However, paleofeces often undergo physical distortions in archaeological sediments, making their source species difficult to identify on the ...
[80]
Feces - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
"Faeces" originates from Latin faeces, meaning "sediment, dregs," with its specific sense as "human excrement" emerging in English circa 1630s.
[81]
FECES Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster
Etymology. Middle English fece "sediment, dregs," fecis, fecez (plural) "excrement," borrowed from Latin faec-, faex, fēx (singular) "wine lees, tartar, dregs, ...
[82]
Feces Definition and Examples - Biology Online Dictionary
Jul 21, 2021 · Feces are excrements that contain digested waste material, bacteria, cells that exfoliated from the linings of the intestines, and secretions ( ...
[83]
Feces - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Feces is the solid organic refuse of the human body, composed of about 80% water and 20% dry material. Microscopy is the main analysis to identify feces.
[84]
Scat as a source of DNA for population monitoring - PMC - NIH
Oct 30, 2022 · Sampling fecal droppings (scat) to genetically identify individual animals is an established method for monitoring mammal populations and ...
[85]
Nightsoil and the 'Great Divergence': human waste, the urban ...
Oct 13, 2014 · This article explores the varied ways in which nightsoil men and women organized their work in cities around the world in the period from 1500 to 1900.
[86]
Difference Between Egestion And Excretion - BYJU'S
The difference between Excretion and Egestion lies in the type of waste discharged from an organism. In the egestion process, which takes place in animals, the ...
[87]
FECES Synonyms: 23 Similar Words | Merriam-Webster Thesaurus
Synonyms for FECES: dung, soil, dirt, excrement, poop, excreta, scat, dropping, ordure, slops.
[88]
STOOL Synonyms: 23 Similar Words | Merriam-Webster Thesaurus
Synonyms for STOOL: feces, poop, excrement, excreta, dung, soil, night soil, manure, scat, ordure.
[89]
The Scoop on Bat Poop - Bat Conservation International
Apr 24, 2024 · Bat poop (along with bird poop) is also called guano, a word originating from the Andean indigenous language Quechua and refers to any form of animal dung used ...Missing: frass | Show results with:frass
[90]
Identify poo - The Wildlife Trusts
Have you found some animal poo? Droppings, dung, spraints and scat - animal poo goes by many names. Knowing how to identify poo can be a great way of ...Missing: terms guano definitions sources
[91]
11 Facts About Animal Poo | London Zoo
Aug 22, 2024 · Insect droppings are known as 'frass' and surprisingly a lot of insects have been toileting habits that some of our larger animals! In ...Missing: scat definitions
[92]
Caca - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
caca(n.) ... "excrement," c. 1870, slang, probably from Spanish or another language that uses it, ultimately from PIE root *kakka- "to defecate," which forms the ...Missing: French | Show results with:French
[93]
[PDF] International Glossary of Shit - IDS Website Archive
International Glossary of Shit. Word. Language. Country. Aar. Amhara ... Poo. English. UK. Poop. English. USA. Shina. Eeh. Bengal, India. PLEASE ADD WORDS IN ...
[94]
tahi - Wiktionary, the free dictionary
excrement, shit, feces. Synonyms: berak ... Further reading. Williams, Herbert William (1917), “tahi”, in A Dictionary of the Maori Language , pages 418-9 ...
[95]
Understanding role of Mutra Mala Function in Medovaha Srotodushti ...
Understanding role of Mutra Mala Function in Medovaha Srotodushti Lakshana ... (feces), Mutra (urine), and Sweda (sweat). These Malas are essential for ...Missing: term | Show results with:term
[96]
The forgotten history and principles of Indian traditional medicine
If the Mutra Mala (urine) is not removed from the body, it can lead to urinary tract infections, cystitis and gastric pain. If the Sveda Mala is not cleared ...Missing: feces | Show results with:feces
[97]
DOO-DOO Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster
The meaning of DOO-DOO is feces. How to use doo-doo in a sentence.Missing: language | Show results with:language
[98]
dung, n.¹ meanings, etymology and more | Oxford English Dictionary
nursery and slang. In plural. Excrement, faeces. doo-doo1954–. Faeces, excrement. Cf. do, n.¹ 6. doings1957–. In plural. colloquial. Excrement, excreta. to do ...
[99]
The History Of The Toilet - J S PINDER PLUMBING AND HEATING
A toilet is a sanitation fixture used primarily for the disposal of human excrement, often found in a small room referred to as a toilet/bathroom/lavatory.
[100]
[PDF] Analysis of linguistic taboo in the history of the semantic field of ...
or shit in slang terms, such as Ito not Nnow dung from honey" instead of Ito not Nnow shit from honey,". Green, Dictionary of Slang, 3: 863. 378 Green ...
[101]
A perspective on disgust. - APA PsycNet
Approaches disgust as a food-related emotion and defines it as revulsion at the prospect of oral incorporation of offensive objects.
[102]
Disgust as an adaptive system for disease avoidance behaviour - PMC
Brain imaging studies also show that there is a specific network associated with disgust. Viewing images of disgusting stimuli, or videos of people with ...
[103]
[PDF] Rozin, P., Haidt, J., & McCauley, CR (2000). Disgust. In ... - NYU Stern
Disgust differs from the category of inappropriateness (e.g., paper, marigolds, and sand) in that disgusting potential foods are thought to be offensive and ...
[104]
[PDF] A perspective on disgust. - Semantic Scholar
The ontogeny of disgust, which the author believes develops during the first 8 years of life, is considered and the idea that feces, the universal disgust ...
[105]
Cleaning Human Waste : "Manual Scavenging," Caste, and ...
Gangashree walks through the village to manually clean human excrement from dry toilets in Kasela,. August 25, 2014. Cleaning Human Waste. "Manual ...Missing: taboos | Show results with:taboos
[106]
[PDF] Taharah, Ritual Purity according to the Five Schools of Islamic Law
The tahara from hadath is not achieved unless accompanied by the intention (niyyah) to seek nearness to God (taqarrub) and obey His command regarding it. As to ...
[107]
Women's disgust adaptations. - APA PsycNet
Women's disgust adaptations. · Citation. Fleischman, D. S. (2014). · Abstract. Consider for a moment a few things that you find disgusting. · Unique Identifier.
[108]
How the Ancient Romans Went to the Bathroom
Nov 15, 2021 · Public toilets were called foricae. They were often attached to public baths, whose water was used to flush down the filth. Because the Roman ...
[109]
How to go to the toilet, medieval style? - Medievalists.net
Nov 28, 2021 · In the Middle Ages, people used chamber pots, commode chairs, private latrines, and public lavatories. Public use was forbidden in some areas.
[110]
Hand washing promotion for preventing diarrhoea - PubMed Central
Hand washing promotion in HICs and LMICs settings may reduce incidence of diarrhoea by about 30%. However, less is known about how to help people maintain hand ...
[111]
💩 Pile of Poo Emoji | Meaning, Copy And Paste - Emojipedia
Pile of Poo was approved as part of Unicode 6.0 in 2010 and added to Emoji 1.0 in 2015. Learn More About This Emoji. EmojiPlayground. Emoji Combiner. Merge ...Android 5.0 · Microsoft · Pile of Poo on SoftBank 1997Missing: introduction | Show results with:introduction
[112]
Give a sh*t - WaterAid America
Nov 19, 2024 · The app lets you create customized emojis while raising awareness of the global sanitation crisis. WaterAid poop emoji mobile application ...
[113]
#GiveAShit by WaterAid - The Shorty Awards
Using poop emoji, the campaign offered a fun, light-hearted way to learn about an issue that has serious consequences for the 2.3 billion people around the ...
[114]
Marcel Duchamp, Fountain, 1917/1964 - SFMOMA
Fountain is one of a group of objects that Duchamp called "readymades," works with which he challenged traditional notions of making and exhibiting art.Missing: scatological | Show results with:scatological
[115]
Pull My Finger | USC Digital Folklore Archives
May 12, 2016 · The joke is simple: the jokester says “Pull my finger” and sticks out his finger, the victim pulls the finger, the jokester farts.Missing: flatulence history
[116]
The Big Squeeze: How Mr. Whipple Made Advertising History
Feb 20, 2020 · Whipple, the nervous grocer who spent 21 years and more than 500 commercials pleading with fictional customers to please "don't squeeze the ...
[117]
Dick Wilson, 91; Mr. Whipple in Charmin TV ads - Los Angeles Times
Nov 20, 2007 · From 1964 to 1985, and again in 1999, Wilson portrayed Mr. Whipple in more than 500 commercials for the toilet paper. The first ad was filmed in ...
[118]
'Humanure' is effective compost for lettuce growth - Science Societies
May 15, 2025 · Composted human feces—known as “humanure”—is a simple, low-cost way to recycle waste into a valuable organic material for growing food.
[119]
Here Are Some Climate Change Memes to Calm That Eco-Anxiety
Jun 1, 2023 · The most common way people compost their own feces is with a composting toilet, where the waste is mixed with sawdust, leaves, and wood ash to ...