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Promazine

Promazine is a phenothiazine derivative classified as a first-generation (typical) antipsychotic medication, primarily used for the short-term adjunctive management of psychomotor agitation, restlessness, and aggressive behavior, especially in elderly patients.^[1]^[2] It exhibits relatively weak antipsychotic efficacy compared to other agents in its class but possesses pronounced sedative and anticholinergic effects, making it suitable for calming agitation without strong reliance on its antidopaminergic properties.^[3] Chemically known as N,N-dimethyl-3-(10H-phenothiazin-10-yl)propan-1-amine, it has a molecular formula of C₁₇H₂₀N₂S and was first approved for clinical use in 1956, though it is not approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and is mainly available in Europe, such as the United Kingdom and EU countries, in oral and injectable forms.^[1]^[1] As a low-potency neuroleptic, promazine functions primarily as an antagonist at dopamine D₂ receptors, thereby inhibiting dopaminergic neurotransmission in a dose-dependent manner to alleviate psychotic symptoms and agitation, while also blocking serotonin 5-HT₂A and ₂C receptors, muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, alpha-1 adrenergic receptors, and histamine H₁ receptors, contributing to its sedative, antiemetic, and hypotensive effects.^[1]^[2] Its pharmacokinetics include peak plasma concentrations within 2–4 hours, a half-life of 20–40 hours, and hepatic metabolism primarily to N-desmethylpromazine and promazine sulfoxide, with excretion via urine.^[2]^[4] Although it has been employed historically for schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders, current guidelines from organizations like the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) and the British Association for Psychopharmacology (BAP) do not endorse it as a first-line treatment for psychosis due to its limited efficacy and higher risk of adverse effects.^[3] Promazine's therapeutic profile includes applications in managing moderate-to-severe psychomotor agitation in both acute and elderly care settings, where its rapid onset and liquid formulations (e.g., oral syrup at 25 mg/5 mL or 50 mg/5 mL) facilitate administration, particularly when patients resist tablets.^[2] Compared to other phenothiazines like chlorpromazine, it demonstrates a lower incidence of extrapyramidal side effects (0% versus 4%) and reduced risk of hyperprolactinemia, though it can prolong the QTc interval, cause orthostatic hypotension, and induce anticholinergic symptoms such as dry mouth, constipation, and urinary retention.^[2]^[3] Prescribing trends indicate ongoing use in secondary care despite its classification as "less suitable for prescribing" in resources like the British National Formulary (BNF), with audits revealing frequent off-label application and incomplete documentation of indications in up to 73.6% of cases.^[3] Overall, while promazine played a role in the early development of antipsychotic therapy following the introduction of chlorpromazine, its contemporary role is niche, emphasizing symptomatic relief in agitation rather than core psychotic treatment.^[1]

Uses

Human applications

Promazine is primarily employed as a short-term adjunctive therapy for managing moderate to severe psychomotor agitation associated with psychiatric conditions such as schizophrenia and mania.^[5] It helps control disturbed behavior and violent or aggressive manifestations in these contexts, often as part of a broader treatment regimen.^[5] Clinical guidelines, including those from the British National Formulary (BNF), recommend its use in acute settings to alleviate such agitation, supported by its sedative properties within the phenothiazine antipsychotic class.^[6] In elderly patients, promazine is particularly valued for treating restlessness and agitation, where its relatively milder extrapyramidal side effect profile compared to higher-potency antipsychotics makes it a suitable option.^[5] This application is common in cases of dementia-related behavioral disturbances or general psychomotor unrest, allowing for calmer management without excessive motor complications.^[7] Evidence from prescribing guidance indicates efficacy in reducing agitation in this population, with observational use highlighting its role in non-psychotic elderly agitation.^[8] Historically, promazine has been used off-label for nausea and vomiting, as well as anxiety in non-psychotic settings, leveraging its antiemetic and anxiolytic effects derived from phenothiazine properties.^[7] These applications stem from early clinical explorations of phenothiazines for gastrointestinal and mild anxiety symptoms, though they are less common today with more targeted agents available.^[7] Dosage guidelines for human use emphasize short-term administration to minimize risks. For adults with psychomotor agitation, the typical oral dose is 100–200 mg four times daily, while intramuscular dosing starts at 50–150 mg, with additional doses allowable up to a total of 300 mg in severe cases.^[6]^[9] In elderly patients for restlessness, lower doses of 25–50 mg four times daily are recommended to account for reduced tolerance.^[8] The BNF advises careful titration and monitoring, limiting use to short durations, typically up to one week for agitation, based on clinical response and safety data.^[6]

Veterinary applications

Promazine is primarily utilized in veterinary medicine as a tranquilizer to manage excitability and facilitate handling in large animals, particularly horses. It serves as a pre-anesthetic agent, often administered to calm fractious horses prior to minor operative procedures or general anesthesia, and can be combined with opioids or alpha-2 agonists such as xylazine for enhanced sedation and synergistic effects.^[10]^[11]^[12] In equine practice, typical dosing ranges from 0.2 to 0.5 mg/lb (0.44 to 1.1 mg/kg) body weight via intravenous or intramuscular injection, with effects lasting 4 to 6 hours; for example, 0.4 to 0.6 mg/kg IV provides moderate sedation suitable for pre-anesthesia.^[10]^[11] A specific formulation available for equine use is Tranquazine (promazine hydrochloride injection), approved as a tranquilizer and pre-anesthetic in horses not intended for food production.^[13] In companion animals such as dogs and cats, promazine is employed to control agitated or intractable behaviors, including anxiety-related excitability during examinations, grooming, or transportation, though it primarily induces sedation rather than true anxiolysis. Dosing for dogs and cats is 1 to 2 mg/lb (2.2 to 4.4 mg/kg) body weight intramuscularly or intravenously every 4 to 6 hours, often as an adjunct for minor procedures or to prevent motion sickness in dogs.^[10]^[1] Safety considerations in veterinary applications include monitoring for hypotension due to promazine's alpha-adrenergic blocking effects, which can lead to cardiovascular instability, particularly in species prone to low blood pressure such as horses with cardiac disease or debilitated animals; intravenous administration should be slow to mitigate this risk.^[11] Use is restricted to licensed veterinarians, and caution is advised in animals with hepatic dysfunction or those recently treated with organophosphates.^[10]^[11]

Pharmacology

Pharmacodynamics

Promazine is classified as a typical (first-generation) phenothiazine antipsychotic with low-potency antagonism at dopamine D2 receptors, primarily exerting its therapeutic effects through blockade of these receptors in the mesolimbic dopamine pathway, which helps alleviate positive symptoms of psychosis such as hallucinations and delusions.^[5] Its binding affinity at the human D2 receptor is relatively weak, with a pIC50 of 6.30 corresponding to an approximate Ki value of 500 nM. This low-potency profile distinguishes promazine from higher-potency typical antipsychotics, contributing to a reduced incidence of extrapyramidal symptoms while maintaining sedative properties.^[14] In addition to D2 antagonism, promazine exhibits weak blockade of other receptors, including serotonin 5-HT2A and 2C receptors, histamine H1, muscarinic acetylcholine (M1-M5), and alpha-adrenergic receptors, which underlie its prominent sedative, anticholinergic, and hypotensive effects.^[5] The H1 receptor affinity is notably higher, with a pIC50 of 8.23 (Ki ≈ 6 nM), promoting sedation and antiemetic actions. Muscarinic receptor binding is moderate to weak across subtypes, with Ki values ranging from 110 nM (M3) to 280 nM (M2), leading to mild autonomic effects like dry mouth and constipation.^[14] Alpha-adrenergic antagonism is stronger, with pKi values around 8.0-8.4 (Ki ≈ 4-10 nM) at alpha-1 subtypes, contributing to orthostatic hypotension. Compared to chlorpromazine, another prototypical phenothiazine, promazine demonstrates weaker antipsychotic potency due to lower D2 affinity (Ki ≈ 500 nM versus ≈ 50 nM for chlorpromazine), resulting in a lower risk of extrapyramidal side effects but similar overall receptor profile. Promazine also produces antiemetic effects through blockade of D2 and H1 receptors in the medullary chemoreceptor trigger zone, making it useful for nausea associated with psychiatric agitation.^[5]

Pharmacokinetics

Promazine is rapidly absorbed after oral administration, exhibiting a bioavailability of approximately 8-25%, though absorption is erratic with substantial interindividual variability in peak plasma concentrations.^[15] Peak plasma levels are typically attained within 1 to 4 hours post-dose, influenced by first-pass metabolism in the liver.^[5]^[16] Following absorption, promazine demonstrates extensive distribution throughout the body due to its high lipophilicity, with notable accumulation in lipophilic tissues including the brain, lungs, liver, and kidneys. It binds extensively to plasma proteins at approximately 94%, which limits the free fraction available for pharmacological activity but contributes to its prolonged presence in circulation.^[5]^[16] Metabolism of promazine occurs predominantly in the liver through cytochrome P450-mediated pathways, generating active and inactive metabolites. Key transformations include N-demethylation to N-desmethylpromazine (primarily catalyzed by CYP1A2 and CYP2C19) and 5-sulfoxidation to promazine 5-sulfoxide (primarily by CYP1A2 and CYP3A4), with negligible involvement from CYP2D6 or other isoforms like CYP2A6, CYP2B6, and CYP2E1. These processes result in rates of metabolite formation in human liver microsomes of about 102 pmol/mg protein/min for N-desmethylpromazine and 43 pmol/mg protein/min for the sulfoxide at therapeutic concentrations.^[17] Elimination of promazine is characterized by a half-life of approximately 6-10 hours, allowing for once- or twice-daily dosing in clinical practice.^[18] The parent drug and its metabolites are primarily excreted via the renal route as inactive conjugates, with minimal unchanged promazine in urine. This prolonged elimination supports the potential for drug accumulation during repeated administration, particularly in regimens exceeding standard therapeutic intervals.^[18] Pharmacokinetic profiles of promazine can vary with patient factors, notably age; elderly individuals often exhibit reduced hepatic clearance and metabolic capacity, leading to higher exposure and increased risk of accumulation compared to younger adults. Liver impairment further exacerbates these changes, as evidenced by prolonged half-life and elevated area under the curve in cirrhotic patients.^[19]

Adverse effects

Common effects

Promazine commonly causes sedation and drowsiness, primarily due to its antagonism of histamine H1 receptors.^[20]^[5] These effects can impair daily activities, such as driving or operating machinery, and often diminish with continued use or dose adjustment under medical supervision.^[21] Anticholinergic symptoms are also frequent and include dry mouth, constipation, blurred vision, and urinary retention or hesitancy resulting from muscarinic receptor blockade.^[20]^[5] Dry mouth and constipation can be managed symptomatically with hydration, sugar-free lozenges, or laxatives, while blurred vision or urinary issues may require dose reduction if persistent.^[21] Autonomic effects such as orthostatic hypotension and nasal congestion stem from alpha-adrenergic receptor antagonism that leads to blood pressure drops upon standing and possible nasal blockage.^[20]^[5] Patients are advised to rise slowly from sitting or lying positions to mitigate hypotension-related dizziness, with symptomatic treatment like compression stockings if needed.^[21] Skin reactions, including allergic rashes and photosensitisation, have also been reported.^[20] Other common effects include weight gain, headache, and mild agitation.^[20] Weight gain may arise from metabolic changes associated with prolonged antipsychotic use, while headaches and mild agitation (sometimes linked to initial extrapyramidal symptoms like akathisia) typically resolve with time or dose titration.^[1] Management involves monitoring weight through diet and exercise, and consulting a healthcare provider for headaches or agitation that do not improve.^[21]

Serious effects

Promazine, a low-potency typical antipsychotic, can induce extrapyramidal symptoms (EPS) despite its relatively weak potency in this regard, including akathisia, dystonia, and athetoid movements.^[22] Prolonged use carries a risk of tardive dyskinesia, a potentially irreversible condition characterized by involuntary, rhythmical movements, particularly affecting the face and tongue.^[22]^[7] Additionally, rare but severe neurological effects include neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS), marked by hyperthermia, muscle rigidity, altered mental status, and autonomic instability, with a case fatality rate of approximately 20%, necessitating immediate drug discontinuation and supportive care.^[22] Seizures may also occur, potentially exacerbated by the drug's impact on seizure threshold.^[21]^[7] Hematologic toxicities represent another serious concern, with reports of agranulocytosis, leukopenia, and thrombocytopenia, which can lead to severe infections or bleeding.^[21]^[7]^[23] These effects, though uncommon, underscore the need for vigilant monitoring, as evidenced by historical case reports linking promazine to agranulocytosis within weeks of initiation.^[24] Hepatic adverse reactions include cholestatic jaundice and elevated liver enzymes, potentially progressing to significant liver dysfunction.^[21]^[25]^[26] Cardiac arrhythmias, such as sinus tachycardia and nonspecific ECG changes, have been associated with promazine use, alongside risks of orthostatic hypotension and, in rare cases, more severe events like myocardial infarction or Torsades de pointes.^[22]^[21]^[7] Endocrine disturbances, including galactorrhoea, gynaecomastia, menstrual irregularities, and impotence, may occur due to hyperprolactinemia.^[20] Venous thromboembolism, including pulmonary embolism and deep vein thrombosis, has been reported.^[20] Eye disorders such as precipitation of glaucoma and corneal opacities can also arise.^[20] Risk factors for these serious effects include prolonged duration of therapy, particularly for tardive dyskinesia, and concurrent use of other medications that may potentiate dopaminergic blockade or electrolyte imbalances.^[22]^[21] To mitigate these risks, baseline complete blood counts and liver function tests are recommended, followed by periodic monitoring, especially in patients with pre-existing hematologic or hepatic conditions.^[21]^[27]

Overdose management

Overdose of promazine, a phenothiazine antipsychotic, primarily manifests as central nervous system (CNS) depression, including severe sedation, coma, and occasionally initial agitation or excitement followed by grand mal seizures.^[1]^[28] Other common symptoms include severe hypotension, hypothermia, tachycardia, miosis, and potential respiratory failure or vasomotor collapse; extrapyramidal reactions may be pronounced, and ECG changes such as QT prolongation can occur, increasing arrhythmia risk.^[1]^[29] There is no specific antidote for promazine overdose, and management focuses on supportive care and decontamination. If ingestion occurred within 1-2 hours, administer activated charcoal to reduce absorption, though gastric lavage may be considered in severe cases; avoid emetics due to promazine's antiemetic properties, which may render them ineffective.^[29]^[30] Treat hypotension with intravenous fluids and vasopressors such as norepinephrine if needed; for seizures, use benzodiazepines like lorazepam or diazepam.^[29] Maintain airway patency, provide mechanical ventilation if respiratory depression ensues, and monitor vital signs, ECG for QT prolongation and arrhythmias, and temperature to manage hypothermia.^[29]^[30] Extrapyramidal symptoms can be addressed with anticholinergics like benztropine.^[1] Animal toxicity data indicate an oral LD50 of approximately 350 mg/kg in rats, highlighting moderate acute toxicity compared to other phenothiazines.^[1] Prognosis is generally favorable with prompt intervention, as sudden death is rare, though delayed complications like aspiration or cardiac events can occur without monitoring.^[29]

Contraindications and interactions

Contraindications

Promazine is contraindicated in patients with known hypersensitivity to promazine or other phenothiazines, as severe allergic reactions may occur.^[20] It is also absolutely contraindicated in individuals experiencing coma, severe central nervous system (CNS) depression, or bone marrow suppression, due to the risk of exacerbating these conditions.^[20] Additionally, use is prohibited in patients with phaeochromocytoma, as the drug may provoke hypertensive crises from catecholamine release.^[20] Relative contraindications include severe cardiovascular disease, where promazine may worsen hypotension or arrhythmias; a personal or family history of narrow-angle glaucoma, owing to its anticholinergic effects that can increase intraocular pressure; prostatic hypertrophy, which may be aggravated by urinary retention; and Parkinson's disease, as promazine can intensify extrapyramidal symptoms through dopamine blockade.^[20]^[1]^[31] In pregnancy, promazine should be avoided, particularly in the first trimester, unless compelling medical reasons outweigh the risks of fetal harm; exposure in the third trimester may lead to neonatal extrapyramidal symptoms or withdrawal.^[32]^[20] It is contraindicated during lactation, as the drug passes into breast milk and may cause adverse effects in infants.^[20] Promazine is not recommended for use in children, except in severe cases under strict medical supervision, due to heightened sensitivity to side effects.^[32]^[20] A black box warning applies to the use of promazine and other antipsychotics in elderly patients with dementia-related psychosis, as it is associated with an increased risk of mortality from cardiovascular events or infections.^[32] Elderly individuals are particularly susceptible to sedation, hypotension, and thermoregulatory disturbances, necessitating cautious dosing.^[20]

Drug interactions

Promazine, a phenothiazine antipsychotic, exhibits significant drug interactions primarily through additive pharmacological effects and alterations in metabolism, which can enhance its sedative, anticholinergic, hypotensive, or cardiotoxic properties.^[5] Co-administration with central nervous system (CNS) depressants, such as alcohol or opioids, results in additive sedation and respiratory depression due to synergistic enhancement of GABAergic and mu-opioid receptor activities. For instance, combining promazine with alcohol can profoundly impair psychomotor function and increase the risk of severe drowsiness or coma, particularly in vulnerable populations.^[5]^[33] Promazine possesses intrinsic anticholinergic properties, and its use with other anticholinergic agents, including tricyclic antidepressants or certain antihistamines, amplifies adverse effects such as dry mouth, constipation, urinary retention, and confusion, potentially leading to delirium or anticholinergic intoxication syndrome. This interaction arises from competitive blockade of muscarinic receptors, with clinical manifestations reported in cases involving multiple agents with overlapping effects.^[5]^[34] Inhibition of promazine metabolism by cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzyme inhibitors can elevate its plasma levels, prolonging exposure and intensifying toxicity. Although promazine is primarily metabolized via CYP1A2, CYP3A4, and CYP2C19, weak inhibitors like fluoxetine (which affects CYP2C19) have been associated with increased promazine concentrations, necessitating dose adjustments to avoid excessive sedation or extrapyramidal symptoms.^[35]^[5] Promazine can prolong the QT interval, and concurrent use with other QT-prolonging drugs, such as certain antipsychotics (e.g., thioridazine) or antiarrhythmics, heightens the risk of torsades de pointes, a potentially fatal ventricular arrhythmia. Low-potency phenothiazines like promazine contribute to this effect through blockade of cardiac potassium channels, with additive risks documented in polypharmacy scenarios among psychiatric patients.^[36]^[5] Additionally, promazine potentiates the hypotensive effects of antihypertensives, including alpha-blockers or ACE inhibitors, via alpha-adrenergic blockade, leading to orthostatic hypotension or syncope. This interaction is particularly concerning in elderly patients or those with cardiovascular comorbidities.^[37]^[5] Management of these interactions involves dose reductions of promazine or the interacting agent, close monitoring of vital signs, ECG for QT changes, and clinical symptoms, with case reports emphasizing the importance of therapeutic drug monitoring in complex regimens to prevent adverse outcomes.^[33]^[38]

Chemistry

Chemical properties

Promazine is a synthetic phenothiazine derivative with the molecular formula C_{17}H_{20}N_{2}S and a molecular weight of 284.42 g/mol. Its structure consists of a tricyclic phenothiazine ring system substituted at the 10-position with a 3-(dimethylaminopropyl) side chain, which contributes to its classification within the aliphatic phenothiazine subclass of antipsychotic agents. The hydrochloride salt form, widely used in clinical formulations, has the formula C_{17}H_{21}ClN_{2}S and a molecular weight of 320.88 g/mol.^[1]^[39] In its physical form, promazine base presents as a solid or oily liquid with a melting point below 25°C, whereas the hydrochloride salt is a white to off-white crystalline powder melting at 174–176°C. The base exhibits low aqueous solubility, approximately 14.2 mg/L at 24°C, while the hydrochloride salt is freely soluble in water (approximately 333 mg/mL), as well as in chloroform and methanol. These solubility characteristics necessitate the use of the salt form for pharmaceutical preparations to enhance bioavailability.^[1]^[39]^[40] Promazine hydrochloride demonstrates pKa values around 9.4 for its conjugate acid, indicating moderate basicity typical of the tertiary amine in the side chain. Regarding stability, the compound is light-sensitive and oxidizes upon prolonged exposure to air, requiring storage in light-resistant containers at 2–8°C and preferably at pH 6.5 for maximal stability in solution. Compared to related phenothiazines like chlorpromazine, promazine lacks the 2-chloro substituent on the ring, resulting in a simpler unsubstituted structure that influences its physicochemical profile without altering the core phenothiazine scaffold.^[41]^[1]^[42]

Synthesis

Promazine is synthesized primarily by N-alkylation of phenothiazine with 3-(dimethylamino)propyl chloride in the presence of a strong base. The original method, detailed in US Patent 2,519,886, involves dissolving phenothiazine in xylene, adding sodamide as the base, and then introducing 3-(dimethylamino)-1-chloropropane over one hour while heating under reflux for an additional hour; the reaction mixture is then processed to isolate the product by distillation.^[43] A refined variant, outlined in US Patent 3,100,772, employs sodium hydride to deprotonate phenothiazine in dimethylformamide under nitrogen at 25–35°C, followed by addition of the alkyl chloride in toluene; after stirring, the mixture is quenched, extracted, and purified by vacuum distillation at 195–205°C under 2–3 mm Hg pressure.^[44] The phenothiazine nucleus required for these alkylations is commonly prepared from diphenylamine precursors via the Bernthsen reaction, a high-temperature (around 200–250°C) cyclization with elemental sulfur, often catalyzed by iodine, to form the tricyclic core in good yields.^[45] Alternative synthetic routes to the phenothiazine scaffold incorporate the Smiles rearrangement, where aryl sulfide intermediates undergo base-mediated intramolecular cyclization to construct the central ring, providing a versatile pathway for substituted derivatives prior to side-chain attachment.^[46] Overall yields for promazine synthesis via these phenothiazine-based approaches typically reach 75%, with purification achieved through distillation to separate the base from reaction byproducts and salts.^[47]

History and availability

Development history

Promazine was synthesized in 1950 by chemists at the French pharmaceutical company Rhône-Poulenc as part of ongoing research into phenothiazine derivatives, building on the earlier development of promethazine for antihistamine applications.^[1] This work was led by Paul Charpentier and aimed at creating compounds with enhanced pharmacological properties, including potential central nervous system effects. Promazine, chemically 10-(3-(dimethylamino)propyl)phenothiazine, emerged from efforts to modify the phenothiazine core to improve therapeutic utility beyond antihistaminic activity.^[48] The compound's antipsychotic potential was identified in the early 1950s amid broader investigations into phenothiazines for sedation and tranquilization, occurring concurrently with the synthesis of chlorpromazine, a chlorinated derivative of promazine.^[48] While chlorpromazine demonstrated stronger antipsychotic efficacy, promazine was noted for its milder sedative profile and reduced risk of extrapyramidal side effects, making it suitable for patients requiring less potent intervention, such as those with agitation or anxiety.^[49] Initial animal studies highlighted these differences, positioning promazine as a complementary option in the emerging class of neuroleptics.^[48] First clinical trials for promazine's antipsychotic effects began in the mid-1950s, with reports of its use in psychiatric disorders appearing by 1956.^[50] These early studies demonstrated efficacy in managing psychomotor agitation and short-term behavioral disturbances in patients with schizophrenia and other psychoses, often at doses of 100-400 mg daily.^[51] A 1958 controlled trial in chronic schizophrenic patients further confirmed its tranquilizing effects, though with modest overall antipsychotic potency compared to chlorpromazine.^[52] Promazine received initial U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval in 1956 under the brand name Sparine for the treatment of psychiatric conditions, including non-psychotic anxiety and agitation associated with psychosis.^[1] It was marketed as a low-potency typical antipsychotic with a favorable tolerability profile for short-term use, particularly in elderly or sensitive populations. Over time, its role diminished with the introduction of safer and more effective alternatives in the 1960s and beyond, leading to its eventual withdrawal from the U.S. market, though it remains available in some countries for limited indications.^[49]

Current availability

Promazine is no longer commercially produced for human use in the United States, where all formulations were discontinued around 2005 and it is not approved by the FDA for human applications, though veterinary formulations remain available under names like Promazine and Tranquazine.^[5]^[53] In contrast, it continues to be accessible in the United Kingdom and parts of Europe through the British National Formulary (BNF), with common dosages including 25 mg and 50 mg tablets as well as oral solutions at 25 mg/5 mL and 50 mg/5 mL concentrations.^[54]^[55] Available formulations for human use primarily consist of oral tablets and liquids, with the hydrochloride salt form used for both; injectable preparations of promazine hydrochloride are offered in select regions for acute administration, while veterinary products include liquid suspensions for animal sedation.^[56]^[53] Its legal status is that of a prescription-only medicine in jurisdictions where it is marketed, such as under Schedule H in India, requiring a registered medical practitioner's prescription for dispensing, and it is not classified as a controlled substance under international narcotic regulations.^[57]^[56] The limited contemporary use of promazine stems from its replacement by atypical antipsychotics, which offer improved safety profiles with reduced risks of extrapyramidal side effects and tardive dyskinesia compared to typical agents like promazine.^[49] Globally, availability varies, with broader adoption in developing countries due to its low cost relative to newer alternatives, though import restrictions in certain areas, such as stringent regulatory controls in some low-resource settings, can limit access.^[58]

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Addressing QTc Prolongation With Antipsychotics - U.S. Pharmacist
May 14, 2024 · Low-potency typical antipsychotics are often associated with an increased risk of developing a prolonged QT interval and TdP.
[35]
Promazine (Primazine, Prozine) | Davis's Drug Guide - Nursing Central
This medication is no longer available in the United States. Information provided here is for reference purposes only. Pronunciation: proe-ma-zeen. Trade Name(s).
[36]
Haloperidol/promazine/trazodone interaction | Reactions Weekly
A 75-year-old man developed serotonin syndrome after starting treatment with trazodone [Trittico CR], and after recently stopping treatment with haloperidol ...
[37]
Promazine hydrochloride | 53-60-1
### Summary of Promazine Hydrochloride Properties
[38]
Promazine Hydrochloride | C17H21ClN2S | CID 5887 - PubChem
Promazine Hydrochloride is the hydrochloride salt form of promazine, a phenothiazine derivative with antipsychotic and antiemetic properties.
[39]
Promazine | 58-40-2 - ChemicalBook
May 15, 2023 · Promazine Properties ; pKa 9.4(H2O,t =24±1) (Uncertain) · Off-White to Pale Beige · 14.22mg/L(24 ºC) · Hygroscopic · O9M39HTM5W.
[40]
[PDF] Promazine Hydrochloride 25mg/5ml Oral Syrup Package leaflet
Keep this medicine out of the sight and reach of children. □ Store below 25°C. Protect from light. □ Do not use this medicine after the expiry date which is ...
[41]
US2519886A - Beta-bimethylaminoethylphenothia - Google Patents
### Summary of Synthesis Method for Promazine and Related Phenothiazine Derivatives
[42]
US3100772A - Method for preparing phenothiazine derivatives
This reaction is intended to replace the hydrogen in the l-position with the alkali metal ion forming the sodio derivative, a thick insoluble mass of complex.
[43]
Transition metal catalyzed synthesis and functionalization of ...
Jul 5, 2024 · In 1883, Bernthsen developed methodology for the synthesis of phenothiazine compound by the thionation of diphenylamine [1]. Phenothiazine ...
[44]
Thioarylation of anilines using dual catalysis: two-step synthesis of ...
Jul 6, 2022 · Traditionally, phenothiazines have also been prepared via a four-step approach, using a based-mediated Smiles rearrangement as the key step.
[45]
Phenothiazinimides: Atom-Efficient Electrophilic Amination Reagents
Apr 27, 2018 · Acetylated phenothiazinimide [43] was found to be a competent electrophilic amination reagent, albeit with moderate yield ([44], 38% yield).
[46]
Old drugs – new uses - PMC - NIH
The manufacturers of promethazine, Rhône–Poulenc, became interested and ... A chlorinated derivative of promazine showed great promise in animal ...
[47]
Meet the relatives: a reintroduction to the clinical pharmacology of ...
Jan 2, 2018 · Indeed, levomepromazine may be the most powerfully sedative of all antipsychotics, perhaps related in this case to the potency of its anti- ...
[48]
Promazine (sparine) in the treatment of psychiatric disorders - PubMed
Promazine (sparine) in the treatment of psychiatric disorders. Northwest Med. 1956 Jul;55(7):790-1. Author. F LEMERE. PMID: 13348976. No abstract available ...
[49]
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/advances-in-psychiatric-treatment/article/meet-the-relatives-a-reintroduction-to-the-clinical-pharmacology-of-typical-antipsychotics-part-1/8CBC4CA3188FF7123B71AB72C7547764
[50]
Clinical Trial of Promazine Hydrochloride and Acetylpromazine in ...
Feb 8, 2018 · However, reports of deaths during treatment with chlorpromazine have been published (Stënback, 1956). Information. Type: Original Articles.Missing: early | Show results with:early
[51]
promazine hydrochloride - API
... promazine. Promazine is not approved for human use in the United States. It is available in the US for veterinary use under the names Promazine and Tranquazine.
[52]
Promazine hydrochloride Medicinal forms - Drugs - BNF - NICE
Oral solution ; Promazine 25mg/5ml oral solution Alliance Healthcare (Distribution) Ltd · £72.23 ; Promazine 25mg/5ml syrup Rosemont Pharmaceuticals Ltd · £72.23.
[53]
Promazine - antipsychotic - Mind
This includes how they work, what they are prescribed for and what to know before taking them. It also covers their side effects and withdrawal effects, and ...
[54]
promazine | Ligand page | IUPHAR/BPS Guide to PHARMACOLOGY
All formulations containing promazine hydrochloride appear to have been discontinued in the US. Mechanism Of Action and Pharmacodynamic Effects Click here ...
[55]
[PDF] Schedule H
Mar 16, 2006 · the Gazette of India, Extraordinary, Part II,. Section 3, Sub-section ... PROMAZINE HYDROCHLORIDE. 413. PROMEGESTONE. 414. PROPAFENON ...
[56]
Promazine Report Probes the XXX million Size, Share, Growth ...
Rating 4.8 (1,980) May 5, 2025 · Potential growth avenues include expanding access in developing countries with limited healthcare resources, focusing on formulations with ...