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Secular state

A secular state is a form of government that operates independently of any religious doctrine, maintaining neutrality by neither establishing an official religion nor privileging one faith over others, while separating ecclesiastical institutions from state functions to ensure equal treatment of believers and non-believers alike.^[1]^[2] This framework, rooted in Enlightenment-era critiques of theocratic authority and refined through historical struggles against religious monopolies on power, prioritizes individual autonomy in matters of conscience and limits state interference in private beliefs or practices.^[3]^[4] Key principles include the prohibition of religious tests for public office, equitable application of laws irrespective of creed, and the regulation of religious activities only to the extent necessary for public order, thereby fostering social cohesion amid religious diversity without suppressing faith.^[5]^[1] Pioneered in models like the United States' First Amendment and France's laïcité, secular states have achieved greater religious tolerance and civic equality compared to confessional regimes, though controversies persist over the extent of permissible religious expression in public spheres and the risk of state-imposed irreligion masquerading as neutrality.^[6]^[7]

Definition and Principles

Core Definition and Distinctions

A secular state is a form of government in which state institutions operate independently of religious authority, maintaining official neutrality toward all religions and worldviews without endorsing, establishing, or suppressing any. This separation ensures that laws, policies, and public administration derive from secular rationales—grounded in empirical evidence, contractual agreements, and universal human rights—rather than divine revelation or clerical oversight.^[1]^[8] The core aim is to foster equal citizenship, where individuals' rights and duties stem from their status as citizens, not adherents to a particular faith, thereby preventing religious majorities from imposing doctrines on minorities or nonbelievers.^[1] Key distinctions arise in how secular states handle religious influence compared to alternatives. In contrast to confessional or theocratic states—such as Iran's Islamic Republic, where Sharia law constitutes the basis for governance—a secular state rejects religious texts as sources of positive law and bars religious leaders from holding formal state power.^[9]^[10] Religious states may designate an official faith (e.g., the United Kingdom's Church of England until partial disestablishment efforts in the 20th century) or integrate religious criteria into citizenship and policy, whereas secular neutrality prohibits such privileging to avoid coercion and ensure impartiality in public goods distribution.^[9] Secular states further differ from irreligious or atheist regimes, like the Soviet Union under Leninist policies from 1917 to 1991, which actively promoted state atheism and persecuted religious practice as ideological threats, rather than permitting private belief and expression under equal protection.^[11] Within secularism itself, models vary: American-style secularism emphasizes protecting religious freedom from state interference via strict non-endorsement (e.g., the First Amendment's Establishment Clause, ratified 1791), while French laïcité, codified in the 1905 Law on Separation of Church and State, asserts state sovereignty over public spaces to shield governance from religious symbols or pressures, prioritizing freedom from religion in official domains.^[12]^[13] These distinctions underscore that secularism is not inherently anti-religious but structurally prioritizes governance by consent over faith-based legitimacy.^[14]

Philosophical Underpinnings

The philosophical underpinnings of the secular state derive primarily from liberal theories emphasizing individual autonomy, rational governance, and the distinct spheres of civil and spiritual authority. John Locke articulated a foundational argument in his A Letter Concerning Toleration (1689), asserting that the state's role is confined to securing civil interests such as life, liberty, and property, while the church addresses eternal salvation through persuasion rather than coercion.^[15] Locke reasoned that enforced uniformity in belief produces insincerity and societal discord, as true faith cannot be compelled, drawing from the empirical lesson of Europe's religious wars, including the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), which killed millions over doctrinal disputes.^[16] This separation prevents the state from becoming an instrument of religious persecution, preserving peace by limiting government to observable, consensual ends rather than unverifiable revelations.^[15] Enlightenment philosophers extended Locke's framework by prioritizing empirical reason and skepticism toward institutional religion's political claims. Thinkers like Voltaire and Montesquieu critiqued the fusion of ecclesiastical and monarchical power as a source of absolutism, advocating governance based on natural law accessible through human intellect independent of scripture.^[17] Montesquieu, in The Spirit of the Laws (1748), argued for institutional checks, including ecclesiastical independence, to avert tyranny, observing that clerical influence historically amplified arbitrary rule in France and elsewhere. These arguments rest on epistemological grounds: public policy must rely on intersubjectively verifiable principles to avoid the conflicts inherent in competing divine mandates, which lack empirical resolution and foster intolerance. At its core, secular state philosophy invokes contractualist reasoning, where political legitimacy stems from mutual agreement among free individuals rather than divine right or communal faith. This entails state neutrality toward comprehensive doctrines, enabling pluralism without privileging any worldview, as non-neutrality empirically correlates with suppressed dissent, as seen in pre-Reformation Europe's inquisitions and executions for heresy. Critics from religious perspectives contend this elevates secular humanism to a quasi-religion, yet proponents counter that neutrality facilitates voluntary association and innovation, evidenced by lower religious violence rates in secular polities post-1650 compared to confessional states.^[18] Such foundations prioritize causal mechanisms—state coercion of belief undermines legitimacy—over normative appeals to tradition, ensuring governance serves observable human flourishing.

Legal and Institutional Principles

The legal principles underpinning secular states emphasize the institutional separation of religious and governmental spheres to prevent the subordination of state authority to religious doctrine or vice versa, while upholding individual liberty of conscience and equal treatment under law. Central to this is the doctrine of state neutrality, which requires governments to refrain from endorsing, funding, or coercing adherence to any religion, grounded in the recognition that political legitimacy derives from rational, public reasoning rather than theological claims. This framework emerged from Enlightenment critiques of theocratic entanglement, prioritizing empirical governance over faith-based mandates. In the United States, these principles are codified in the First Amendment to the Constitution, ratified on December 15, 1791, which declares that "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." The Establishment Clause bars federal actions that favor one religion or religion generally, as interpreted through judicial standards assessing secular purpose, primary effects, and avoidance of excessive entanglement with religious entities. The Free Exercise Clause protects personal religious practice from undue government burden, balanced against compelling state interests, with these protections incorporated against states via the Fourteenth Amendment in 1868. The Supreme Court has upheld this through cases enforcing strict scrutiny for burdens on religious exercise, ensuring judicial oversight maintains the wall of separation without permitting religious veto over civil laws. France exemplifies assertive secularism through the Law of December 9, 1905, on the Separation of the Churches from the State, which declared the Republic's neutrality by ceasing recognition, salary, or subsidy for cults, while guaranteeing freedom of worship subject to public order. This institutionalized laïcité by privatizing religious associations, requiring them to self-fund and register as civil entities, and banning religious symbols in public functions to preserve state impartiality. Public education, mandatory since 1882 and reinforced post-1905, excludes denominational instruction, fostering civic unity through shared rational curricula. Institutionally, secular states deploy independent judiciaries to enforce these principles via constitutional review, striking down laws that entangle state power with religious orthodoxy—for instance, invalidating mandatory school prayers or preferential tax exemptions for specific faiths. Legislative mechanisms include uniform civil codes superseding religious personal laws in domains like marriage and inheritance, as seen in Turkey's 1926 adoption of Swiss-inspired codes under its 1924 Constitution declaring a secular republic. Public administration mandates secular oaths for officials, prohibiting religious tests for office, and bars state resources from proselytizing or ritual observance. These structures, while varying in rigidity, aim to mitigate factional religious influence on policy, with courts serving as arbiters to resolve conflicts through evidence-based adjudication rather than doctrinal authority.

Historical Development

Ancient and Pre-Modern Precursors

In ancient Persia, Cyrus the Great (r. 559–530 BCE) implemented policies following the conquest of Babylon in 539 BCE that allowed conquered peoples to restore their temples and practice their religions without coercion, as inscribed on the Cyrus Cylinder, which repatriated exiles including Jews to Jerusalem and promoted ethnic and religious diversity under imperial rule. This approach contrasted with the religious impositions of prior Babylonian rulers and emphasized pragmatic governance over theological uniformity, though it served expansionist aims rather than ideological neutrality. Historians interpret the cylinder as an early administrative decree fostering stability through non-interference in local cults, prefiguring later tolerance models without establishing state secularity.^[19] In the Mauryan Empire of India, Emperor Ashoka (r. c. 268–232 BCE) promulgated edicts after the Kalinga War (c. 261 BCE) that advocated dhamma, a moral code emphasizing non-violence, ethical conduct, and respect for all religious sects regardless of the ruler's personal adherence to Buddhism. Major Rock Edict 7 explicitly urged reverence for others' doctrines without denigrating one's own, while prohibiting harm to ascetics or lay followers of diverse pāṣaṇḍas (sects), and Edict 12 warned that excessive devotion leading to condemnation of rival faiths harms all parties. These inscriptions, carved on pillars and rocks across the empire from c. 260 BCE onward, aimed at unifying a multi-ethnic realm through pluralistic ethics rather than enforced orthodoxy, though dhamma retained Buddhist undertones and supported state welfare initiatives like animal protection and medical facilities for all. Scholars note this as an instance of ancient pluralism, where imperial authority transcended singular religious dominance to prioritize social harmony, yet it fell short of modern secular neutrality by integrating moral governance with the emperor's spiritual patronage.^[20]^[21] Pre-modern precursors appeared in the Mughal Empire under Akbar (r. 1556–1605 CE), whose sulh-i-kul (universal peace) doctrine from the 1570s onward mandated tolerance across Hindu, Muslim, Jain, Christian, and Zoroastrian communities, abolishing the jizya tax on non-Muslims in 1564 and convening interfaith assemblies at Fatehpur Sikri to debate theology without privileging Islam. This policy, formalized in farmans (imperial decrees) and reflected in the syncretic Din-i Ilahi (c. 1582), positioned the emperor as a spiritual arbiter above sectarian divides, enabling administrative appointments based on merit irrespective of faith and reducing religious strife in a diverse subcontinent. While rooted in Timurid and Sufi influences and serving to consolidate power amid Hindu-majority rule, sulh-i-kul represented a deliberate shift from theocratic precedents, fostering coexistence through state impartiality in personal beliefs, though the empire retained Islamic symbolic elements like the call to prayer. Primary accounts, such as those by court chronicler Abul Fazl in the Ain-i Akbari (c. 1590s), document these measures as pragmatic responses to rebellion risks, underscoring causal links between enforced pluralism and imperial longevity.^[22]^[23]

Enlightenment Origins

The concept of the secular state emerged prominently during the Enlightenment through critiques of ecclesiastical authority and advocacy for religious toleration grounded in reason rather than divine revelation. Thinkers argued that intertwining church and state fostered intolerance, civil discord, and hindered rational governance, proposing instead that civil authority should focus on earthly welfare while leaving spiritual matters to individual conscience. This shift prioritized empirical observation and natural rights over theological dogma, viewing state neutrality toward religion as essential for social harmony and intellectual progress.^[24] John Locke's A Letter Concerning Toleration (1689) laid foundational arguments by distinguishing the church's spiritual aims from the state's civil jurisdiction, asserting that coercion in faith undermines genuine belief and that magisterial power extends only to outward conduct affecting public order. Locke contended that toleration prevents the divisions seen in religiously contested realms, where princes' endorsements of sects exacerbate conflicts akin to secular disputes, though he excluded atheists (deemed unreliable in oaths) and initially Catholics (due to papal allegiance potentially overriding civil loyalty). His ideas influenced later secular frameworks by emphasizing voluntary association in religion and state restraint from doctrinal enforcement.^[25]^[26] Voltaire advanced these principles by lambasting the Catholic Church's temporal power and advocating freedom of thought, drawing from England's post-1688 toleration model in his Letters on the English (1733), where he praised Protestant sects' coexistence under minimal state interference as superior to French absolutism fused with clerical influence. He argued for shielding reason and universal values from religious fanaticism, influencing demands for state disengagement from dogma, though Voltaire retained deistic beliefs and did not envision a fully atheistic polity but one where religion served morality without political dominance.^[27]^[28]^[29] Enlightenment ideas shaped American institutional secularism, as Thomas Jefferson, steeped in Lockean rationalism, drafted the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom in 1777 (enacted 1786), prohibiting state compulsion in belief and declaring civil rights independent of religious opinions to avert priestly tyranny over governance. James Madison reinforced this in his 1785 Memorial and Remonstrance Against Religious Assessments, warning that established religion corrupts both faith and liberty, leading to the First Amendment's non-establishment clause (ratified 1791), which barred federal endorsement of any sect and reflected Enlightenment causal logic that state-religion alliances historically bred persecution rather than piety.^[30]^[31] In France, Enlightenment critiques culminated in revolutionary actions from 1789, where the National Assembly's abolition of feudal privileges extended to clerical ones, nationalizing church property and enacting the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790) to subordinate bishops to elected bodies, marking an assertive secular reconfiguration of state-religion ties amid backlash against perceived monarchical-theocratic collusion. This radical pivot, fueled by thinkers like Rousseau's social contract prioritizing civic virtue over ecclesiastical mediation, prefigured laïcité but initially provoked violent dechristianization campaigns, illustrating how Enlightenment reason could yield both principled neutrality and coercive irreligion when confronting entrenched power.^[32]^[33]

Modern Expansion and Variations

The modern expansion of secular states accelerated in the 19th century following the Enlightenment, with France's Third Republic enacting key laws from 1881 to 1905 that established laïcité by removing religious influence from public education, authorizing divorce, and separating church and state via the 1905 Law on the Separation of the Churches and the State. This model influenced other European nations, such as Italy's 1948 constitution, which declared the state neither Catholic nor atheistic while affirming religious freedom. In the Americas, Mexico's 1917 constitution formalized strict secularism by nationalizing church property and prohibiting clerical involvement in politics, a response to the power of the Catholic Church during the Porfiriato era. Secularism spread globally through decolonization after World War II, with over 50 newly independent African nations adopting constitutions that declared secularity or neutrality toward religion between 1957 and 1966; for instance, Ghana's 1960 constitution prohibited state establishment of religion, reflecting a deliberate break from colonial religious ties. In Asia, India's 1950 constitution enshrined secularism via amendments in 1976, balancing religious pluralism amid Hindu-majority demographics, while Turkey's 1928 constitutional reform under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk replaced Islam as state religion with explicit secularism principles. These expansions often stemmed from nationalist movements seeking to unify diverse populations under civic rather than religious identities, though implementation varied by local power dynamics. Variations emerged in assertive versus passive approaches: assertive secularism, as in Turkey's 1982 constitution banning religious attire in public institutions to enforce Kemalist ideology, contrasted with passive models like the United States, where the First Amendment's Establishment Clause prevented federal religious favoritism without mandating removal of private religious symbols. In the Soviet Union, from 1917 to 1991, state atheism aggressively suppressed religion through decrees like the 1929 Law on Religious Associations, closing thousands of churches and promoting scientific materialism, affecting over 80% of the population by mid-century. Such differences highlight causal factors like revolutionary ideologies versus liberal traditions, with assertive variants risking authoritarian enforcement, as evidenced by Turkey's 1997 postmodern coup upholding secular bans. Post-1945 international norms, including the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights' Article 18 on religious freedom without state coercion, facilitated secular constitutionalism in Eastern Europe after 1989, where nations like Poland amended laws to reduce [Catholic Church](/page/Catholic Church) privileges accumulated under communism. However, expansions faced reversals; for example, Bangladesh's 2010 secular restoration reversed 1977 Islamization, yet enforcement remained inconsistent due to Islamist political pressures. Empirical data from the Varieties of Secularism Project indicates that by 2020, approximately 96 countries explicitly declared secularism in constitutions, up from fewer than 20 in 1900, driven by modernization and ethnic diversity rather than uniform ideological commitment. This proliferation underscores secularism's adaptability, though source analyses, such as those critiquing Western academic overemphasis on European models, reveal biases in underreporting non-Western assertive variants' stability challenges.

Recent Global Trends

In the decade from 2010 to 2020, religious affiliation declined by at least 5 percentage points in 35 countries, reflecting a broader empirical pattern of secularization that supports the neutrality of secular states by reducing societal pressures for religious favoritism.^[34] This shift follows a predictable sequence across generations: first, declining participation in public religious rituals such as worship services; second, reduced personal importance ascribed to religion; and third, lower rates of formal religious identification, as evidenced in cross-national data from high-development-index nations where younger cohorts disaffiliate at higher rates.^[35] Globally, the unaffiliated population reached 24.2% by 2020, with notable drops in Christian identification in Europe (a 19.7% net loss due to secularization) and stabilization or slower declines in North America, where U.S. Christian affiliation fell to 62% by 2023-2024 but showed signs of leveling off after two decades of steeper drops.^[36]^[37] Countervailing pressures have emerged through the rise of religious nationalism in several nominally secular states, where movements blend ethnic or national identity with religious symbolism to challenge institutional separation of religion and governance. In India, a constitutionally secular republic, policies since 2014 under the Bharatiya Janata Party have emphasized Hindu cultural primacy, including the 2019 revocation of Jammu and Kashmir's special status and citizenship laws perceived as favoring non-Muslim immigrants, prompting debates over erosion of equidistance between religions.^[38] Similarly, in Turkey, once a model of assertive secularism under Kemalism, constitutional amendments since 2017 have expanded executive powers amid policies aligning state institutions more closely with Sunni Islamic norms, reducing the military's role as secular guardian. In Eastern Europe, Hungary's government since 2010 has promoted "Christian democracy" through laws restricting NGO funding and media, framing national sovereignty against secular-liberal influences from the European Union, though religiosity remains low compared to global averages.^[39] In sub-Saharan Africa, where over 20 countries maintain secular constitutions, Christianity expanded numerically by high birth rates and conversions, surpassing Europe's Christian population by 2020, yet state policies in nations like Nigeria and Kenya have grappled with religious violence, leading to reinforced secular mechanisms such as blasphemy laws or interfaith councils to maintain neutrality amid high religiosity (over 90% affiliated).^[36] In contrast, Western Europe has seen policy reinforcements of secularism, exemplified by France's 2021 "anti-separatism" law targeting Islamist extremism while upholding laïcité, and similar bans on religious symbols in public spaces in countries like Belgium and Austria since the mid-2010s, driven by immigration-related security concerns rather than declining native religiosity. These trends indicate that while empirical declines in religious practice facilitate secular governance in developed regions, political mobilizations exploiting identity in emerging economies test the resilience of secular frameworks, often without altering formal constitutional commitments.^[34]

Models and Typologies

Passive and Assertive Secularism

Passive secularism refers to a model in which the state maintains neutrality toward religions by permitting their public visibility and expression, provided they do not interfere with individual rights or state functions, thereby allowing religious symbols, practices, and discourse in public spaces such as schools and government buildings.^[40] This approach emerged prominently in contexts lacking a dominant religious establishment during state formation, fostering an ideological consensus among secular and religious groups that supports religious pluralism without state-imposed privatization of faith.^[41] In the United States, for instance, passive secularism has dominated since the founding, as evidenced by the First Amendment's establishment clause, which prohibits state favoritism but accommodates public religious activities, such as voluntary prayer in legislatures or religious attire in schools, reflecting early religious diversity without a unified clerical opposition to secular governance.^[42] India similarly adopts this model, constitutionally recognizing religious personal laws and allowing practices like hijab in public institutions, rooted in its post-independence accommodation of Hindu, Muslim, and other communities to avoid sectarian conflict.^[43] In contrast, assertive secularism entails the state actively excluding religion from the public sphere to prevent its influence on governance or education, often through bans on religious symbols and direct intervention in religious affairs, positioning secularism as a comprehensive doctrine that privatizes faith.^[40] This variant typically arises from historical struggles against a powerful religious ancien régime, where secular elites view religion as a threat to modernization and national unity, leading to policies that subordinate or control religious institutions.^[41] France exemplifies assertive secularism through its laïcité principle, formalized in the 1905 law separating church and state, which culminated in the 2004 ban on conspicuous religious symbols in public schools to preserve a neutral republican space, a response to the Catholic Church's historical alliance with monarchy.^[42] Turkey under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk implemented assertive measures post-1923, including the 1924 abolition of the caliphate, closure of religious courts, and bans on religious attire in public offices until partial lifts in the 2010s, as the state established the Directorate of Religious Affairs to regulate Islam and counter Ottoman theocratic legacies.^[44] Mexico's 1917 constitution similarly enforces assertive secularism by nationalizing church property and prohibiting clerical political activity, stemming from revolutionary conflicts with the Catholic Church's influence.^[43] The distinction influences policy outcomes: passive models correlate with greater religious freedom and lower state-religion tensions in pluralistic societies, as seen in U.S. Supreme Court rulings like Employment Division v. Smith (1990) upholding neutral laws over religious exemptions, yet permitting public faith expressions.^[45] Assertive approaches, however, can provoke backlash from religious minorities, as in France's 2010 burqa ban or Turkey's pre-2010 university hijab prohibitions, where state enforcement prioritizes secular uniformity over accommodation, potentially alienating devout groups without empirical evidence of religion undermining public order.^[46] Scholars like Ahmet T. Kuru argue that assertive secularism's dominance reflects elite ideological victories over religious forces during critical state-building periods, rather than inherent secular superiority, with passive variants better suiting religiously diverse democracies by avoiding coercive privatization.^[40] Empirical comparisons show assertive states like France and Turkey exhibit stricter controls on religious education and funding compared to passive ones like the U.S. and India, where state neutrality permits faith-based initiatives alongside secular options.^[47]

Accommodationist vs. Strict Separation Models

The strict separation model of secularism mandates a rigid institutional divide between the state and religious organizations, prohibiting government funding, endorsement, or facilitation of religious practices to avert any perception of establishment or coercion. This approach, often termed separationism, draws from Thomas Jefferson's 1802 metaphor of a "wall of separation" between church and state, emphasizing non-entanglement to safeguard individual conscience and prevent sectarian favoritism.^[48] In practice, it bars public resources from supporting religious institutions, such as prohibiting state aid to parochial schools or religious displays on government property, as seen in early U.S. Supreme Court rulings like Everson v. Board of Education (1947), which incorporated the Establishment Clause against states while initially upholding a no-aid principle.^[49] France exemplifies this model through its laïcité principle, enshrined in the 1905 law separating church and state, which forbids public funding of religious activities and, via the 2004 law, bans conspicuous religious symbols in public schools to enforce neutrality.^[50] Conversely, the accommodationist model permits selective state support for religious practices or institutions when it alleviates burdens on believers without establishing religion or discriminating among faiths, viewing such measures as compatible with neutrality by acknowledging religion's societal role. Proponents argue this avoids the hostility toward religion that strict separation can foster, as rigid bans may disadvantage religious citizens in public life.^[51] In the U.S., this has gained prominence since the 1980s, with cases like Mueller v. Allen (1983) allowing tax deductions for religious school expenses and Carson v. Makin (2022) mandating inclusion of religious schools in voucher programs if secular ones qualify, rejecting exclusion as discriminatory.^[52] European examples include Germany's system, where the state collects a church tax (Kirchensteuer) on behalf of recognized denominations—yielding €12.5 billion in 2022—and integrates confessional religious education into public schools, funded proportionally to taxpayer affiliation, under Article 140 of the Basic Law.^[53] Key distinctions lie in their treatment of entanglement and aid: strict separation prioritizes prophylactic avoidance of any state-religion overlap to minimize coercion risks, potentially at the cost of marginalizing religious expression in public spheres, whereas accommodationism employs a effects-based test, permitting aid if it neutrally benefits religious and secular entities alike, as in Zelman v. Simmons-Harris (2002), which upheld Cleveland's voucher program serving 96% religious schools without violating neutrality.^[54] Critics of strict separation contend it deviates from the Framers' intent, interpreting the Establishment Clause as barring coercion rather than all aid, evidenced by historical practices like congressional chaplains since 1789.^[55] Accommodationism, however, faces charges of eroding neutrality by enabling subtle preferences, as when state-collected funds sustain religious hierarchies. Empirical outcomes vary: strict models correlate with lower public religiosity in surveys, such as France's 47% non-religious population in 2021 Pew data, while accommodationist systems like Germany's maintain higher church membership (around 50% in 2023) without formal establishment dominance.^[56] These models reflect causal tensions between preventing state capture by religion and avoiding anti-religious bias, with judicial shifts—U.S. Court from separationist peak in 1985 (Wallace v. Jaffree) to accommodationist majority post-1990—influenced by pluralistic demographics and free exercise claims.^[52]

Mechanisms of Implementation

Constitutional and Legislative Frameworks

The constitutional frameworks of secular states typically enshrine principles of non-establishment, religious neutrality, and freedom of conscience to prevent governmental endorsement or coercion regarding religion. These provisions often prohibit the declaration of an official state religion, bar religious tests for public office, and mandate equal treatment across beliefs, reflecting a commitment to state autonomy from ecclesiastical authority. For example, Article VI of the U.S. Constitution explicitly states that "no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States," ensuring eligibility for government roles irrespective of faith.^[57] Similarly, the First Amendment's Establishment Clause declares that "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion," which courts have interpreted to forbid federal sponsorship of religious activities or favoritism toward any sect, with incorporation to states via the Fourteenth Amendment.^[58]^[59] In assertive models like France's laïcité, the 1958 Constitution's Article 1 affirms that "France shall be an indivisible, secular, democratic and social Republic," codifying state supremacy over religious matters and prohibiting public funding or symbols that could imply endorsement. This builds on the 1905 Law on the Separation of the Churches and the State, which dissolved the Napoleonic Concordat, nationalized church property, and restricted religious associations to non-political activities under state oversight.^[60] Legislative extensions include the 2004 law banning conspicuous religious symbols in public schools and the 2010 extension to face coverings in public spaces, aimed at preserving neutral public spheres.^[61] Turkey's 1982 Constitution exemplifies Kemalist secularism in Article 2, defining the Republic as a "democratic, secular and social state governed by rule of law," with Article 24 guaranteeing freedom of religion while subordinating it to state control via the Directorate of Religious Affairs, which administers mosques and imams as civil servants.^[62] In contrast, India's framework adopts an accommodationist approach: the Preamble, amended by the 42nd Amendment in 1976, declares the state "secular," while Articles 25–28 protect freedom of conscience and practice, permit state regulation of religious institutions for social welfare (e.g., temple entry reforms), and prohibit taxes for specific religions but allow aid to educational institutions regardless of affiliation.^[63]^[64] Globally, approximately 41% of constitutions explicitly establish secularism or separation, often paired with anti-discrimination clauses under equality provisions. Legislative implementations vary: passive systems like the U.S. permit indirect accommodations (e.g., tax exemptions for religious nonprofits), while assertive ones enforce bans on religious oaths or proselytizing in official contexts; however, enforcement depends on judicial interpretation, as seen in U.S. rulings against school prayer (Engel v. Vitale, 1962) or French validations of burqa bans.^[65]^[66] These frameworks prioritize empirical neutrality to mitigate sectarian conflicts, though deviations occur where historical ties persist, such as subsidized religious education in some European secular states.^[67]

Judicial Roles and Enforcement

In secular states, judiciaries enforce secular principles primarily through constitutional review, invalidating laws, policies, or state actions that establish religion, coerce belief, or undermine neutrality between faiths. This role stems from provisions mandating separation or equidistance, with courts balancing religious exercise against state impartiality via tests like purpose-effect analysis or historical precedent. Enforcement varies by model: strict separation in the U.S. prohibits endorsement, while assertive secularism in France demands public neutrality.^[58]^[68] The U.S. Supreme Court exemplifies enforcement under the First Amendment's Establishment Clause, incorporated to states in Everson v. Board of Education (1947), which barred public funding for religious schooling while permitting neutral accommodations like bus transport.^[59] In Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971), it established a tripartite test—secular purpose, primary effect neither advancing nor inhibiting religion, and no excessive entanglement—to strike down state aid to religious schools, applied in over 30 cases until overruled. More recently, Kennedy v. Bremerton School District (2022) rejected Lemon, adopting a "history and tradition" standard to uphold a coach's public prayer, emphasizing coercion avoidance over strict non-endorsement, amid critiques of eroding barriers in funding disputes like Carson v. Makin (2022).^[69]^[70] France's Conseil d'État, as administrative apex court, rigorously applies laïcité under Article 1 of the 1958 Constitution, requiring state neutrality and public service impartiality. It upheld the 2004 law banning conspicuous religious symbols (e.g., hijabs, large crosses) in schools to prevent proselytism, deeming them incompatible with secular education.^[71] In 2016, it permitted nativity scenes in public buildings if contextualized as cultural or festive, not devotional, rejecting blanket prohibitions.^[71] On September 27, 2024, it affirmed the Education Minister's abaya ban in state schools, classifying it as non-religious attire undermining uniform neutrality, prioritizing educational cohesion over individual expression.^[72] India's Supreme Court treats secularism as a "basic structure" doctrine since Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973), immunizing it from amendment, and upheld its Preamble insertion (42nd Amendment, 1976) on November 25, 2024, rejecting claims it altered the original Constitution's intent.^[73] In S.R. Bommai v. Union of India (1994), it invoked secularism to scrutinize President's Rule under Article 356, quashing dismissals of state governments for failing religious neutrality, as in the BJP-led governments ousted post-Babri Masjid demolition (1992).^[74] Enforcement includes barring state-funded religious events, as in Arun Singh v. State of Bihar (2006), prohibiting official participation to avoid endorsement.^[75] Turkey's Constitutional Court historically enforced laiklik—active state secularism under Article 2 (amended 1937)—by annulling pro-religious laws, such as the 1989 invalidation of Alevi exemptions from mandatory Sunni-oriented education, deeming it violative of uniformity.^[76] It dissolved the Welfare Party (1998) for anti-secular activities, upholding headscarf bans in universities until 2010 lifts amid EU pressures, reflecting tensions between Kemalist rigidity and democratic pluralism.^[77] Recent rulings, post-2010 constitutional referendum, have permitted more religious expression in public spaces, signaling a shift from assertive to accommodative enforcement.^[78]

State-Religion Interactions in Practice

In secular states, interactions between the state and religion manifest through policies on public education, where France's 2004 law prohibiting conspicuous religious symbols in schools, such as the hijab, aims to enforce laïcité by maintaining neutrality in state institutions, though enforcement has disproportionately targeted Muslim students, leading to over 1,000 expulsions by 2010 and ongoing abaya bans in public schools upheld in 2023. In contrast, the United States Supreme Court in Carson v. Makin (2022) ruled that states cannot exclude religious schools from tuition reimbursement programs available to private secular schools, effectively allowing public funds to support religious education under the Free Exercise Clause, reversing prior Establishment Clause precedents like Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971). India's approach accommodates religious personal laws, permitting Muslims to follow Sharia-based rules for marriage, divorce, and inheritance under the Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act of 1937, while Hindu personal laws were reformed via the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955, reflecting a model of equal respect rather than uniform secular law.^[79] State funding and oversight of religious institutions vary widely; Turkey, despite its constitutional secularism, has seen the Directorate of Religious Affairs (Diyanet) budget expand from 4.6 billion Turkish lira in 2010 to over 10 billion by 2020 under President Erdogan, funding thousands of mosques and imam-hatip schools that enroll over 1.4 million students as of 2023, integrating religious education into the public system.^[80] In the U.S., federal military chaplains, numbering about 3,000 across branches as of 2023, provide religious services to service members under the Establishment Clause, justified as accommodating free exercise in a captive audience, per Katcoff v. Marsh (1985). France's Interministerial Mission for Monitoring and Combating Cultic Deviances (MIVILUDES), established in 2002, monitors groups deemed sectarian, including some religious minorities, resulting in convictions for overreach in five cases by 2025, highlighting tensions between state vigilance and religious freedom.^[81] Public symbols and holidays illustrate pragmatic accommodations; many secular states recognize religious holidays as national days off, such as Christmas in the U.S., where federal law mandates time off for federal employees since 1870, despite no official religion, to respect majority practices without endorsement. In France, the 2010 burkini bans on beaches in over 30 municipalities were struck down by the Conseil d'État for lacking proportionality, yet similar restrictions persist in schools, enforcing visibility of secular norms over private belief. Turkey lifted the headscarf ban in universities and public offices in 2013, allowing over 5 million women to participate more fully in public life, but critics argue this shifts toward assertive religious integration, with religious rhetoric in state ceremonies increasing post-2016 coup attempt.^[82] Judicial enforcement often balances separation with pluralism; the U.S. Supreme Court in Kennedy v. Bremerton School District (2022) permitted a coach's public prayer on the field after games, prioritizing free exercise over perceived establishment, marking a departure from prior coercion tests. In India, courts uphold personal laws but intervene in cases of rights violations, as in Shayara Bano v. Union of India (2017), invalidating instant triple talaq for Muslim women under Article 14 equality, yet preserving broader Sharia application.^[83] These practices reveal that strict theoretical separation frequently yields to empirical needs, such as social cohesion or minority accommodation, though selective enforcement—evident in France's focus on Islamic practices amid declining Christian influence—raises questions of neutrality.^[84]

Global Examples and Regional Variations

Europe

Europe encompasses a diverse array of secular state models, reflecting historical entanglements between Christianity and governance, Enlightenment influences, and post-World War II reconstructions. While most constitutions affirm the separation of church and state, practical implementations range from strict exclusion of religion from public spheres to cooperative partnerships where states fund religious institutions or maintain established churches. This variation stems from path-dependent factors, including Protestant state churches in Northern Europe and Catholic concordats in Southern Europe, rather than uniform application of abstract principles. Public support for separation remains high—over 70% in Western Europe favor it, even in nations with church taxes—yet cultural Christianity persists, with states often privileging majority faiths over emerging minorities like Islam.^[67] France exemplifies assertive secularism, or laïcité, codified in the 1905 Law on the Separation of Churches and the State, which ended Napoleonic-era concordats, nationalized church property, and barred state funding for worship. Public education enforces neutrality, prohibiting conspicuous religious symbols since a 2004 law banning items like hijabs in schools, extended by a 2010 nationwide burqa ban in public spaces to preserve a shared civic space. This model prioritizes republican unity over religious pluralism, viewing state neutrality as requiring active restriction of visible faith expressions; enforcement by the Observatoire de la Laïcité and courts has upheld over 90% of related challenges, though critics argue it disproportionately targets Muslims amid rising immigration.^[85]^[86] In contrast, Germany's "cooperative secularism" integrates recognized churches as public corporations under the Basic Law (Article 140), allowing states to levy a Kirchensteuer—8-9% of income tax from members—collected via tax authorities and disbursed to Catholic, Protestant, and select other bodies, generating €12 billion annually as of 2022. States also fund confessional religious education in public schools, comprising 10-20% of curricula in many Länder, while exempting church activities from corporate taxes. This arrangement, rooted in Weimar-era compromises to stabilize post-secularization finances, supports religious pluralism but has prompted exits—over 500,000 annually in recent years—due to fiscal burdens amid declining affiliation (now below 50%). Austria and Switzerland employ similar taxes, underscoring a Central European pattern where states subsidize religion to foster social cohesion, with empirical data showing higher voluntary giving in tax-linked systems than pure voluntarism elsewhere.^[87]^[88] The United Kingdom maintains the Church of England as established in England and Wales per the 1534 Act of Supremacy and subsequent acts, with the monarch as Supreme Governor appointing bishops on prime ministerial advice and 26 Lords Spiritual holding reserved seats in the House of Lords until reforms diluted influence post-2020. No religious tests apply to Parliament since 1829, and laws like the 2010 Equality Act enforce secular non-discrimination, rendering the establishment largely ceremonial; Scotland's Church operates as a national but independent body without state control since 1921, while Northern Ireland has none. This "easygoing" model accommodates religion without strict barriers, funding Anglican cathedrals via heritage grants but relying on private endowments for operations, with church attendance under 2% of population yet retaining symbolic roles in state events like coronations.^[89] Nordic countries illustrate transitions: Sweden disestablished the Lutheran Church in 2000, ending state funding mandates and parliamentary seats for bishops, though it retains privileges like civil registrar status; Norway followed in 2012, amending its constitution to separate church governance while preserving cultural ties. Denmark and Iceland uphold Lutheran establishments, with state appropriations covering 70-80% of budgets, reflecting pragmatic welfare-state integration over ideological purity. Southern Europe shows hybridity—Italy's 1984 concordat revision ended Catholicism's state religion status but grants fiscal privileges and teaches religion in schools opt-in; Greece's constitution designates Eastern Orthodoxy as prevailing faith, with clergy as civil servants until partial reforms in 2019 reduced state salaries. Eastern Europe, shaped by communist atheism's collapse, often features secular constitutions (e.g., Poland's 1997 preamble invoking God but affirming no state religion) yet strong clerical influence, as in Hungary's 2011 law favoring Christian groups in funding. EU frameworks under Article 17 of the Treaty on the Functioning promote dialogue without harmonizing, allowing member states autonomy amid rising secular identification (51% non-religious in Western Europe per 2018 surveys).^[90]^[91]

Americas

The United States exemplifies a model of constitutional separation of church and state, rooted in the First Amendment to the Constitution, ratified on December 15, 1791, which states that "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." This framework emerged from colonial experiences with established churches in states like Massachusetts and Virginia, where disestablishment occurred gradually, with Virginia's 1786 Statute for Religious Freedom—drafted by Thomas Jefferson—serving as a precursor by prohibiting state funding or coercion in religion. Jefferson later articulated this principle in his January 1, 1802, letter to the Danbury Baptist Association, describing a "wall of separation between Church & State" to prevent government interference in religious practice while barring official endorsement. Supreme Court interpretations, such as Everson v. Board of Education (1947), extended this to states via the Fourteenth Amendment, though debates persist over accommodations like tax exemptions for religious institutions, reflecting a non-hostile neutrality rather than assertive atheism. Canada's secular framework is enshrined in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, enacted in 1982 as part of the Constitution Act, guaranteeing freedom of conscience and religion under Section 2 while prohibiting discrimination based on religion in Section 15. This replaced earlier British North America Act provisions allowing denominational schools in provinces like Ontario and Quebec, leading to ongoing tensions, as seen in the 2015 Supreme Court ruling in Mouvement laïque québécois v. Saguenay, which struck down a municipal prayer practice for violating state neutrality. Despite cultural pluralism, public funding of Catholic schools in some provinces—such as Ontario's system, supported by taxes since 1867—illustrates accommodationist elements, with enrollment data showing over 600,000 students in 2023. In Latin America, secularism often arose from 19th-century liberal reforms challenging Spanish colonial Catholicism, with Mexico's 1857 Constitution declaring no official religion and the 1917 version imposing strict laïcité, including Article 3's mandate for non-religious public education and Article 130's restrictions on clergy political rights and church property ownership. These measures, enforced amid the Cristero War (1926–1929) that killed an estimated 90,000, aimed to curb clerical influence but faced resistance until partial relaxations in 1992 allowed limited church activities. Uruguay stands as the region's most secular nation, with its 1918 Law of Separation of Church and State ending state support for religion and mandating civil marriage and education; Pew Research data from 2014 indicates 37% of Uruguayans view religion as unimportant, the highest in Latin America.^[92] Brazil's 1891 Constitution, post-monarchy, explicitly separated church and state, prohibiting federal religious funding while allowing private practice; the 1988 Constitution reinforces this with Article 19's ban on state ties to cults. Other South American states exhibit varying degrees of secularism amid persistent Catholic majorities: Argentina's 1853 Constitution designates Catholicism as the state religion but guarantees freedom of worship, with 2020 census data showing 62% Catholic adherence yet declining church influence. Chile's 1925 Constitution separated church and state, subsidizing non-Catholic churches since 1990, though a 2022 Pew update notes only 45% consider religion very important. Central American constitutions, such as Costa Rica's 1949 charter banning state religion while funding Catholic education until reforms, reflect hybrid models where secular laws coexist with cultural religiosity, evidenced by evangelical growth outpacing Catholicism in nations like Guatemala, where Protestants rose from 22% in 2000 to 41% by 2018 per national surveys. Empirical trends show secularization accelerating, with Latin America's unaffiliated population doubling to 10% from 2010–2020, driven by urbanization and scandals, though constitutional invocations of God persist in over 15 countries.

Asia

In Asia, secular state models reflect a spectrum of implementations shaped by colonial legacies, communist ideologies, and post-independence nation-building efforts, often prioritizing state control over religious influence to foster unity amid ethnic and doctrinal diversity. Unlike Western strict separation, many Asian variants accommodate religion while subordinating it to national goals, with empirical data showing varying degrees of enforcement: for instance, surveys indicate low religiosity in urban East Asia correlating with economic development, while South and Southeast Asia exhibit higher religious adherence despite constitutional secularism.^[93] China exemplifies assertive secularism through state atheism, as enshrined in its 1982 Constitution, which subordinates religion to socialism and prohibits Communist Party members—numbering over 98 million as of 2023—from any religious affiliation. The government recognizes only five religions (Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism, and Protestantism) under the 2018 Regulations on Religious Affairs, enforcing "Sinicization" policies since 2016 that require religious doctrines and practices to align with Chinese culture and Communist Party leadership, including mandatory patriotic education for clergy and removal of foreign influences from texts. This approach has led to documented restrictions, such as the 2017 Xinjiang regulations banning minors under 18 from mosques and the demolition of over 1,500 crosses on churches between 2014 and 2016, justified by the state as preventing extremism but criticized by observers for suppressing independent religious expression.^[94]^[95]^[96] India's constitutional framework, originally drafted in 1950 without the term "secular" but embodying equal respect for religions (sarva dharma sambhava), explicitly added "secular" via the 42nd Amendment in 1976 during a period of emergency rule, affirming the state's neutrality while permitting interventions for social reform, such as the 1955 Hindu Marriage Act standardizing practices among Hindus comprising 79.8% of the population per 2011 census data. This accommodationist model allows religion-based personal laws for marriage and inheritance, coexisting with uniform civil code debates, but faces challenges from majoritarian politics: the Supreme Court in S.R. Bommai v. Union of India (1994) upheld secularism as a basic structure, yet data from the 2021 Pew Research Center survey shows 64% of Indians believing religious diversity strengthens national identity, amid rising communal tensions evidenced by over 1,000 hate speech incidents tracked in 2023.^[97]^[98]^[99] Japan's post-World War II Constitution of 1947 establishes a passive secularism via Article 20, which guarantees freedom of religion while barring the state from privileging any faith or funding religious organizations, a direct response to prewar State Shinto's role in militarism; Article 89 further prohibits public funds for religious activities. Enforcement has been pragmatic, with the Supreme Court upholding separations in cases like the 1997 Ehime Tamagawara case, ruling against shrine reconstructions funded by local taxes, though exceptions occur for cultural rituals: national leaders' visits to Yasukuni Shrine, honoring 2.5 million war dead including Class-A criminals, persist despite international criticism, reflecting societal norms where 70% of the population engages in Shinto-Buddhist practices without formal affiliation per 2020 agency surveys.^[100]^[101] Singapore maintains a managed secularism under its 1965 Constitution's Article 12, which ensures freedom of religion but empowers the state to regulate for harmony in a multiethnic society (74% Chinese, 13% Malay Muslim per 2020 census), exemplified by the 1990 Maintenance of Religious Harmony Act prohibiting religious leaders from political incitement, leading to restraint orders against figures like a Christian pastor in 2018 for anti-Islamic remarks. This pragmatic framework, prioritizing stability over absolute laissez-faire, has empirically sustained low religious conflict rates—zero major riots since 1969—through institutions like the Inter-Religious Organisation, though it accommodates Muslim-specific provisions such as halal certification and madrasah funding, balancing secular governance with minority protections.^[102]^[103] Turkey, constitutionally secular since 1928 amendments under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk that abolished the caliphate, adopted a Swiss-inspired civil code, and banned religious attire in public institutions, represented an early Muslim-majority experiment in laïcité to modernize Ottoman remnants. However, since the Justice and Development Party's 2002 rise, policies have eroded strict separation: the 2011 lifting of headscarf bans in universities and public service, conversion of Hagia Sophia to a mosque in 2020, and 2023 curriculum expansions emphasizing Islamic history reflect a shift toward "pluralist" secularism favoring Sunni Islam, with data showing mosque numbers rising from 77,000 in 2002 to over 90,000 by 2022 amid declining enforcement of Atatürk-era controls.^[76]^[104]^[105] In Central Asia, post-Soviet states like Kyrgyzstan uphold secularism in constitutions prohibiting religious parties, with 2020 laws fining proselytism to curb Islamist influences near Afghanistan, though underground revival poses enforcement challenges; similarly, Uzbekistan's 2021 reforms formalized separation while restricting "extremist" groups, building on Soviet-era controls. These cases illustrate how Asian secularism often serves as a bulwark against theocratic threats, yet empirical outcomes vary, with state dominance sometimes yielding superficial neutrality rather than genuine pluralism.^[106]^[107]

Africa and Middle East

Sub-Saharan Africa features 27 constitutionally secular states, where constitutions explicitly declare no state religion and enshrine freedom of religion, often modeled on post-colonial efforts to foster national unity amid diverse Christian, Muslim, and traditional beliefs.^[108] These frameworks emerged prominently after independence waves in the 1960s, with provisions like Burkina Faso's 1991 Constitution (Article 31) prohibiting religious instruction in public schools and affirming secularity to prevent sectarian favoritism. Similarly, South Africa's 1996 Constitution establishes a secular order, mandating separation of religion and state institutions while protecting religious freedoms, though enforcement varies with occasional political accommodations for religious groups.^[109] Despite high religiosity—sub-Saharan populations exhibit twice the global average in religious adherence—state support for religion remains minimal, with fewer provisions for funding or privileges compared to Europe or Latin America, reflecting pragmatic limits on resources rather than ideological commitment.^[110] Implementation often diverges from constitutional ideals due to entrenched religious influences and weak institutions; for instance, in West Africa, 15 of 16 nations (excluding Mauritania's Islamic republic status) declare secularity, yet customary laws incorporating Sharia or tribal norms persist in family matters, undermining uniform application.^[111] This noncompliance stems from causal factors like popular religiosity driving electoral politics—evident in Nigeria's partial Sharia adoption in northern states since 1999 despite federal secularity—and limited judicial capacity to enforce separation, leading to de facto accommodations such as state-sponsored pilgrimages in countries like Senegal.^[108] Empirical data from Pew Research indicates that while constitutions bar religious tests for office, political leaders frequently invoke faith for legitimacy, correlating with lower pluralism scores in regions like the Sahel, where Islamist insurgencies challenge secular governance since the 2010s.^[112] In the Middle East, secular state models have been rarer and more transient, with most nations embedding Islam as the state religion in constitutions, such as Egypt's 2014 framework requiring laws to align with Sharia principles while nominally upholding freedoms.^[113] Historical attempts, like Tunisia's 1956 Constitution under Habib Bourguiba—which banned polygamy, equalized inheritance, and marginalized religious courts—advanced legal secularization through modernization, reducing clerical influence until the 2011 revolution and subsequent 2022 amendments reasserting Islam's role.^[114] Ba'athist regimes in Syria (from 1963) and Iraq (until 2003) imposed assertive secularism, suppressing Islamist groups and promoting pan-Arab identity over religious law, but these eroded amid civil wars and power vacuums, yielding hybrid systems where Sharia influences penal codes despite secular rhetoric.^[115] Challenges in the region arise from causal dynamics of Islamist backlash against perceived Western-imposed secularism, as seen in the Muslim Brotherhood's rise in Egypt post-2011, leading to reversals; surveys show declining religiosity among youth (e.g., 31% nonreligious in Tunisia by 2019), yet state structures resist full separation due to elite reliance on religious legitimacy for stability.^[116]^[117] Lebanon's confessional system, formalized in the 1943 National Pact and Taif Agreement (1989), allocates power by sect rather than enforcing neutrality, perpetuating fragility without true secularity.^[118] Overall, Middle Eastern secular experiments highlight tensions between imposed reforms and endogenous religious norms, with empirical failures linked to incomplete institutional buy-in, contrasting Africa's broader but shallower constitutional adoption.^[119]

Oceania and Other Regions

Australia enshrines secular principles in Section 116 of its 1901 Constitution, which bars the federal government from enacting laws to establish any religion, impose religious observance, prohibit the free exercise of religion, or require religious tests for public office.^[120] This framework prevents any denomination from receiving official state endorsement, fostering a neutral stance toward religious institutions despite historical Christian cultural influences.^[121] State-level variations exist, but federal policy avoids funding or privileging specific faiths beyond general welfare provisions.^[122] New Zealand functions as a secular state without a designated official religion, with protections for religious freedom originating in the 1840 Treaty of Waitangi and reinforced by the 1990 Bill of Rights Act, which safeguards freedom of thought, conscience, and religion.^[123] The government enforces separation between political authorities and religious bodies, prohibiting state interference in worship while allowing voluntary faith-based education and social services.^[124] Demographic shifts underscore this neutrality: the 2018 census recorded 48.2% of respondents with no religious affiliation, up from 42% in 2013, reflecting declining institutional adherence amid stable legal secularism.^[125] Pacific island nations exhibit greater religious integration, with Christianity dominating populations—often exceeding 90% adherence—and varying degrees of state involvement. Tonga, for instance, lacks an official religion under its 1875 Constitution, permitting free exercise across denominations despite the Free Wesleyan Church's cultural prominence and parliamentary reservations for its members.^[126] In contrast, Samoa's 1962 Constitution affirms Christianity as foundational to its governance, embedding religious oaths in oaths of office, while Tuvalu privileges the Church of Tuvalu.^[127] Other states like Fiji and Papua New Guinea maintain secular constitutions guaranteeing religious liberty but accommodate faith-based laws on issues such as Sabbath observance, where Christian norms influence policy without formal establishment.^[128] These arrangements reflect colonial legacies and indigenous conversions, yielding higher religiosity than continental Oceania, with irreligion below 1% in most censuses.^[129] Antarctica, as a continent governed by the 1959 Antarctic Treaty System among claimant states, hosts no permanent population or sovereign entities, rendering state-religion dynamics inapplicable; research stations operate under sponsoring nations' secular or non-secular frameworks without independent religious policy.^[125]

Benefits and Empirical Achievements

Promotion of Pluralism and Innovation

Secular states foster religious pluralism by constitutionally prohibiting the establishment of any single faith as official, thereby enabling the coexistence of diverse beliefs without state coercion or favoritism toward a dominant religion. This neutrality prevents the suppression of minority groups and encourages voluntary adherence to various doctrines, as seen in the United States where the First Amendment's separation of church and state has sustained high levels of religious diversity, including Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, Muslim, and non-religious communities comprising over 70% of the population identifying with a faith tradition.^[6] In contrast, states with established religions often exhibit lower pluralism, as official endorsement marginalizes alternatives. Empirical measures, such as the Global Religious Diversity Index, show secular nations like France and Canada scoring higher in accommodating multiple faiths due to legal impartiality that protects free exercise while barring public funding disparities.^[130] This pluralistic environment extends to intellectual and cultural domains, where secular governance diminishes religiously motivated censorship, allowing competing worldviews to inform policy through evidence rather than dogma. For instance, in secular India, despite Hindu majoritarianism pressures, constitutional secularism has integrated Muslim, Christian, and Sikh practices into public life, promoting social stability amid diversity—evidenced by lower inter-religious conflict rates compared to theocratic neighbors like Pakistan.^[131] Such frameworks counteract zero-sum religious competitions that historically led to persecutions, as in pre-secular Europe, by institutionalizing tolerance as a civic norm. On innovation, secular states correlate with elevated technological and scientific output, as reduced religiosity aligns with attitudes favoring empirical inquiry over doctrinal adherence. Cross-country analyses reveal a robust negative association between religiosity levels and patents per capita, with secular nations like Japan (1,839 patents per million in recent rankings) and South Korea (highest globally at over 7,000 per USD 100 billion GDP) outperforming more religious peers.^[132]^[133] Individual-level studies confirm religiosity inversely predicts pro-innovation traits, such as openness to new ideas and risk tolerance, explaining why secular Western Europe and North America dominate Nobel Prizes in sciences (over 80% of awards since 1901).^[134] Causal mechanisms include diminished opposition to fields like genetics or cosmology, where religious states have historically impeded advances—e.g., Galileo's condemnation—while secular neutrality permits market-driven and state-funded R&D unhindered by theological vetoes. Comparative data further link religious freedom indices, higher in secular contexts, to innovation gains via diverse talent pools and reduced conformity pressures.^[135]

Evidence from Comparative Studies

Comparative studies demonstrate that secular states, through separation of religious and state authority, correlate with superior economic and social outcomes relative to religiously integrated or theocratic systems. An analysis of 109 countries using cohort-based secularization measures from the European Values Study and World Values Survey (spanning 1910–2010) alongside GDP per capita data from the Maddison Project Database found that secularization increases preceded economic growth, with a one standard deviation rise in secularization predicting GDP gains of $1,000 after 10 years, $2,800 after 20 years, and $5,000 after 30 years; time-lagged multilevel regressions controlled for education and cultural factors, revealing strengthening correlations over decades (R² rising from 4% in the 1910s to 40% by the 1990s).^[136] Religious freedom, a hallmark of secular governance enabling pluralism without state-imposed doctrine, further evidences these benefits in panel regressions across 156 countries (2006–2018) from the Gallup World Poll, where a one standard deviation increase in religious liberty—proxied by indicators of government restrictions and social hostilities—was associated with a 0.03 percentage point rise in individual thriving probability and a 0.08 standard deviation increase in subjective well-being, robust to country-year fixed effects, GDP growth controls, and instrumental variable approaches using historical missionary exposure for causality.^[137] These effects operated via enhanced civil liberties, such as women's empowerment and expression freedoms, contrasting with restrictions in states favoring religious monopoly. Broader cross-national research reinforces that secularism, measured by societal rejection of religious authority and tolerance for diversity, prospectively predicts prosperity, education, and democratic advancement. In a study tracking changes from the late 20th century onward across approximately 200 nations, rises in secular cultural orientations—controlling for initial conditions—forecasted higher GDP per capita, literacy rates, and democracy scores, attributing causality to reduced ideological conflicts and freer markets for ideas, though resource-dependent religious states occasionally deviated due to exogenous wealth rather than governance.^[138] Such patterns hold despite some findings of positive growth effects from certain religious beliefs (e.g., accountability doctrines like hell), which secular frameworks accommodate without institutionalizing, avoiding the opportunity costs of mandatory attendance observed to hinder productivity in high-participation religious societies.^[139] Limitations include potential reverse causality in wealth-religiosity links and data gaps in less-developed regions, yet the temporal precedence of secular shifts underscores causal realism in governance design.^[136]

Criticisms and Challenges

Erosion of Moral Foundations

Critics of secular governance argue that the separation of state from religious authority erodes foundational moral structures by replacing transcendent ethical absolutes with subjective relativism or state-defined norms, leading to weakened social bonds and increased individualism. This perspective draws on observations that secularization correlates with declines in traditional moral indicators, such as family stability and communal solidarity, as religious institutions historically enforced shared values through doctrine and ritual. Empirical data supports aspects of this view: for instance, longitudinal analyses across countries show that decreases in religiosity predict rises in violent crime rates, though not necessarily non-violent offenses, suggesting a specific erosion in inhibitions against aggression absent religious moral restraints.^[140] Family dissolution provides another metric of moral erosion, with religious adherence linked to greater marital durability. In the United States, women raised in religious households experience divorce rates approximately 35% lower than those from non-religious backgrounds, even accounting for earlier marriage ages common among the faithful; regular religious service attendance further halves divorce risk compared to non-attenders.^[141]^[142] This pattern holds internationally, where secular union practices like premarital cohabitation—prevalent in secular states—elevate divorce probabilities through reduced selectivity in partner commitment.^[143] Suicide rates, often tied to existential despair in frameworks like Durkheim's anomie theory, exhibit a negative correlation with religiosity in global reviews. Meta-analyses of over 100 studies indicate that higher levels of religiousness and spirituality predict lower suicidal ideation and attempts, with irreligiosity emerging as a risk factor in community samples; for example, non-religious individuals show elevated suicidality odds in U.S. cohorts.^[144]^[145] In secular-stronghold nations like those in Northern Europe, despite high welfare provisions, suicide rates remain elevated relative to more religious peers, potentially reflecting the void left by diminished moral purpose.^[146] Social cohesion suffers similarly, as religious participation fosters trust, volunteering, and perceived cooperativeness more effectively than secular alternatives. European surveys reveal that frequent religious service attendance boosts generalized trust and civic engagement, countering the fragmentation observed in highly secular contexts where moral consensus frays without unifying doctrines.^[147] While some data highlight low crime in secular societies—attributable to strong institutions inherited from religious eras—these overlook long-term trends where moral relativism undermines self-regulation, as evidenced by property crime reductions in more religious nations.^[148] Overall, these patterns suggest secular states risk hollowing out the ethical bedrock that sustains societal order, prompting reversals toward religious resurgence in response to perceived decay.^[35]

Failures in Neutrality and Integration

Secular states often assert neutrality by prohibiting state endorsement of any religion, yet this framework frequently privileges irreligious norms over religious practices, particularly those of minority faiths perceived as incompatible with secular values. In France, the application of laïcité—formalized by the 1905 separation of church and state—has extended to policies like the 2004 law banning "conspicuous" religious symbols in public schools, which disproportionately affects Muslim headscarves and has been linked to heightened discrimination and social exclusion among the country's estimated 5.7 million Muslims. Critics argue this enforces a de facto secular orthodoxy, alienating believers and fostering resentment, as evidenced by surveys showing French Muslims reporting higher rates of perceived discrimination compared to other groups, with policies like burkini bans on beaches in 2016 exacerbating radicalization risks by signaling state hostility toward Islamic expression.^[149]^[150]^[151] These neutrality lapses contribute to integration breakdowns, where religious immigrants form parallel communities resistant to host-society norms. In the United Kingdom, approximately 85 Sharia councils function as alternative dispute resolution bodies for issues like marriage and divorce, often applying interpretations of Islamic law that conflict with equality principles, such as favoring male testimony or pressuring women into polygamous arrangements without legal recourse. A 2018 independent review commissioned by the government identified systemic failures, including councils' lack of oversight and instances of women facing intimidation to accept religiously sanctioned but unequal outcomes, undermining the state's monopoly on justice.^[152]^[153] Similar patterns emerge across Europe, with empirical studies documenting stalled assimilation among Muslim populations due to mutual distrust: host societies exhibit bias, while immigrant groups exhibit higher in-group preferences, leading to socioeconomic disparities like unemployment rates for Muslim immigrants exceeding 20% in countries such as Sweden and Germany, compared to national averages below 10%. In Sweden, Islamist networks have established competing social structures in migrant-dense suburbs, correlating with elevated violent crime—such as grenade attacks rising from 0 in 2010 to over 100 annually by 2018—and governance voids filled by clan-based or religious authorities rather than state institutions. Experimental research, including trust games and surveys in France and Germany, reveals that even third-generation Muslim descendants maintain stronger ties to co-religionists, perpetuating segregation as secular policies inadvertently incentivize withdrawal over adaptation.^[154]^[155]^[156]

Backlash and Reversals

In countries where secularism was imposed through top-down reforms in the 20th century, particularly in Muslim-majority societies, popular backlash from religious constituencies has often led to policy reversals or erosion of state-religion separation. These reversals stem from tensions between elite-driven modernization and grassroots attachment to Islamic norms, as evidenced by electoral gains for Islamist parties and subsequent legal changes prioritizing religious principles over strict laïcité. Empirical patterns show that such backlashes frequently occur in post-colonial states where secular constitutions clashed with predominant religious demographics, resulting in hybrid regimes blending democratic elements with theocratic tendencies.^[157]^[115] Turkey exemplifies this dynamic under President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and the Justice and Development Party (AKP), which has governed since 2002. Initially presenting as moderate conservatives, AKP administrations incrementally dismantled Kemalist secularism, including expanding Imam Hatip religious schools from 450 in 2002 to over 5,000 by 2020, comprising about 15% of secondary education enrollment.^[158] In 2016, following a failed coup, Erdoğan purged secular-leaning military and judicial officials, consolidating power and enabling policies like the 2020 reconversion of Hagia Sophia from museum to mosque, reversing Atatürk's 1935 decree.^[159] By 2025, proposals for a new constitution have included provisions to further embed Islamic references, marking a shift from enforced secularism to "Islamization from above," though societal secularization persists at grassroots levels.^[160]^[161] This evolution reflects causal pressures from a devout Anatolian base, with AKP securing 52.6% of votes in the 2002 election amid economic grievances against secular elites.^[76] Iran provides a stark case of full reversal, transitioning from the secular Pahlavi monarchy (1925–1979), which promoted Western-style reforms like unveiling women in 1936 and banning religious attire in public institutions, to the Islamic Republic after the 1979 revolution. The Shah's regime suppressed clerical influence, but widespread opposition from Shia ulema and bazaari classes, fueled by oil-funded modernization alienating traditional sectors, culminated in Ayatollah Khomeini's theocracy, where Sharia became state law and religious oversight bodies like the Guardian Council gained veto power.^[115] Post-revolution constitutions explicitly rejected secularism, with over 90% voter approval in the 1979 referendum establishing velayat-e faqih (guardianship of the jurist).^[161] This reversal underscores how secular authoritarianism, lacking broad legitimacy, invites religious counter-mobilization, as seen in the revolution's participation of millions in protests peaking at 10% of the population by late 1978. In India, constitutionally committed to secularism since 1976, Hindu-majority backlash against perceived minority appeasement has manifested under Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) rule since 2014, though without formal constitutional reversal. Policies like the 2019 abrogation of Article 370 ending Jammu and Kashmir's autonomy, the Citizenship Amendment Act favoring non-Muslim refugees, and promotion of a Uniform Civil Code have been interpreted by critics as tilting towards Hindu cultural dominance, correlating with a 30% rise in communal incidents reported from 2014–2019.^[162]^[163] BJP's electoral success, including 303 seats in the 2019 Lok Sabha elections, reflects voter support for correcting "pseudo-secularism," per party rhetoric, amid surveys showing 64% of Hindus favoring religious influence in politics by 2021.^[99] However, judicial interventions, such as upholding secular oaths, have prevented outright theocratic shifts, highlighting resilience in federal structures despite erosion claims from sources often aligned with opposition narratives.^[164]^[165]

Comparative Shortcomings vs. Religious States

Secular states, despite their emphasis on neutrality and individual rights, demonstrate comparative shortcomings in social cohesion relative to states with integrated religious governance, where shared faith-based values foster higher levels of interpersonal trust and communal cooperation. Empirical analyses reveal that regular religious service attendance correlates positively with generalized trust, volunteering rates, and perceptions of others' cooperativeness, mechanisms that strengthen societal bonds in religiously oriented societies.^[147] In contrast, secular frameworks, by design, avoid endorsing transcendent moral anchors, which can exacerbate fragmentation in diverse populations lacking alternative unifying narratives, as evidenced by studies highlighting religion's role in cultivating shared beliefs and community solidarity.^[166] Reports from organizations examining faith communities underscore how religious institutions actively mitigate isolation and promote local service provision, functions often underemphasized or replicated less effectively by secular bureaucracies.^[167] Demographic sustainability represents another area of vulnerability, with secular states frequently experiencing fertility rates insufficient to maintain population stability, straining pension systems and labor markets over time. This contrasts with religiously governed states, where doctrinal emphasis on family and procreation sustains higher birth rates; for example, Israel's integration of Jewish religious principles contributes to a total fertility rate exceeding 3 children per woman as of 2023, bucking global secular trends toward sub-replacement levels. In secular Europe, average fertility hovered around 1.5 in recent years, correlating with aging populations and increased dependency ratios that challenge fiscal viability without immigration-dependent policies prone to cultural tensions. Religious governance, by embedding pronatalist norms, avoids such self-undermining dynamics, preserving long-term societal renewal. Economically, the shift toward secularism has been linked to diminished adherence to religious precepts that encourage prudence and delayed gratification, potentially elevating risk-taking and eroding productivity gains from faith-induced behavioral discipline. Research indicates that declining religiosity forgoes advantages like reduced impulsivity and enhanced work ethic, observable in historical correlations between Protestant ethic influences and capital accumulation in now-secularizing economies.^[168] Theocratic or religiously infused states, such as Saudi Arabia under Sharia-influenced governance, have leveraged doctrinal stability to channel oil wealth into sovereign funds yielding trillions in assets by 2024, demonstrating how religious legitimacy can underpin policy continuity amid resource volatility—outcomes less assured in secular systems susceptible to ideological churn and short-term populism. While secular states excel in innovation metrics, their moral relativism can foster policy inconsistencies, as seen in variable responses to ethical dilemmas like bioethics, where religious states maintain firmer boundaries grounded in scriptural causality rather than evolving consensus.^[169] These patterns suggest that secular detachment from first-order ethical commitments incurs hidden costs in resilience and collective discipline, even if offset by other freedoms.

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Feb 5, 2025 · To categorize the respective systems simply, the United States guarantees freedom of religion, whereas France strives for freedom from religion.
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Secularism as a human right: learning from the European Court of ...
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Locke's Political Philosophy
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John Locke, Natural Rights, and the Origins of American Religious ...
This Article explores John Locke's theory of religious liberty, which deeply influenced the adoption of the First Amendment and the first state bills of rights.
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A Secular Humanist Declaration | Free Inquiry
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The Cyrus Cylinder and Ancient Persia: A New Beginning - About
The values of freedom from captivity and freedom of religious practice proclaimed by Cyrus the Great are the enduring ideas underlying ethical governance ...
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Akbar not only felt free af any restraint of Islamic law ; he could also freely criticise it.
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Religious Policy of Akbar Explained: Tolerance, Sulh-i-Kul & Din-i-Ilahi
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Enlightenment - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Aug 20, 2010 · ... secular system of knowledge. Though major Enlightenment thinkers (for example Voltaire in his Letters on the English Nation, 1734) embrace ...
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A Letter concerning Toleration and Other Writings
This volume contains A Letter Concerning Toleration, excerpts of the Third Letter, An Essay on Toleration, and various fragments.
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A Letter Concerning Toleration (1689) and Two Treatises on ...
Summary. John Locke (1632-1704) was the author of A Letter Concerning Toleration (1689), An Essay concerning Human Understanding (1690), Two Treatises on ...
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Voltaire, "On the Church of England"
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Thomas Jefferson and Religious Freedom
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The global rise of religious politics is found in every religious tradition, spurred on by the widespread perception that secular nationalism is an ineffective ...
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[PDF] Passive and Assertive Secularism: Historical Conditions, Ideological ...
scholars of two well-known cases of secu- larism, india and mexico,83 for example, may use passive secularism for the former and assertive secularism for the ...
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Passive and Assertive Secularism: Historical Conditions, Ideological ...
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Passive and Assertive Secularism | Ahmet T. Kuru
The dominant ideology in France and Turkey, in contrast, is " assertive secularism," which aims to confine religion to the private domain and to exclude it from ...
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two different understandings of passive secularism as elaborated below. Passive and assertive secularism became dominant in these cases as a result. of ...
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10 Assertive and Passive Secularism: State Neutrality, Religious ...
Assertive secularism, which aims to exclude religion from the public ... passive secularism, particularly the meaning of state neutrality toward religions.
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secularism, strict separation, or ...
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Accommodationist and Separationist Theories of the Establishment ...
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The First Amendment has two provisions concerning religion: the Establishment Clause and the Free Exercise Clause.
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The Republic of Turkey is a democratic, secular and social state governed by rule of law, within the notions of public peace, national solidarity and justice.
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The Commonwealth shall not make any law for establishing any religion, or for imposing any religious observance, or for prohibiting the free exercise of any ...
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Is 'religion' defined in section 116 of the Australian Constitution?
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[PDF] RELIGIOUS FREEDOM
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2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Tonga
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[PDF] Religion, Pluralism, and Conflicts in the Pacific Islands - HAL-SHS
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why secular climate projects in the Pacific Islands are failing
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Religious Service Attendance and Divorce
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Secularization, Union Formation Practices, and Marital Stability
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Sweden takes notice of French report on Muslim Brotherhood ...
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Secular Repressive States in the Muslim World
The secular repressive pattern in Islam follows the French Revolution, not the American Revolution, and is a rival to the Iranian Revolution in its low levels ...3 Secular Repressive States... · The Turkish Standard · Arabian Secularism
[159]
How Turkey has moved from Ataturk's secularism towards Islamist ...
May 27, 2025 · Under Erdogan, the education system of Turkey has been overhauled to emphasise Islamism. His government has been funding Islamic Imam Hatip ...
[160]
How Turkey Went from Secular to Islamic Authoritarianism - New Ideal
Sep 30, 2020 · First, Erdoğan embarked on a calculated plan to inject Islamist ideas into Turkish society. Second, Erdoğan's campaign was incrementalist, ...
[161]
Erdogan steers Turkey toward end of secularism with new ...
Jun 8, 2025 · Either change the constitution and apply Sharia, or abide by the constitution. You cannot be both a follower of Islamic law and a secularist.”<|separator|>
[162]
Islamization from Above, Secularization from Below: Turkey and Iran ...
Jul 10, 2025 · Erdoğan's tenure marks a profound transformation in the relationship between religion and state in Turkey, even though the country remains ...
[163]
The BJP in Power: Indian Democracy and Religious Nationalism
Apr 4, 2019 · The upsurge in Hindu nationalism ushered in by Modi's government is reshaping Indian society, secularism, economics, and diplomacy.
[164]
India's Muslims: An Increasingly Marginalized Population
India's Muslim communities have faced decades of discrimination, which experts say has worsened under the Hindu nationalist BJP's government.
[165]
Hindu nationalism threatens India's secular foundations
May 8, 2025 · Since 2014, BJP governance has eroded India's secular foundations through legislation targeting religious minorities, particularly Muslims.
[166]
Sorry, But India's Secularism Is A Bit Harder To Kill - The Gazelle
Our judiciary's independence and willingness to assert its power is the only thing standing in between the BJP government and a Hindu nation. To declare the ...
[167]
[PDF] THE ROLE OF RELIGION IN SOCIAL COHESION - IJRAR.org
Religion has historically been a fundamental force in shaping social cohesion, contributing significantly to the unity and stability of communities.
[168]
Faith groups' role in social cohesion undervalued, says new report ...
Jul 21, 2020 · Many faith groups already play a central role in bettering social cohesion while also providing crucial services in their local areas. By ...
[169]
The rise of secularism and its economic consequences
Increased secularism may result in forgoing benefits associated with religious beliefs, and may lead to higher engagement in riskier behavior.
[170]
RELIGIOUS IDENTITY AND ECONOMIC BEHAVIOR - PMC
We find using laboratory experiments that primes that make religion salient cause subjects to identify more with their religion and affect their economic ...