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Serotonin pathway

The serotonin pathway, also known as the 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) signaling pathway, refers to the integrated biochemical and physiological processes involved in the synthesis, storage, release, receptor-mediated signaling, reuptake, and metabolism of serotonin, a versatile monoamine neurotransmitter and hormone that modulates diverse functions including mood regulation, gastrointestinal motility, cardiovascular homeostasis, energy metabolism, sleep-wake cycles, and cognitive processes across both central and peripheral systems.^[1]^[2] Serotonin biosynthesis begins with the essential amino acid L-tryptophan, which is converted in a rate-limiting two-step reaction: tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH) first hydroxylates tryptophan to 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP), followed by decarboxylation of 5-HTP to serotonin by aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (AADC).^[1]^[2] Two TPH isoforms exist—TPH1, predominantly in peripheral tissues like the gut's enterochromaffin cells and the pineal gland, and TPH2, specific to central nervous system serotonergic neurons in the raphe nuclei—accounting for the body's two distinct serotonin pools separated by the blood-brain barrier.^[1]^[2] Approximately 95% of total serotonin is produced peripherally, mainly in the gastrointestinal tract, where it influences motility and secretion, while the remaining 5% is synthesized centrally to regulate neuronal signaling.^[1]^[3] Once synthesized, serotonin is stored in presynaptic vesicles or platelet-dense granules and released via exocytosis in response to stimuli such as neuronal depolarization or mechanical stress in the gut.^[1] Serotonin's actions are mediated by seven receptor families (5-HT₁ through 5-HT₇), encompassing 14 subtypes, with six families being G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that couple to G_i/o, G_q/11, or G_s proteins to modulate second messengers like cyclic AMP (cAMP), inositol triphosphate (IP₃), and diacylglycerol (DAG), and the 5-HT₃ receptor functioning as a ligand-gated ion channel permeable to sodium and potassium.^[2]^[1] These receptors are widely distributed: central 5-HT_1A and 5-HT_2A subtypes influence anxiety and mood, peripheral 5-HT_2B receptors regulate vascular tone and platelet aggregation, 5-HT₃ and 5-HT₄ control nausea and intestinal peristalsis, and 5-HT_2C modulates appetite and energy expenditure in the hypothalamus.^[2]^[3] Signal termination occurs primarily through reuptake by the serotonin transporter (SERT), a sodium-dependent membrane protein also expressed on platelets for peripheral serotonin clearance, which is inhibited by selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) to enhance synaptic serotonin levels in therapeutic contexts.^[1]^[2] Metabolically, serotonin is degraded by monoamine oxidase (MAO) enzymes (MAO-A and MAO-B) in the outer mitochondrial membrane, oxidizing it to 5-hydroxyindoleacetaldehyde, which is then converted by aldehyde dehydrogenase to 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA), the principal inactive metabolite excreted in urine and a biomarker for serotonin turnover.^[1] In the pineal gland, serotonin is instead N-acetylated by arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase and methylated to form melatonin, linking the pathway to circadian rhythm regulation.^[1] Dysfunctions in the serotonin pathway contribute to numerous conditions, including major depressive disorder, anxiety, irritable bowel syndrome, migraine, and carcinoid syndrome from excess peripheral production, underscoring its broad therapeutic targeting via SSRIs, receptor agonists/antagonists, and TPH inhibitors.^[1]^[3]

Biosynthesis and Metabolism

Biosynthesis from tryptophan

Serotonin biosynthesis begins with L-tryptophan, an essential amino acid obtained primarily from dietary protein sources such as meat, dairy, and grains.^[4] This precursor is transported across cell membranes via specific carriers and serves as the sole substrate for serotonin production in vertebrates.^[4] The pathway involves two enzymatic steps. First, tryptophan is hydroxylated at the 5-position to form 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP) by the enzyme tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH), which catalyzes the rate-limiting reaction requiring tetrahydrobiopterin as a cofactor.^[5] TPH exists in two isoforms: TPH1, predominantly expressed in peripheral tissues, and TPH2, specific to serotonergic neurons in the central nervous system.^[6] Subsequently, 5-HTP undergoes decarboxylation to yield serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) via aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (AADC), a pyridoxal phosphate-dependent enzyme that acts rapidly without being rate-limiting.^[5] Serotonin synthesis occurs primarily in specialized cells, including neurons of the raphe nuclei in the brainstem and enterochromaffin cells of the gastrointestinal mucosa.^[4] These sites account for the majority of bodily serotonin production, with approximately 90% produced in the gastrointestinal tract.^[1] Only about 1-2% of dietary tryptophan is directed toward serotonin synthesis, while the majority is utilized for protein synthesis or shunted into the kynurenine pathway.^[7] This limited allocation underscores the pathway's dependence on tryptophan availability and competition with other metabolic routes.^[7]

Enzymatic steps and regulation

Tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH) catalyzes the rate-limiting hydroxylation of L-tryptophan to 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP), the initial step in serotonin biosynthesis, utilizing tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4) as an essential cofactor and molecular oxygen as a cosubstrate.^[8] This reaction requires ferrous iron at the active site and proceeds via a coupled hydroxylation-decarboxylation mechanism where BH4 donates electrons to activate oxygen for substrate hydroxylation.^[9] TPH activity is inhibited by elevated serotonin levels through feedback mechanisms that reduce enzyme affinity for substrates, helping to maintain homeostasis in serotonin production.^[10] Aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (AADC), also known as DOPA decarboxylase, converts 5-HTP to serotonin in a pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP)-dependent decarboxylation reaction, with PLP serving as the key cofactor derived from vitamin B6.^[11] AADC exhibits broad substrate specificity among aromatic amino acids, efficiently decarboxylating not only 5-HTP to serotonin but also L-DOPA to dopamine, underscoring its role in multiple monoamine neurotransmitter pathways.^[12] Regulation of TPH2, the neuronal isoform, involves transcriptional control of its gene expression by circadian rhythms, which modulate serotonin synthesis to align with daily physiological cycles.^[13] Stress hormones such as glucocorticoids upregulate TPH2 expression in response to environmental challenges, enhancing serotonin production to mitigate stress effects on mood and behavior.^[14] Additionally, serotonin exerts feedback inhibition on TPH activity, limiting further synthesis when levels are high and preventing potential neurotoxicity.^[15] Two isoforms of TPH exist: TPH1, predominantly expressed in peripheral tissues including enterochromaffin cells of the gut and the pineal gland where it provides a precursor for melatonin synthesis, and TPH2, which is neuron-specific and localized primarily in the brainstem raphe nuclei of the brain.^[14] This differential expression ensures that TPH1 supports peripheral serotonin functions like gastrointestinal motility, while TPH2 regulates central nervous system processes such as mood and cognition.^[16] Genetic variations in the TPH2 gene, including polymorphisms such as rs4570625 and rs17110747, have been associated with altered serotonin synthesis and increased susceptibility to mood disorders like major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder.^[17] These variants can reduce TPH2 enzymatic efficiency, leading to diminished brain serotonin levels and contributing to affective dysregulation in affected individuals.^[18]

Degradation to 5-HIAA

The degradation of serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) primarily occurs through oxidative deamination catalyzed by monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A), an enzyme located on the outer mitochondrial membrane of neurons and glial cells.^[19] MAO-A, which has a higher affinity for serotonin compared to the MAO-B isoform, oxidizes serotonin to form the intermediate 5-hydroxyindoleacetaldehyde (5-HIAL), utilizing flavin adenine dinucleotide as a cofactor and producing hydrogen peroxide as a byproduct.^[19]^[20] This step is predominant in serotonergic neurons and astrocytes, where MAO-A expression is enriched, contributing to the intracellular breakdown of serotonin following its reuptake or synthesis.^[19] The aldehyde intermediate, 5-HIAL, is rapidly converted to 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) by aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH), primarily the ALDH2 isoform, in a further oxidation reaction that occurs in the mitochondria and cytosol of various tissues including the liver, brain, and enterochromaffin cells.^[1]^[21] 5-HIAA represents the major excretable metabolite of serotonin.^[1] Once formed, 5-HIAA is transported into the bloodstream and primarily excreted in the urine, where it serves as a reliable biomarker for assessing whole-body serotonin turnover and central nervous system serotonin activity, with normal urinary levels ranging from 2 to 8 mg per 24 hours in adults.^[1]^[21] Elevated 5-HIAA concentrations in urine or cerebrospinal fluid can indicate conditions such as carcinoid syndrome or altered serotonin metabolism, while reduced levels are associated with disorders like depression.^[21] This degradative pathway plays a critical role in maintaining serotonin homeostasis by preventing excessive accumulation and mitigating oxidative stress from byproducts like hydrogen peroxide.^[19] Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), such as phenelzine, block MAO-A activity and thereby inhibit the conversion of serotonin to 5-HIAL, leading to elevated serotonin levels in synaptic clefts and therapeutic effects in mood disorders.^[20]

Transport and Signaling

Storage in vesicles

Following synthesis in the neuronal cytoplasm, serotonin is rapidly sequestered into synaptic vesicles by the vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2), a proton antiporter that facilitates uptake against a steep concentration gradient.^[22] This process ensures efficient packaging for subsequent release, preventing accumulation of free serotonin in the cytosol where it could undergo enzymatic degradation by monoamine oxidase (MAO).^[23] The uptake mechanism relies on vesicle acidification, achieved by the vacuolar H+-ATPase (V-ATPase) pump, which generates an electrochemical proton gradient across the vesicular membrane by hydrolyzing ATP to translocate protons into the vesicle interior.^[22] VMAT2 harnesses this ΔpH and membrane potential (Δψ) to exchange two protons outward for each serotonin molecule imported, achieving intravesicular concentrations up to 10,000-fold higher than in the cytoplasm.^[24] In serotonergic neurons, each vesicle typically stores approximately 10^5 serotonin molecules, safeguarding the neurotransmitter from oxidative damage and maintaining quantal release integrity.^[25] VMAT2 is expressed in both small synaptic vesicles (~40 nm diameter) and larger dense-core vesicles (~80-120 nm) within serotonergic neurons of the raphe nuclei, with the latter enabling co-storage alongside neuropeptides such as thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) or substance P.^[26] This compartmentalization in dense-core vesicles supports modulated release of both classical and peptidergic signals during neuronal activity. Dysregulation of VMAT2, as seen in knockout models, results in profound serotonin depletion in brain regions due to impaired vesicular loading and increased cytoplasmic exposure to MAO, leading to oxidative stress from reactive oxygen species generated by monoamine auto-oxidation.80418-3) Such deficits underscore VMAT2's role in protecting serotonergic homeostasis, with stored serotonin poised for exocytotic release upon neuronal depolarization.^[27]

Release mechanisms

Serotonin release primarily occurs through calcium-dependent exocytosis in serotonergic neurons of the central nervous system, where action potentials depolarize the presynaptic terminal, opening voltage-gated calcium channels and allowing Ca²⁺ influx. This influx triggers the fusion of synaptic vesicles with the plasma membrane via SNARE protein complexes, including syntaxin, SNAP-25, and VAMP (vesicle-associated membrane protein), facilitating the rapid discharge of stored serotonin into the synaptic cleft.^[28]^[29] Amperometric studies of quantal release from raphe neurons reveal that individual vesicles typically contain and release approximately 28,000 to 34,000 serotonin molecules, with the quantal size proportional to vesicle volume and reflecting a consistent intravesicular concentration of around 270 mM.^[30]^[31] This vesicular mechanism, supported by the vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) for serotonin storage, ensures efficient, stimulus-evoked secretion.^[31] In peripheral tissues, particularly the gastrointestinal tract, serotonin is released from enterochromaffin (EC) cells through autonomic mechanisms triggered by mechanical stimuli, such as luminal distension, or chemical signals like nutrients and microbial products. These stimuli activate mechanosensitive channels or receptors, leading to intracellular Ca²⁺ elevation and subsequent exocytosis of serotonin-containing vesicles, which constitutes about 95% of the body's serotonin pool.^[32]^[33] Non-vesicular release contributes smaller amounts of serotonin, particularly under conditions of elevated intracellular concentrations, via reverse transport through the serotonin transporter (SERT), which shifts from uptake to efflux mode.^[34] In pathological contexts, such as amphetamine exposure, non-vesicular serotonin release is enhanced by reversal of VMAT2 function, where the transporter expels serotonin from vesicles into the cytosol, followed by diffusion or carrier-mediated efflux across the plasma membrane, disrupting normal homeostasis.^[35]^[36]

Receptor interactions

Serotonin interacts with a diverse family of receptors, classified into seven main families (5-HT₁ to 5-HT₇) that encompass 14 subtypes, enabling nuanced modulation of cellular signaling across tissues. With the exception of the 5-HT₃ receptor, which functions as an ionotropic ligand-gated cation channel permeable to sodium, potassium, and calcium ions, all other subtypes are seven-transmembrane G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that transduce signals via heterotrimeric G proteins.^[37]^[38] These receptors are strategically localized presynaptically to regulate neurotransmitter release or postsynaptically to elicit effector responses, with binding initiated following vesicular release of serotonin into the synaptic cleft. Key subtypes within the 5-HT₁ family, such as 5-HT_1A and 5-HT_1B/D, couple predominantly to inhibitory G_i/o proteins, which suppress adenylyl cyclase activity and decrease intracellular cyclic AMP (cAMP) levels, often resulting in hyperpolarization via G-protein-gated potassium channels. The 5-HT_1A receptor, frequently serving as a presynaptic autoreceptor on serotonergic neurons, inhibits further serotonin release through this mechanism, contributing to feedback control.^[37]^[38] In parallel, the 5-HT₂ family subtypes, including 5-HT_2A and 5-HT_2C, engage G_q/11 proteins to activate phospholipase C, hydrolyzing phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate into inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP₃) and diacylglycerol; this elevates cytosolic calcium and activates protein kinase C, with the 5-HT_2C subtype notably linked to mood regulation via downstream effects on gene expression and neuronal excitability.^[37]^[38] Receptors in the 5-HT₄, 5-HT₆, and 5-HT₇ families couple to stimulatory G_s proteins, enhancing adenylyl cyclase to boost cAMP production and activating protein kinase A, which influences processes like synaptic plasticity.^[38] The ionotropic 5-HT₃ receptor, upon serotonin binding, undergoes conformational change to permit rapid cation influx, depolarizing the membrane and facilitating excitatory neurotransmission, distinct from the slower GPCR-mediated cascades.^[37] Serotonin binding affinities, reflected in EC₅₀ values for activation, span a wide range across subtypes, from high-affinity interactions in the low nanomolar range (e.g., ~1-10 nM for 5-HT_1A) to lower micromolar affinities (e.g., ~1 μM for 5-HT₃), allowing selective physiological responses based on local serotonin concentrations.^[39]^[37] Prolonged serotonin exposure induces receptor desensitization, a regulatory mechanism that attenuates signaling to prevent overstimulation. This involves phosphorylation of the receptor's intracellular loops and C-terminus by G-protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs), followed by recruitment of β-arrestins, which sterically hinder G-protein coupling and promote clathrin-mediated endocytosis for receptor internalization.^[40] Such desensitization is prominent in subtypes like 5-HT_2A and 5-HT₄, where β-arrestin-2 facilitates both rapid uncoupling and trafficking to endosomes, potentially enabling resensitization upon dephosphorylation or degradation.^[40]^[37]

Reuptake and Homeostasis

Serotonin transporter (SERT)

The serotonin transporter (SERT), also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine transporter (5-HTT), is a membrane protein encoded by the SLC6A4 gene located on chromosome 17q11.2.^[41] It belongs to the solute carrier family 6 (SLC6) of sodium- and chloride-dependent neurotransmitter transporters and features a structure with 12 transmembrane domains (TMDs), intracellular N- and C-termini, and extracellular loops, including a large glycosylated loop between TMD3 and TMD4.^[42] This architecture facilitates its role in reuptake, thereby terminating serotonin signaling at synapses.^[43] SERT operates via a sodium- and chloride-dependent symport mechanism, co-transporting one molecule of serotonin along with one sodium ion (Na⁺) and one chloride ion (Cl⁻) into the presynaptic neuron, powered by the electrochemical gradients of these ions maintained by the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase.^[44] The process follows an alternating access model, where the transporter alternates between outward-facing and inward-facing conformations; upon substrate release intracellularly, a potassium ion (K⁺) binds and is counter-transported outward to reset the transporter to the outward-facing state, ensuring electroneutral cycling overall.^[45] SERT expression is prominent in serotonergic neurons of the raphe nuclei in the brainstem, human platelets, and epithelial cells of the gastrointestinal tract, where it regulates local serotonin levels.^[43] Its activity is dynamically regulated by post-translational modifications, particularly phosphorylation at serine and threonine residues in the intracellular domains by kinases such as protein kinase C (PKC) and protein kinase G (PKG), which can enhance or inhibit transport rates depending on the signaling context.^[46] Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), such as fluoxetine (Prozac), act as competitive antagonists by binding to the central substrate-binding pocket within SERT's TMD bundle, stabilizing an outward-facing occluded conformation that prevents serotonin access and thereby blocks reuptake, leading to elevated extracellular serotonin concentrations.^[47] This inhibition prolongs serotonin availability for receptor activation. Genetic variations in SLC6A4, notably the 5-HTTLPR polymorphism in the promoter region, influence SERT expression and function; the short (s) allele is associated with lower transcriptional efficiency and reduced transporter density, and has been linked to increased vulnerability to depression in interaction with environmental stressors, though this association remains controversial.^[48]^[49] However, the link between 5-HTTLPR and depression vulnerability has faced replication challenges in large-scale studies, with ongoing debate regarding its clinical significance as of 2025.^[49]

Feedback regulation

Feedback regulation in the serotonin pathway involves multiple autoregulatory mechanisms that maintain optimal neurotransmitter levels, preventing excessive signaling and ensuring homeostasis. Presynaptic autoreceptors, primarily 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B subtypes, play a central role by inhibiting further serotonin release upon activation by extracellular serotonin. These G_i/o-coupled receptors hyperpolarize serotonergic neurons through activation of G-protein inwardly rectifying potassium (GIRK) channels, reducing neuronal firing rates and thus limiting vesicular release.^[50] For instance, 5-HT1A autoreceptors in the dorsal raphe nucleus suppress impulse flow, while 5-HT1B autoreceptors on axon terminals directly curtail exocytosis, providing a rapid negative feedback loop.^[51] This autoregulation is crucial for fine-tuning serotonin transmission in response to synaptic accumulation. At the level of synthesis, serotonin exerts end-product inhibition on tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH), the rate-limiting enzyme in its biosynthesis from tryptophan. Elevated intracellular serotonin levels directly suppress TPH activity, thereby reducing further production and preventing overaccumulation within neurons.^[52] This feedback mechanism operates independently of transcriptional changes, offering an immediate regulatory check on the biosynthetic pathway, particularly in serotonergic neurons where TPH2 predominates. Such inhibition helps balance synthesis with demand, avoiding wasteful metabolism or toxicity from excess serotonin. Homeostatic balance in the serotonin system arises from the coordinated interplay of synthesis, release, reuptake, and degradation processes. Mathematical modeling demonstrates that fluctuations in firing rates or tryptophan availability are buffered by autoreceptor-mediated reductions in synthesis and release, coupled with serotonin transporter (SERT)-driven reuptake that recycles intracellular stores.^[53] Degradation via monoamine oxidase further clears excess serotonin, maintaining extracellular concentrations within a narrow range (typically 1–20 nM).^[54] This dynamic equilibrium ensures stable signaling across brain regions, with disruptions—such as genetic polymorphisms in TPH or SERT—altering steady-state levels and contributing to mood dysregulation.^[5] Circadian control modulates serotonin levels through clock gene regulation, aligning peaks with sleep-wake cycles. Expression of TPH2, essential for serotonin synthesis, exhibits rhythmic oscillations driven by core clock genes like Per1, Per2, and Rev-erbα in the suprachiasmatic nucleus and raphe nuclei, with peaks occurring during the active phase to support arousal and attention.^[55] These rhythms are influenced by glucocorticoid pulses, which synchronize peripheral clocks and enhance TPH2 transcription, ensuring serotonin availability correlates with diurnal behavioral demands. Disruptions in clock gene function can desynchronize serotonin rhythms, linking to sleep disorders.^[56] Stress modulation involves corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which upregulates SERT expression as part of the adaptive response to chronic stress. Activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis by CRH increases glucocorticoid release, which in turn elevates SERT mRNA and protein levels in regions like the dorsal raphe and hippocampus, enhancing serotonin clearance to mitigate prolonged signaling during stress.^[57] This upregulation helps restore homeostasis but can lead to reduced serotonergic tone if sustained, contributing to anxiety-like states.^[58]

Extracellular dynamics

Upon release into the synaptic cleft, serotonin undergoes rapid clearance primarily through reuptake mediated by the serotonin transporter (SERT), resulting in a short extracellular half-life of approximately 200 milliseconds in regions such as the substantia nigra reticulata.^[59] This swift clearance limits the duration of serotonin's presence in the immediate synaptic vicinity, with diffusion allowing the neurotransmitter to travel distances exceeding 20 micrometers from the release site before concentrations diminish significantly.^[60] Such dynamics ensure precise spatiotemporal control, preventing prolonged activation while permitting broader influence in certain neural circuits. In addition to classical synaptic transmission, serotonin engages in volume transmission, where it diffuses extrasynaptically to modulate distant targets, particularly in brain regions like the hippocampus.^[59] This mode of signaling, driven by spillover from the synaptic cleft, enables paracrine effects that contribute to neuromodulation beyond the confines of individual synapses, as observed in hippocampal circuits where diffuse serotonin release shapes network activity.^[61] Volume transmission is especially prominent in areas with lower SERT density, allowing sustained extrasynaptic gradients to influence postsynaptic excitability over larger volumes. Extracellular serotonin concentration profiles exhibit marked transients following release: peak levels in the synaptic cleft reach approximately 1 micromolar immediately post-exocytosis, rapidly decaying to baseline extracellular concentrations in the nanomolar range (typically 1-18 nM across brain regions like the striatum and frontal cortex).^[59]^[60] These profiles reflect the balance between vesicular release quanta and efficient removal mechanisms, with baseline levels maintained by ongoing low-level leakage and reuptake, ensuring tonic modulation without saturation of high-affinity receptors. Several factors influence these extracellular dynamics, including heteroexchange involving the dopamine transporter (DAT) and norepinephrine transporter (NET) during co-transmission scenarios, where serotonin can be displaced or exchanged with other monoamines in overlapping projection fields.^[62] Additionally, glial cells contribute to clearance via uptake through organic cation transporters (OCTs), particularly OCT3, which exhibits low-affinity, high-capacity transport of serotonin and helps buffer extracellular levels in astrocytic processes surrounding synapses.^[63]^[64] Reuptake kinetics are well-described by Michaelis-Menten enzyme models, where SERT operates with a Michaelis constant (Km) in the range of 0.2-1 micromolar, reflecting its high affinity for serotonin under physiological conditions.^[59]^[65] This saturation kinetics implies that at low extracellular concentrations, clearance is efficient and linear, but peaks near or above Km lead to temporary spillover, enhancing volume transmission as Vmax limits the rate of removal.

Physiological and Clinical Implications

Roles in the central nervous system

Serotonin plays a pivotal role in modulating various functions within the central nervous system (CNS), primarily through its actions on neurons originating from the raphe nuclei, which project widely across brain regions such as the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, and limbic structures. These projections influence emotional processing, behavioral states, and cognitive processes by altering neuronal excitability and synaptic plasticity via specific receptor subtypes, including 5-HT_1A and 5-HT_2A receptors. Dysregulation of serotonergic signaling in the CNS has been implicated in a range of neuropsychiatric conditions, highlighting its importance in maintaining neural homeostasis. In mood regulation, activation of 5-HT_1A receptors in the prefrontal cortex contributes to anxiety reduction by inhibiting excessive excitatory activity in anxiety-related circuits. Studies have shown that 5-HT_1A-mediated signaling in the medial prefrontal cortex during adolescence helps establish long-term anxiety setpoints, with disruptions leading to heightened vulnerability to mood disorders. Furthermore, serotonergic modulation via these receptors in layer II/III pyramidal neurons of the prefrontal cortex dampens anxiety-like behaviors by enhancing inhibitory tone. This mechanism underscores serotonin's role in balancing emotional responses through cortical-limbic interactions. Serotonergic projections from the raphe nuclei promote wakefulness and suppress rapid eye movement (REM) sleep by tonically activating downstream targets in arousal-promoting regions. Activation of dorsal raphe serotonergic neurons increases wakefulness duration while reducing REM sleep episodes, as evidenced by optogenetic studies demonstrating enhanced arousal states upon selective stimulation. Serotonin acting at 5-HT_1A, 5-HT_1B, and 5-HT_2A/2C receptors specifically inhibits REM sleep generation, preventing transitions into this state during the sleep-wake cycle. These effects are mediated by projections to brainstem and hypothalamic nuclei that regulate behavioral state control. In cognition, 5-HT_2A receptors in the cortex influence attention and memory consolidation by modulating synaptic efficacy in prefrontal and hippocampal networks. Post-training stimulation of 5-HT_2A receptors facilitates the consolidation of cued fear memories and object recognition, enhancing long-term retention through protein synthesis-dependent processes. These receptors are densely expressed in cortical layers involved in executive function, where they promote perceptual integration and attentional focus by altering gamma oscillations and interneuron activity. Such influences highlight serotonin's contribution to adaptive learning and cognitive flexibility. During neurodevelopment, early serotonin signaling shapes circuit formation via expression of the serotonin transporter (SERT), which regulates extracellular serotonin levels to guide axonal pathfinding and synaptogenesis. SERT modulates transient serotonin accumulation in the developing brain, influencing thalamocortical projections and barrel cortex organization, with disruptions leading to altered topographic precision. Perinatal serotonin dynamics, controlled by SERT, dynamically affect neuronal migration and connectivity in cortical and subcortical regions, establishing foundational networks for sensory and motor functions. This developmental role positions serotonin as a key trophic factor in CNS wiring. Low serotonin turnover, as measured by reduced cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) levels of 5-HIAA, correlates with increased risk for depression and impulsivity in various populations. In individuals with mood disorders, diminished CSF 5-HIAA reflects impaired serotonergic function in the frontal cortex, associating with depressive symptoms and heightened hostility. This biomarker also predicts impulsive aggression, where low central serotonin activity promotes behavioral disinhibition across clinical and non-clinical cohorts. These correlations emphasize the pathway's involvement in maintaining inhibitory control and emotional stability.

Peripheral functions

Approximately 95% of the body's serotonin is produced in the periphery, primarily by enterochromaffin cells in the gastrointestinal tract, where it acts as a key modulator of local physiological processes.^[66] This peripheral pool of serotonin is distinct from central nervous system synthesis and exerts paracrine and endocrine effects on various tissues. In the gastrointestinal system, serotonin is essential for regulating motility. It is released from enterochromaffin cells in response to mechanical and chemical stimuli, facilitating peristalsis through activation of 5-HT₄ receptors on presynaptic enteric neurons, which enhance acetylcholine release and smooth muscle contraction.^[67] This mechanism ensures coordinated propulsion of luminal contents, and disruptions in serotonergic signaling contribute to disorders of gut transit.^[68] Serotonin also plays a critical role in hemostasis via its actions on platelets. Stored in dense granules within platelets, it is rapidly released upon vascular injury, amplifying platelet aggregation and thrombus formation primarily through stimulation of 5-HT_2A receptors on the platelet surface, which potentiate responses to other agonists like thrombin and ADP.^[69] In the cardiovascular system, serotonin exerts potent effects on vascular tone. It induces vasoconstriction in pulmonary and systemic arterial smooth muscle cells via 5-HT_1B and 5-HT_2A receptors, promoting calcium influx and contraction.^[70] Elevated peripheral serotonin levels have been linked to pulmonary hypertension, where it contributes to arterial remodeling and increased vascular resistance through sustained receptor activation.^[71] Peripheral serotonin influences bone metabolism by inhibiting osteoblast activity. Gut-derived serotonin circulates to reach osteoblasts, where it binds to 5-HT_1B receptors, suppressing proliferation and differentiation while promoting apoptosis, thereby reducing bone formation and mass.^[72] This endocrine axis links intestinal serotonin production to skeletal homeostasis. Within the enteric nervous system, serotonin modulates sensory and reflex pathways. It activates 5-HT₃ receptors on vagal afferent nerve terminals in the gut mucosa, transmitting signals that initiate nausea and emetic reflexes in response to irritants or toxins.^[73] This vagally mediated pathway integrates gut sensory information with brainstem emetic centers. Emerging research as of November 2025 indicates that peripheral serotonin may play a role in cancer progression. Serotonin has been found to bind directly to DNA, activating genes involved in tumor growth in cancers such as brain, liver, and pancreatic. This mechanism suggests serotonin promotes oncogenesis, with potential implications for using serotonin-modulating drugs like selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) to limit tumor aggression and recurrence.^[74]

Therapeutic targeting

The serotonin pathway is a primary target for pharmacological interventions in various psychiatric and neuroendocrine disorders, with therapies modulating reuptake, receptor activity, and synthesis to alleviate symptoms.^[75] Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), such as sertraline, bind to the serotonin transporter (SERT) to block serotonin reuptake into presynaptic neurons, thereby prolonging its availability in the synaptic cleft and enhancing postsynaptic signaling.^[75] This mechanism increases serotonergic neurotransmission, which is particularly effective in treating major depressive disorder by reducing symptoms like low mood and anhedonia.^[76] Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), such as venlafaxine, extend this approach by inhibiting both SERT and the norepinephrine transporter, providing broader monoamine modulation for depression and anxiety disorders resistant to SSRIs alone.^[76] Agonists at the 5-HT_1A receptor, such as buspirone, exert anxiolytic effects by acting as partial agonists at both presynaptic autoreceptors and postsynaptic heteroreceptors, leading to desensitization of autoreceptors over time and enhanced serotonin release.^[77] This desensitization process accelerates the therapeutic onset for generalized anxiety disorder, distinguishing buspirone from SSRIs by its more direct receptor modulation without initial serotonergic overload.^[78] Antagonists of the 5-HT_2A receptor, including atypical antipsychotics like risperidone, mitigate positive symptoms of schizophrenia by blocking excessive serotonergic signaling that exacerbates dopaminergic hyperactivity in mesolimbic pathways.^[79] Risperidone's high affinity for 5-HT_2A receptors contributes to its efficacy in reducing hallucinations and delusions, often with fewer extrapyramidal side effects compared to typical antipsychotics.^[80] Inhibitors of tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH), the rate-limiting enzyme in serotonin biosynthesis, such as telotristat ethyl, target peripheral overproduction of serotonin in neuroendocrine tumors, reducing symptoms of carcinoid syndrome like diarrhea and flushing.^[81] By selectively inhibiting TPH1 in enterochromaffin cells, telotristat lowers circulating serotonin levels without significantly affecting central nervous system synthesis, offering a complementary option to somatostatin analogs in refractory cases.^[82] Emerging therapies leveraging 5-HT_2A receptor agonism, such as psilocybin in assisted psychotherapy, show promise for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) by promoting neuroplasticity and emotional processing through transient alterations in default mode network activity.^[83] Clinical trials indicate psilocybin-assisted sessions can yield rapid and sustained reductions in PTSD symptoms, particularly avoidance and hyperarousal, with effects lasting months post-treatment.^[84] Recent advances as of August 2025 have provided new structural insights into the 5-HT_1A receptor, revealing its inherent bias toward specific G-protein signaling pathways. This understanding supports the development of next-generation serotonergic drugs, including biased agonists and allosteric modulators, aimed at enhancing therapeutic efficacy for mood and anxiety disorders while minimizing side effects.^[85]

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Trytophan Hydroxylase Type I (TPH1), most abundantly expressed in the gastrointestinal tract, initiates the synthesis of serotonin by catalyzing hydroxylation ...
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Human aromatic amino acid decarboxylase is an asymmetric and ...
Aug 1, 2023 · Human aromatic amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) is a pyridoxal 5′‐phosphate‐dependent enzyme responsible for the biosynthesis of dopamine and serotonin.
[12]
Aromatic L-Amino Acid Decarboxylase Deficiency - NCBI - NIH
Oct 12, 2023 · Individuals with aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) deficiency typically have complex symptoms, including motor, behavioral, cognitive, and autonomic ...
[13]
Advances in Tryptophan Hydroxylase-2 Gene Expression Regulation
In this review, we summarize advances in TPH2 expression regulation and its relevance to the stress response and clinical implications.I. Tph2 Gene Expression And... · 1) Tph2 Expression At... · 2. Relevance Of Tph2...
[14]
Tryptophan Hydroxylase-2: An Emerging Therapeutic Target for ...
These findings suggest that TPH2 gene expression regulation contributes not only to central 5-HT neurotransmission, but also to peripheral 5-HT signaling, ...
[15]
Identification of a Novel Allosteric Inhibitory Site on Tryptophan ...
May 5, 2017 · Thus, inhibition of tryptophan hydroxylase 1 (TPH1), the rate limiting step in 5-HT synthesis, has been suggested as a more broad, and thereby ...
[16]
Development by environment interactions controlling tryptophan ...
The tph1 isoform is expressed in peripheral tissues, whereas tph2 is brain and neuron-specific. Recent studies suggest that tph2 expression and brain serotonin ...
[17]
TPH2 polymorphisms across the spectrum of psychiatric morbidity
May 19, 2018 · According to our meta-analysis, TPH2 polymorphisms show strongest associations with mood disorders, suicide (attempt) and schizophrenia.Missing: variations | Show results with:variations
[18]
Functional polymorphisms of the brain serotonin synthesizing ...
This paper will summarize some recent findings about TPH2, and focus on the functional analysis of TPH2 and its potential contribution to the dysregulation of ...
[19]
Monoamine oxidase inactivation: from pathophysiology to therapeutics
... (5-HTT), serotonin is degraded by MAO (monoamine oxidase) and ALDH (aldehyde dehydrogenase) into 5-hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid (5-HIAA). Figure 3. Synaptic ...Monoamine Oxidase... · 1. Introduction · Figure 3. Synaptic...
[20]
Serotonin (5‐Hydroxytryptamine): Metabolism, Signaling, Biological ...
5‐HT is metabolized mainly into 5‐hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5‐HIAA) [34]. This metabolic pathway involves the initial oxidation of 5‐HT by MAO‐A to generate the ...
[21]
5-HIAA as a Potential Biological Marker for Neurological and ...
The action of MAO is primarily responsible for the metabolism of serotonin and thereby forming 5 hydroxy indole acetaldehydes, which gets readily converted ...
[22]
The vesicular monoamine transporter 2 - PMC - NIH
This critical function is accomplished by the secondary active transport of neurotransmitters against their concentration gradient into synaptic vesicles (2).
[23]
q05940 · vmat2_human - UniProt
Uses the electrochemical proton gradient established by the V-type proton-pump ATPase to accumulate high concentrations of monoamines inside the vesicles prior ...
[24]
Molecular basis of vesicular monoamine transport and neurological ...
Monoamines are enriched by ∼10,000-fold in storage vesicles through the import by VMAT2, which is a proton antiporter driven by an outward proton gradient ...
[25]
Extrasynaptic exocytosis and its mechanisms: a source of molecules ...
Therefore, tens of thousands of somatic vesicles may fuse in response to a 20 Hz train lasting 0.5 s, with each vesicle containing 67,000 molecules of serotonin ...Missing: per | Show results with:per
[26]
Serotonin Neurons, Neuroplasticity, and Homeostasis of Neural Tissue
Aug 1, 1999 · It has been suggested that serotonin is localized to the small clear vesicles and peptides are concentrated in the dense core vesicles ( ...
[27]
The Neuronal Monoamine Transporter VMAT2 Is Regulated by ... - NIH
More importantly, both transporters are localized to large, dense-core vesicles (LDCV) as well as to small synaptic vesicles (SSV) within neurons or ...
[28]
Activity-Dependent Vesicular Monoamine Transporter-Mediated ...
Similar to synaptic release, somatodendritic release in serotonin neurons is mediated by calcium-induced vesicle exocytosis (de Kock et al., 2006) ...
[29]
Vesicle docking and fusion pore modulation by the neuronal calcium ...
Synaptotagmin-1 (Syt1) is a major calcium sensor for rapid neurotransmitter release in neurons and hormone release in many neuroendocrine cells.
[30]
Biofouling and performance of boron-doped diamond electrodes for ...
Serotonin is also stored in vesicles which contain, depending on localization, 28 000 – 34 000 serotonin molecules (exceptionally even 800 000 molecules) [35].
[31]
Quantal Release of Serotonin - ScienceDirect.com
We find that the transmitter amount released by a SSV varies proportionally to the volume of the vesicle, suggesting that serotonin is stored at a constant ...
[32]
Mechanosensory Signaling in Enterochromaffin Cells and 5-HT ...
Enterochromaffin (EC) cells synthesize 95% of the body 5-HT and release 5-HT in response to mechanical or chemical stimulation.
[33]
5‐HT secretion by enterochromaffin cells is a very touching story - NIH
EC cells release 5‐hydroxytryptamine (5‐HT) in response to mechanical and chemical stimuli. 5‐HT released from EC cells stimulates intestinal motor and ...
[34]
The N Terminus Specifies the Switch between Transport Modes of ...
The serotonin transporter (SERT) and other monoamine transporters operate in either a forward transport mode where the transporter undergoes a full transport ...
[35]
Amphetamines, new psychoactive drugs and the monoamine ...
Amphetamines target the vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT) and lead to either inhibition and/or reversal of the transport direction to increase the ...
[36]
Vesicular Transport Regulates Monoamine Storage and Release ...
The ability of amphetamine to induce dopamine release from VMAT2-deficient neurons also enabled us to assess the biological effects of nonvesicular release.
[37]
Structural studies of serotonin receptor family - PMC - PubMed Central
Oct 31, 2023 · This review focuses on the recent advancements in the structural studies of 5-HT receptors, highlighting the key structural features of each subtype.Introduction · Structures Of 5-Ht Receptor... · 5-Ht Receptor SubfamilyMissing: ionotropic | Show results with:ionotropic
[38]
Review: 5-HT1, 5-HT2, 5-HT3 and 5-HT7 Receptors and their Role ...
Based on pharmacological, structural, and transductional characteristics, the 5-HT receptor family is divided into seven subfamilies (5-HT1–5-HT7), comprising ...2.1. 5-Ht · 2.2. 5-Ht · 2.3. 5-HtMissing: ionotropic | Show results with:ionotropic
[39]
The discovery, structure, and function of 5-HTR1E serotonin receptor
Sep 18, 2023 · This major group is subdivided into 5 receptor subtypes named 5-HT1A, 5-HT1B, 5-HT1D, 5-HT1E and 5-HT1F. 5-HT1 receptors were initially grouped ...5-Htr1e Distribution · 5-Htr1e Pharmacology · 5-Htr1e Signaling Pathways
[40]
Serotonin receptor signaling and regulation via β-arrestins - PMC
While β-arrestins can play an integral role in the desensitization and internalization of the 5-HT2AR, their function may be influenced by the complement of ...
[41]
SLC6A4 solute carrier family 6 member 4 [ (human)] - NCBI
Aug 19, 2025 · This gene encodes an integral membrane protein that transports the neurotransmitter serotonin from synaptic spaces into presynaptic neurons.
[42]
p31645 · sc6a4_human - UniProt
Serotonin transporter that cotransports serotonin with one Na + ion in exchange for one K + ion and possibly one proton in an overall electroneutral transport ...
[43]
Multifaceted Regulations of the Serotonin Transporter - Frontiers
Feb 11, 2019 · The level of miR-16 is low in serotonergic neurons (1C115-HT cells or raphe nuclei), where SERT is expressed. In contrast, miR-16 is ...
[44]
Serotonin transport in the 21st century | Journal of General Physiology
Sep 30, 2019 · SERT requires extracellular Na+ and Cl− to transport 5-HT ... Platelet 5-hydroxytryptamine transport, an electroneutral mechanism coupled to ...20th Century Sert... · 21st Century Sert... · Following The Transport...
[45]
Structures and membrane interactions of native serotonin ... - PNAS
The serotonin transporter (SERT) removes serotonin ... transmembrane domains 11 and 12 that supports oligomer formation in the human serotonin transporter.
[46]
Serotonin Transporter Phosphorylation by cGMP-Dependent Protein ...
Oct 3, 2007 · SERT is regulated by multiple signal transduction pathways dependent on cAMP, cGMP, calmodulin, p38 mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase, and ...
[47]
The Serotonin Transporter Promoter Variant (5-HTTLPR), Stress ...
We found strong evidence that 5-HTTLPR moderates the relationship between stress and depression, with the s allele associated with an increased risk of ...
[48]
Pharmacological Characterization of 5-HT1A Autoreceptor-Coupled ...
Oct 13, 2015 · 5-HT1A autoreceptor-activated GIRK conductance was completely blocked by the nonselective inwardly rectifying potassium channels blocker Ba2+ ( ...
[49]
5-HT(1B) receptor regulation of serotonin (5-HT) release ... - PubMed
Jan 13, 2010 · Axonal release of serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) in the CNS is typically regulated by presynaptic 5-HT autoreceptors. Release of 5-HT ...
[50]
Early induction of rat brain tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH) mRNA ...
End-product inhibition of rate-limiting enzymes is common and 5-HT is known to inhibit TPH activity in vivo.
[51]
Serotonin synthesis, release and reuptake in terminals
Aug 19, 2010 · We construct a mathematical model of serotonin synthesis, release, and reuptake in a single serotonergic neuron terminal.
[52]
The Circadian Molecular Machinery in CNS Cells: A Fine Tuner of ...
Clock genes have been found to regulate the expression of genes implicated in the serotonergic pathway in a circadian manner. The Tph2 gene, encoding for the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[53]
Rapid-acting antidepressants and the circadian clock - Nature
Nov 27, 2021 · In this review we summarize recent evidence describing: (1) how the circadian clock is implicated in depression, (2) how clock genes may ...
[54]
Chronic social defeat up-regulates expression of the serotonin ...
The results showed that CSD up-regulated SERT protein levels in the DRN, hippocampus, frontal cortex and amygdala regions. This upregulation was abolished or ...Missing: CRH | Show results with:CRH
[55]
Social stress-induced serotonin dysfunction activates spexin ... - PNAS
Jan 9, 2023 · The present study shows that 5-HT is an upstream regulator of SPX1a and that the inhibited 5-HT activates SPX1a during social defeat.
[56]
Quantitative Evaluation of 5-Hydroxytryptamine (Serotonin ...
Jul 1, 1998 · In this study the hypothesis that 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) transmission is primarily extrasynaptic in the substantia nigra reticulata, a ...
[57]
Unfaithful neurotransmitter transporters: Focus on serotonin uptake ...
Serotonin is estimated to diffuse greater than 20 μm away from the synaptic cleft, where the concentration of 5-HT falls to the micromolar and nanomolar range ...
[58]
Effects of serotonin in the hippocampus: how SSRIs and multimodal ...
This suggests that in the hippocampus, as in other brain areas, 5-HT is released diffusely by volume transmission and acts more as a neuromodulator whose ...Missing: extrasynaptic | Show results with:extrasynaptic
[59]
Transport Reversal during Heteroexchange: A Kinetic Study - PMC
Experimentally, the reversal was shown for the glutamate transporters (for the review see [13]), GABA (reviewed by [12]), and for glial organic cation ...
[60]
Organic cation transporter 3: Keeping the brake on extracellular ...
Dec 2, 2008 · Here we demonstrate that expression of the organic cation transporter type 3 (OCT3, SLC22A3), which also transports 5-HT, is upregulated in the brains of mice.
[61]
Organic cation transporter 3 (OCT3) is localized to intracellular and ...
Sep 22, 2016 · OCT3 is a high-capacity, low-affinity transporter that mediates corticosterone-sensitive uptake of monoamines including norepinephrine, epinephrine, dopamine, ...
[62]
Quantitative Evaluation of 5-Hydroxytryptamine (Serotonin ...
This concentration is removed from the extracellular space with a time constant given byVmax/Km or 3.2/sec in the SNr, resulting in a half-life of ∼200 msec.Missing: reuptake | Show results with:reuptake
[63]
Identification of Three Antimicrobials Activating Serotonin Receptor ...
Dec 20, 2019 · In humans, 95% of serotonin (5-HT) is found in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, where release and reception of 5-HT transmits information from ...
[64]
Serotonergic Mechanisms Regulating the GI Tract - PubMed Central
The most well-studied intestinal receptors are 5-HT3 and 5-HT4. 5-HT4 receptors are localized to presynaptic enteric neurons while 5-HT3 receptors are localized ...
[65]
Activation of Colonic Mucosal 5-HT4 Receptors Accelerates ... - NIH
5-HT 4 receptors are expressed in the colonic epithelium and that 5-HT 4 R agonists can act intraluminally to increase motility and reduce visceral ...
[66]
Targeted inhibition of the serotonin 5HT2A receptor improves ... - NIH
Release of serotonin and activation of serotonin 5HT2A receptors on platelet surfaces is a potent augmentative stimulus for platelet aggregation.Fig. 1 · Fig. 3 · Template Bleeding Times And...
[67]
Reduction of the serotonin 5-HT1B and 5-HT2A receptor-mediated ...
Apr 24, 2020 · Serotonin induces both a vasoconstriction of pulmonary arteries (PAs) mainly via 5-HT1B and 5-HT2A receptors (5-HT1BRs and 5-HT2ARs) and ...
[68]
The serotonin hypothesis in pulmonary hypertension revisited
Feb 22, 2018 · Increased synthesis of serotonin and/or activity of serotonin in pulmonary arteries has been implicated in the pathobiology of pulmonary arterial hypertension ...
[69]
Lrp5 controls bone formation by inhibiting serotonin synthesis in the ...
Serotonin acts on osteoblasts through the Htr1b receptor and CREB to inhibit their proliferation. By identifying duodenum-derived serotonin as a hormone ...
[70]
Therapeutics of 5-HT3 Receptor Antagonists: Current Uses and ...
Released 5-HT binds to 5-HT3 receptors on vagal afferents in the gastric mucosa, which project to the dorsal vagal complex of the vomiting center (Andrews et al ...
[71]
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
May 1, 2023 · As the name suggests, SSRIs exert action by inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin, thereby increasing serotonin activity.
[72]
Antidepressants - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
SSRIs are currently the first-line agents for the treatment of depression. ... SNRIs differ in their affinity for the serotonin and norepinephrine transporter.
[73]
Modifying 5-HT1A Receptor Gene Expression as a New Target for ...
In contrast to pindolol, buspirone functions as strong 5-HT1A partial agonist that can specifically desensitize 5-HT1A autoreceptors (Sim-Selley et al., 2000) ...
[74]
Targeting Serotonin1A Receptors for Treating Chronic Pain and ...
Buspirone is an FDA- approved prescription medication for treating depression and anxiety. It is an agonist for 5-HT1A heteroreceptors as well autoreceptors ...
[75]
Atypical Antipsychotics and Inverse Agonism at 5-HT2 Receptors
The first drugs approved to treat schizophrenia and diminish psychosis were traditionally dopamine antagonists. Of these “typical” or “first generation” ...
[76]
Risperidone - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Risperidone is an antipsychotic medication approved for the treatment of various conditions, including schizophrenia, bipolar I disorder with acute manic or ...
[77]
Telotristat ethyl: a novel agent for the therapy of carcinoid syndrome ...
Jan 19, 2018 · Telotristat ethyl is a novel inhibitor of tryptophan hydroxylase, the rate-limiting enzyme in serotonin biosynthesis. Administration of the drug decreases ...
[78]
Inhibition of Peripheral Synthesis of Serotonin as a New Target in ...
Telotristat etiprate is a potent inhibitor of the peripheral synthesis of serotonin that blocks the rate-limiting step involving the TPH enzyme. TELESTAR is a ...Missing: product | Show results with:product
[79]
Reviewing the Potential of Psychedelics for the Treatment of PTSD
In this article, we review the potential of 4 types of psychedelic compounds: 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), ketamine, classical psychedelics (e.g., ...
[80]
The Psychedelic Future of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Treatment
Initial clinical trials have demonstrated the potential value of psychedelic-assisted therapy to treat PTSD and other psychiatric disorders. In this ...