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Swelling index

The term "swelling index" refers to various standardized tests measuring volume increase due to swelling in different materials and fields, including clay minerals in geotechnical engineering, coking coals in coal science, and excipients like bentonite in pharmaceuticals (see sections below for details). In the context of soil mechanics, it quantifies the swelling capacity of clay minerals, particularly smectite clays like bentonite, by measuring the volume increase of a hydrated clay suspension in water. It is performed by dispersing 2 grams of finely ground, oven-dried clay in 100 mL of reagent-grade water within a graduated cylinder, allowing it to hydrate undisturbed for 16 to 24 hours, and recording the settled volume at the clay-water interface, expressed in milliliters per 2 grams of clay. This method, outlined in ASTM D5890-25, provides a rapid assessment of the clay's potential to form a low-permeability gel structure upon hydration, serving as a key quality indicator for industrial applications.^[1] In geotechnical and environmental engineering, the swelling index is essential for evaluating bentonite's effectiveness in geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs), which are used as hydraulic barriers in landfills, mining impoundments, and containment systems to prevent leachate migration. High swell index values, typically a minimum of 24 mL/2 g for sodium bentonite in GCLs when tested in distilled water, ensure adequate sealing performance by promoting interlayer expansion and reducing hydraulic conductivity to levels below 10^{-9} m/s under confinement. The test's significance lies in its correlation with the clay's montmorillonite content and cation exchange capacity, where sodium-exchanged bentonites exhibit superior swelling compared to calcium-based variants.^[2]^[3] Beyond GCLs, the swelling index guides the selection of bentonite for drilling fluids in oil and gas operations, where it helps maintain borehole stability by sealing porous formations, and for foundry applications, where controlled swelling aids in sand mold integrity. Factors influencing the index include water chemistry—such as salinity or pH, which can reduce swelling in high-ionic-strength solutions—and particle size distribution, with finer particles yielding higher values. While the test is simple and cost-effective, it is an index rather than a direct predictor of in-situ behavior, often complemented by fluid loss tests (ASTM D5891) and permeability assessments for comprehensive evaluation.^[4]^[5]

Soil Mechanics

Definition and Significance

In soil mechanics, the free swell index (FSI) quantifies the swelling potential of fine-grained soils, especially expansive clays containing minerals like montmorillonite, by measuring the unconstrained percentage increase in volume upon immersion in water relative to a non-polar liquid such as kerosene. Defined per Indian Standard IS 2720 (Part 40):1977 (reaffirmed 2021) as \text{FSI} = \frac{V_d - V_k}{V_k} \times 100, where V_d is the volume in distilled water and V_k in kerosene, it serves as an initial screening tool for identifying soils prone to volume changes due to moisture fluctuations. Soils are classified based on FSI: low potential (<20%), moderate (20–35%), and high (>35%), guiding geotechnical designs to prevent structural damage from heaving or settlement in arid or semi-arid regions.^[6]^[7] This index is distinct from one-dimensional swelling parameters like the consolidation swelling index C_s, focusing instead on volumetric behavior under zero confinement.

Measurement Procedure

The measurement procedure for the free swell index (FSI) of soils follows standardized laboratory protocols designed to quantify volume change upon water immersion without external constraints. The primary method is outlined in the Indian Standard IS 2720 (Part 40):1977, which specifies using two parallel tests with non-swelling (kerosene) and swelling (distilled water) liquids to isolate the soil's intrinsic swelling behavior.^[6] An equivalent approach is provided in ASTM D4546 (Method A), which measures free swell strain under zero load for cohesive soils, though it emphasizes one-dimensional deformation rather than volumetric index.^[8] To prepare the sample, oven-dry approximately 10 g of soil at 105–110°C to constant mass, then sieve it through a 425 μm sieve to ensure fine-grained material suitable for uniform dispersion; this step removes coarser particles that could skew volume measurements. For highly swelling soils like sodium bentonites, use 5 g samples or 250 ml cylinders to avoid overflow. Transfer two separate 10 g portions of the oven-dried soil into 100 mL graduated cylinders. Fill one cylinder with distilled water and the other with kerosene to the 100 mL mark, using a glass rod to stir gently and remove entrapped air bubbles for even settling. Allow both setups to stand undisturbed for 24 hours or until the soil reaches equilibrium volume at room temperature (20–25°C). Record the final volumes as V_d (with water) and V_k (with kerosene) at the top of the settled soil column. The FSI is then calculated as \text{FSI} = \frac{V_d - V_k}{V_k} \times 100.^[6]^[7] Required equipment includes an analytical balance accurate to 0.01 g, a drying oven set to 105–110°C, a 425 μm IS sieve, two 100 mL graduated cylinders, distilled water, and odorless kerosene free of water content.^[6] For enhanced precision, perform the test in triplicate and average the results, as variability in soil dispersion can affect reproducibility.^[9] Key precautions involve conducting the test at ambient room temperature to avoid thermal influences on swelling, thoroughly degassing liquids to prevent air entrapment, and ensuring the soil fully disperses without clumping by gentle agitation if needed post-immersion. Incomplete soaking or contamination can lead to erroneous volumes, so verify equilibrium by observing no further change after 24 hours.^[6]^[7] For finer soils prone to rapid settling or incomplete suspension in cylinders, a modified free swell test uses a 100 mL volumetric flask pre-filled with distilled water; 10 cm³ of dry soil (passing No. 36 BS sieve, equivalent to ~0.425 mm) is slowly introduced to measure displacement-based swell, adapting the method for better control in cohesive clays.^[10]

Applications and Limitations

The free swell index (FSI) serves as a critical parameter in geotechnical engineering for assessing expansive soil behavior, guiding decisions on foundation depth to mitigate differential settlement and heaving. In regions with high FSI values, engineers recommend deeper foundations or post-tensioned slabs to bypass active swelling zones, ensuring structural stability.^[8] Additionally, FSI informs soil stabilization strategies, such as lime treatment, which can reduce the index by approximately 50% in high-plasticity clays by altering clay mineralogy and reducing water affinity.^[11] In pavement design, elevated FSI values help predict subgrade cracking and rutting under moisture fluctuations, prompting the use of geosynthetics or chemical amendments to limit volume changes.^[12] Regulatory frameworks in expansive soil-prone areas, such as those outlined in Texas building codes, mandate FSI testing for compliance to prevent infrastructure failures.^[13] Notable case studies underscore the practical implications of FSI in civil engineering. In the 1980s, widespread residential foundation failures in Texas, particularly in Dallas and surrounding counties, were linked to overlooked high FSI in expansive clays, resulting in billions in damages from heaving and cracking; a 1974 survey alone documented over 8,000 affected homes, with trends persisting into the decade due to rapid urbanization on untreated sites.^[14] These incidents highlighted the need for integrated assessments combining FSI with Atterberg limits to evaluate overall shrink-swell potential, leading to revised design protocols that incorporate site-specific remediation.^[15] Despite its utility, the FSI test has notable limitations that restrict its standalone application. It measures unconstrained volume increase but does not quantify swelling pressure, necessitating complementary oedometer tests for load-bearing evaluations under confined conditions.^[16] Results can be skewed by sample disturbance during collection or preparation, which alters soil structure and underestimates potential in remolded specimens.^[17] Furthermore, FSI is primarily relevant for clayey soils with montmorillonite content; values below 5% in non-clayey or low-plasticity materials indicate negligible expansiveness and offer little diagnostic value.^[18] Recent advancements in the 2020s have enhanced FSI's role through correlations with geographic information systems (GIS) for site-specific risk mapping. By integrating FSI data with geological surveys and remote sensing, engineers can delineate expansive soil zones at a regional scale, facilitating proactive mitigation in urban planning; for instance, Louisiana's 2021 assessments used such models to prioritize high-risk properties based on swelling potential and economic vulnerability.^[19] This approach improves accuracy over traditional point sampling, supporting sustainable infrastructure development in expansive terrains.^[20]

Coal Science

Definition and Measurement

The free swelling index (FSI), also known as the crucible swelling index (CSI) or crucible swelling number (CSN), is an empirical measure of a coal's tendency to swell and form a coherent coke residue during carbonization in the absence of air and without applied pressure. It provides a visual assessment of the coal's caking propensity on a scale from 0 to 9, where higher values indicate greater swelling and stronger coke formation potential, essential for evaluating suitability in metallurgical applications.^[21] The measurement follows standardized procedures outlined in ASTM D720/D720M and ISO 501, with minor differences in heating profiles. A sample of approximately 1 g of air-dried coal, crushed to pass a 212 μm (ASTM uses 250 μm) sieve, is weighed into a standard silica crucible (typically 17 mL capacity with a ring-handled lid). For the gas heating method per ASTM D720, the crucible is heated using a Bunsen burner assembly to reach 800 ± 10 °C in 1½ minutes and 820 ± 5 °C in 2½ minutes, continuing until the volatile matter flame dies out (at least 2½ minutes total). The electric method uses a preheated furnace adjusted to approximate this heating profile, with the furnace maintained at around 800 °C. ISO 501 specifies heating the covered crucible to 850 ± 10 °C within 4 ± 0.5 minutes. After cooling, the lid is removed, and the shape and size of the resulting coke "button" are visually compared to a set of nine standard profiles to assign the FSI value. For example, an FSI of 1 corresponds to a powdery residue with no swelling, while 9 indicates strong, well-rounded spheres with significant expansion. Intermediate values, such as 4.5, represent slight swelling forming a lenticular shape.^[21]^[22] The FSI is influenced by coal composition, particularly volatile matter content, with optimal swelling typically occurring in coals having 20-35% volatile matter on a dry, ash-free basis, as this range promotes sufficient plasticity during pyrolysis. The test's scale allows for half-unit increments (e.g., 2.5, 3.5) to capture nuanced differences in residue morphology. Historically, the crucible swelling test originated in the United Kingdom in the early 1930s as a simple indicator of coking behavior and was formalized by the British Standards Institution in the 1940s; it was further refined in the post-World War II era through international standardization to support global coking coal assessment.^[23]^[22]

Interpretation of Results

The Free Swelling Index (FSI) values obtained from coal analysis are classified to assess caking propensity and suitability for coke production. Coals with FSI ranging from 0 to 1.5 are categorized as non-caking, exhibiting negligible swelling and no fusion into coherent structures during heating. Values between 2 and 4.5 indicate weakly caking coals with limited expansion and partial agglomeration. FSI exceeding 5 signifies strongly caking coals, demonstrating substantial swelling and strong binding potential. This classification system aligns closely with the Roga index, where higher FSI values predict enhanced caking reliability across coal types, aiding in consistent quality evaluation.^[24]^[25] FSI interpretation is influenced by inherent coal properties, particularly rank and composition. Bituminous coals, at an intermediate rank, yield the highest FSI due to optimal thermoplastic behavior during carbonization, whereas low-rank lignites and high-rank anthracites show minimal values from insufficient plasticity. Petrographic factors, such as vitrinite content above 40%, elevate FSI by promoting fusible reactive macerals that enhance swelling volume. In contrast, elevated moisture impedes heat transfer and vaporization, lowering FSI, while high ash content dilutes organic reactive material, suppressing caking tendencies.^[23]^[26]^[27] FSI results are compared to complementary metrics for broader caking assessment. Strong correlations exist with the Gray-King coke type test, where elevated FSI aligns with advanced coke grades (e.g., type G), indicating coherent, low-porosity residues. An FSI above 6 particularly signals robust potential for blast furnace coke, as it ensures sufficient strength and permeability in metallurgical applications.^[23]^[28] Regional data exemplify these interpretations. Appalachian bituminous coals typically average FSI of 4 to 7, underscoring their viability for blending in coking operations. Low-rank lignites, however, consistently score below 2, reflecting poor caking and restricting them to thermal uses.^[29]

Industrial Applications

The Free Swelling Index (FSI) is primarily utilized in the coal industry for selecting coking coals suitable for steelmaking, where coals with an FSI greater than 4 are typically required to comprise at least 70% of blends to achieve the necessary caking and strength properties for high-quality coke production.^[30]^[28] Additionally, FSI measurements help predict oven wall pressure generated during carbonization, enabling operators to adjust blends and avoid structural damage to coke ovens by limiting excessive swelling that could exceed safe pressure thresholds of around 0.11 kg/cm².^[31] Economically, coals with high FSI values command significant premiums—often 20-50% higher than lower-quality alternatives—due to their enhanced coking performance, which reduces production costs in steel mills.^[32] FSI data is also incorporated into specialized coal blending software, which optimizes mixtures for target coke quality parameters like strength and reactivity while minimizing expenses.^[33] In prominent case studies, Australian export coals exhibiting FSI values of 6-8 have dominated global premium hard coking coal markets, accounting for roughly half of seaborne supply and supporting major steel production hubs in Asia.^[34]^[35] During the 2010s, industry trends shifted toward greater use of Pulverized Coal Injection (PCI) coals with lower FSI (typically below 3), as steelmakers increased PCI rates to 170-200 kg per ton of hot metal to displace up to 40% of traditional coke requirements and improve blast furnace efficiency.^[36]^[37] Emerging trends involve integrating artificial intelligence for real-time FSI prediction from chemical analyses, such as proximate and ultimate compositions, achieving prediction accuracies up to R² = 0.94 and streamlining quality assessments without physical testing.^[24] Environmental regulations are increasingly favoring low-swelling coals (low FSI) to support decarbonization in steelmaking, as they enable higher PCI adoption that reduces overall coke usage and associated CO₂ emissions by up to 0.5 tons per ton of steel produced.^[38]^[39]

Pharmaceuticals

Definition and Testing

In pharmaceuticals, the swelling index quantifies the hydrophilic capacity of materials such as excipients or herbal powders by measuring the volume of liquid absorbed per unit mass. It is defined as the volume in milliliters occupied by 1 gram of the substance, including any adhering mucilage, after swelling in an aqueous medium under standardized conditions. This metric is particularly relevant for evaluating mucilaginous or gel-forming components in drug formulations and herbal drugs.^[40]^[41] The swelling index (SI) is calculated using the formula \text{SI} = \frac{V_s}{m_d}, where V_s is the settled volume of the swollen material after the specified time and m_d is the dry mass of the sample (typically 1 g). This provides a direct measure of water uptake efficiency, expressed in ml/g.^[41] To determine the swelling index, 1 g of the coarsely powdered sample is placed in a 25-ml glass-stoppered graduated cylinder, moistened if necessary with a small volume of alcohol (e.g., 1 ml of 70% ethanol), and dispersed in 25 ml of water or the specified solvent. The mixture is shaken vigorously at intervals (e.g., every 10 minutes) for the first hour, then allowed to stand undisturbed for 3 additional hours at approximately 25°C. The volume of the settled swollen material is then measured, and the test is repeated at least three times to obtain the mean value. This procedure aligns with standards such as Ph. Eur. 2.8.4 and the World Health Organization's guidelines for medicinal plant materials (1998), though USP <561> primarily addresses other quality tests for botanicals and does not detail this method.^[40]^[41] Typical swelling index values vary by material type: starches generally exhibit values of 5–10 ml/g, reflecting moderate hydration, while gums can reach up to 100 ml/g due to their high mucilage content. For herbal materials like psyllium husk (Plantago ovata), the SI is approximately 40–50 ml/g, qualifying it for laxative formulations. Note that for synthetic superdisintegrants like crospovidone, swelling is often reported as percentage volume increase (e.g., up to 65% v/v), using modified tests rather than the standard pharmacopoeial procedure; direct ml/g values can exceed 10 ml/g in aqueous media. These distinctions highlight the index's utility in selecting components for controlled release or fast-dissolving formulations.^[41]^[42] The swelling index method was standardized in the 1990s through pharmacopoeial updates and WHO guidelines to ensure quality control in herbal medicines, with particular emphasis on traditional systems like Ayurveda where it evaluates efficacy of swelling agents in herbal powders. Unlike broader material science contexts such as soil or coal, pharmaceutical applications emphasize absorption for drug delivery enhancement. The pharmacopoeial SI applies primarily to herbal and natural excipients; for synthetic polymers and hydrogels, related swelling properties are measured via weight or volume percentage increases.^[41]^[43]

Factors Influencing Swelling

Several factors influence the swelling behavior of pharmaceutical materials, particularly polymers used as excipients in drug formulations. Note that while the pharmacopoeial swelling index (SI, ml/g) is standard for herbal powders, synthetic materials often use percentage swelling (% increase in volume or weight) via different methods, such as immersion and weight measurement. Particle size plays a significant role, with finer particles enhancing water uptake due to increased surface area and faster diffusion, leading to higher equilibrium swelling values in nanostructured hydrogels such as polyacrylamide-based systems.^[44] The pH of the medium is another critical variable; for anionic polymers like poly(methacrylic acid-co-acrylamide), acidic conditions (pH 1.0–3.0) reduce swelling by protonating carboxylic groups and minimizing electrostatic repulsion, while neutral to basic pH (6.2–7.4) promotes ionization and substantial swelling.^[45] Temperature also affects swelling, with higher values up to 37°C (simulating body conditions) accelerating chain mobility and increasing the equilibrium swelling ratio in pH-sensitive hydrogel composites.^[45] Material-specific properties further modulate swelling. Higher cross-linking density in polymers restricts chain expansion and water penetration, reducing swelling; for instance, in ester-bridged β-cyclodextrin nanosponges, water absorption capacity drops from 1526% at low cross-linker ratios to 174% at higher densities due to a denser network structure.^[46] Ionic strength of the swelling medium similarly impacts swelling, particularly for hydrogels, where elevated salt concentrations screen charges and decrease osmotic pressure; in saline (0.9% NaCl), this can substantially lower swelling compared to deionized water.^[45] A representative example is sodium alginate-based hydrogels, which exhibit a maximum absorption of 862 g/g in water but only 164 g/g in 0.9% NaCl, demonstrating a pronounced reduction due to ionic interactions (measured as weight-based capacity, not volume SI).^[47] Interactions among components and preparation conditions also influence swelling. In tablet matrices, synergies between excipients like sodium carboxymethylcellulose and other polymers can enhance swelling by promoting greater hydration and gel formation, as observed in formulations where increasing polymer content raised swelling in deionized water.^[48] Pre-test moisture content affects the baseline swelling, with higher initial moisture from storage conditions inducing swelling and altering excipient stability in pharmaceutical particles. Recent 2020s studies highlight nanoparticle effects, such as in poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) microparticles, where particle size influences swelling (49–83% over 30 days in PBS at 37°C), enabling tailored swelling for controlled drug delivery.^[49]

Role in Drug Formulation

The swelling index serves as a critical parameter in selecting superdisintegrants for fast-dissolving tablets, where high values indicate superior water uptake and rapid disintegration. For instance, superdisintegrants like croscarmellose sodium (CCS) and sodium starch glycolate (SSG) exhibit swelling capacities exceeding 700% in simulated saliva, facilitating tablet breakup within 15 minutes or less, ensuring prompt drug release in oral cavity conditions (measured as % volume increase).^[50] This selection process prioritizes agents that promote wicking and swelling mechanisms to achieve disintegration times under 10-15 minutes, as required for immediate-release formulations.^[51] In controlled-release systems, swelling properties help optimize excipient blends to balance matrix swelling and erosion, thereby modulating drug release profiles. Moderate swelling, such as that observed in hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC)-based matrices, allows for sustained hydration without excessive erosion, enabling zero-order kinetics over extended periods.^[52] For quality control in herbal extracts, the swelling index (ml/g) evaluates efficacy; psyllium husk (Plantago ovata), with a swelling index of approximately 40–50 ml/g, is qualified for laxative formulations due to its ability to form bulky gels that enhance intestinal transit.^[41] High swelling in such excipients also predicts mucoadhesive potential in gels, where increased hydration correlates with prolonged adhesion to mucosal surfaces for localized delivery.^[53] Regulatory guidelines from the FDA and EMA mandate comprehensive characterization of excipients, including physicochemical properties like swelling index or capacity, to qualify them for pharmaceutical use and ensure consistent performance (as of 2023 EMA revision).^[54]^[55] Elevated swelling can accelerate drug onset by enhancing disintegration and dissolution, thereby improving bioavailability in immediate-release products.^[56] Recent innovations in the 2020s have incorporated swelling optimization in 3D-printed dosage forms, where controlled polymer swelling influences printability and release uniformity. In one case involving metformin hydrochloride tablets, formulation adjustments targeting swelling behavior reduced inter-batch variability in drug release by up to 25%, demonstrating improved manufacturing precision.^[57] Factors such as pH can modulate these effects, with higher indices often observed in neutral environments.^[58]

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[PDF] Guideline on Excipients in the Dossier for Application for Marketing ...
This guideline is applicable to all excipients in medicinal products for human use, in the context of applications for marketing authorisations or variations ...Missing: FDA index qualification
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FDA-Approved Natural Polymers for Fast Dissolving Tablets - NIH
Disintegrants are an essential component to tablet formulations. The ability to interact strongly with water is essential to disintegrate function. Combination ...1. Introduction · 4. Natural Polymers Used In... · 7. Natural Polymers Used In...Missing: selecting | Show results with:selecting<|control11|><|separator|>
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Swelling index profiles of 3D-printed films (a): F-HG and F-HG-MSN ...
Swelling index profiles of 3D-printed films (a): F-HG and F-HG-MSN-CP (n = 3, mean ± SD). Appearance of the F-HG-MSN-CP after 30 min (b).
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[PDF] Characterization of Psyllium (Plantago ovata) Polysaccharide and its ...
Swelling Index: Swelling behaviour of PPS as a function of pH was studied. It was allowed to swell for 24 h in solutions of different pH such as 0.1 N HCl ...