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Temporomandibular joint dysfunction

Temporomandibular joint dysfunction (TMD), also known as temporomandibular disorder, refers to a group of musculoskeletal conditions that affect the temporomandibular joint (TMJ)—the hinge connecting the jawbone to the skull—and the surrounding muscles and ligaments, resulting in pain, impaired jaw movement, and functional limitations.^[1] These disorders encompass issues like myofascial pain in the jaw muscles, internal derangement of the joint (such as disc displacement), and degenerative joint diseases including osteoarthritis or rheumatoid arthritis.^[2] Symptomatic TMD affects 5% to 12% of the U.S. population, with a higher prevalence among women aged 20 to 40, though many cases are asymptomatic and only a subset require clinical intervention.^[3]^[1]^[4] The hallmark symptoms of TMD include pain or tenderness in the jaw, face, or temporomandibular joint, often exacerbated by chewing or speaking, along with clicking, popping, or grating sounds during jaw movement (crepitus).^[2] Additional manifestations may involve headaches (particularly tension-type or migraines), earaches without infection, dizziness, tinnitus, and limited ability to open the mouth or lockjaw in severe cases.^[3] These symptoms can significantly impact daily activities like eating and speaking, and they often overlap with other conditions such as fibromyalgia or sleep disturbances.^[1] The etiology of TMD is multifactorial, involving a combination of trauma (e.g., jaw injury), biomechanical factors (e.g., teeth grinding or clenching known as bruxism), psychological stress leading to muscle tension, and systemic conditions like arthritis or connective tissue diseases.^[2] Risk factors include poor posture, habits like gum chewing or nail-biting, and genetic predispositions, though the exact cause is often difficult to pinpoint in individual cases.^[3] Diagnosis typically relies on a thorough clinical history and physical examination assessing jaw range of motion and tenderness, supplemented by imaging such as panoramic X-rays, CT scans, or MRI for soft tissue evaluation when needed.^[1] Management of TMD emphasizes conservative, noninvasive approaches, with most cases improving through self-care measures like applying heat or ice, maintaining a soft diet, and stress reduction techniques.^[1] Pharmacologic options include nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), muscle relaxants, or tricyclic antidepressants for pain control, while therapies such as physical therapy, oral splints (mouth guards), and behavioral modifications address underlying muscle imbalances.^[3] In refractory cases, minimally invasive procedures like arthrocentesis or, rarely, open-joint surgery may be considered, but surgery is generally a last resort due to potential complications.^[2] The prognosis is generally favorable, with many individuals experiencing remission or significant relief within weeks to months of treatment.^[1]

Classification

Definitions and Terminology

Temporomandibular disorders (TMDs) are a collective term encompassing a group of over 30 musculoskeletal conditions that involve pain and dysfunction in the temporomandibular joint (TMJ), the masticatory muscles, and associated head and neck structures.^[5]^[6] These disorders affect the normal function of the jaw, leading to impaired chewing, speaking, and jaw movement.^[7] The terminology distinguishes "TMJ," which refers specifically to the anatomical hinge connecting the lower jaw to the skull, from "TMD," the preferred umbrella term for the broader set of disorders impacting the joint and surrounding tissues.^[6] The American Dental Association adopted "TMD" in 1983 to better describe the multifaceted pathologies beyond isolated joint issues.^[8] This shift emphasizes that TMD is not a single diagnosis but requires specification of the particular condition, such as myofascial pain.^[6] Historically, the nomenclature evolved from "TMJ syndrome" or "TMJ disease," terms prevalent in the mid-20th century focusing primarily on joint pathology, to "TMD" in the 1980s and 1990s to acknowledge the multifactorial and evidence-based understanding of these conditions.^[9]^[10] This change, endorsed by organizations like the American Dental Association and the National Institutes of Health, moved away from unsubstantiated mechanical theories toward a biopsychosocial model that includes muscular and neural involvement.^[10] The updated terminology better reflects the complexity revealed by advancing research during that period.^[6] TMD can present in acute or chronic forms, with acute TMD characterized by recent-onset pain often without structural damage, and chronic TMD defined as pain or dysfunction persisting beyond three months.^[6] This basic distinction aids in initial assessment but does not imply specific etiologies.^[10]

Classification by Etiology

Temporomandibular joint dysfunction (TMD) is classified by etiology primarily through the Diagnostic Criteria for Temporomandibular Disorders (DC/TMD) system, which differentiates conditions based on their origin in muscular or joint structures to guide clinical diagnosis and management.^[11] This approach divides TMD into intra-articular disorders, involving pathology within the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) itself, and extra-articular disorders, affecting the surrounding masticatory muscles or soft tissues.^[12] Intra-articular TMD encompasses joint-related issues such as disc displacements and degenerative diseases, where the etiology stems from structural alterations or inflammatory processes in the TMJ.^[13] In contrast, extra-articular TMD arises from muscular origins, often due to overuse, trauma, or tension in the muscles of mastication.^[12] This distinction influences treatment strategies, with intra-articular cases potentially requiring imaging or surgical evaluation, while extra-articular ones focus on conservative muscular therapies.^[11] Within these categories, TMD is further subdivided into myogenous (muscle-predominant) and arthrogenous (joint-predominant) subtypes, as outlined in the DC/TMD Axis I, which provides validated diagnostic criteria for physical conditions.^[11] Myogenous TMD, the most prevalent form, includes subtypes like myofascial pain, characterized by pain referral within or beyond muscle boundaries upon palpation, often accounting for a significant portion of cases in clinical settings.^[12] Arthrogenous TMD, on the other hand, features joint pathology such as osteoarthritis, identified by crepitus and confirmed via imaging, representing degenerative etiologies that may progress if untreated.^[13] The DC/TMD framework also incorporates Axis II for psychosocial factors, such as stress or psychological distress, which can exacerbate etiological influences but are assessed separately from physical diagnoses.^[11] This etiology-based classification ensures a multidimensional approach, prioritizing the primary causative site to tailor interventions effectively.^[14]

Classification by Duration

Temporomandibular joint dysfunction (TMD) is classified by duration to reflect its temporal progression, which influences clinical management and prognosis. Acute TMD is defined by a sudden onset of symptoms lasting less than three months and is frequently associated with identifiable triggers such as trauma.^[15]^[12] This phase typically involves localized pain and dysfunction that may respond well to initial interventions, highlighting the importance of early identification to prevent escalation. Definitions of duration thresholds may vary, with some sources using six months, but three months is commonly applied in TMD pain classification.^[6] A transitional period may occur as symptoms persist between one and three months, where ongoing monitoring is essential, as unresolved issues can contribute to the development of more entrenched patterns. In contrast, chronic TMD persists beyond three months and often becomes self-perpetuating through mechanisms like central sensitization, where the central nervous system amplifies pain signals, leading to heightened sensitivity and broader symptom involvement.^[16]^[17] The implications of this classification lie in its guidance for reversibility and care strategies. Acute TMD frequently resolves with conservative measures such as self-care and physical therapy, achieving relief in 50-90% of cases.^[18] Chronic TMD, however, often necessitates a multidisciplinary approach involving dental, psychological, and rehabilitative expertise to address its complex, persistent nature.^[12] This temporal framework complements etiological classifications by emphasizing the evolution of symptoms over time.

Anatomy and Physiology

Temporomandibular Joint Structure

The temporomandibular joint (TMJ) is a bilateral synovial joint that connects the mandible to the temporal bone of the skull, facilitating jaw movements essential for mastication and speech.^[19] It is classified as a ginglymoarthrodial joint, combining hinge-like rotation and sliding translation.^[20] The bony components of the TMJ consist of the mandibular condyle inferiorly and the temporal bone superiorly. The mandibular condyle forms the inferior articular surface, measuring approximately 15-20 mm transversely and 8-10 mm anteroposteriorly, with a convex shape that articulates variably based on individual morphology.^[19] Superiorly, the temporal bone contributes the glenoid fossa, a concave depression in the squamous portion that is wider mediolaterally than anteroposteriorly, bounded posteriorly by the postglenoid process and anteriorly by the articular eminence, a bony prominence that guides condylar movement.^[19]^[20] Interposed between these bony surfaces is the articular disc, also known as the meniscus, a fibrocartilaginous structure that divides the joint into superior and inferior compartments. This biconcave, oval disc is about 2 mm thick anteriorly and 3 mm posteriorly, with a thinner intermediate zone, and attaches medially and laterally to the condyle via collateral ligaments while partially fusing with the joint capsule.^[19]^[21] The disc's composition, primarily of dense collagen fibers arranged in anteroposterior bundles, allows it to absorb shock, distribute loads, and maintain smooth articulation by adapting to condylar contours.^[20] Stability of the TMJ is provided by several ligaments that reinforce the joint capsule. The temporomandibular ligament, the primary lateral stabilizer, thickens the capsule with its outer oblique fibers limiting excessive mouth opening and inner horizontal fibers restricting posterior condylar translation.^[21]^[20] Accessory ligaments include the sphenomandibular, extending from the sphenoid spine to the lingula of the mandible to limit extreme condylar protrusion, and the stylomandibular, from the styloid process to the mandibular angle, which tautens during jaw protrusion.^[19]^[21] Additional structures, such as the collateral ligaments anchoring the disc to the condyle and minor ligaments like the pinto ligament connecting the malleus to the capsule, further enhance disc positioning and joint integrity.^[19] The TMJ is enclosed by a fibrous capsule lined with a synovial membrane, forming two distinct synovial cavities filled with synovial fluid for lubrication and nourishment. The superior compartment, with about 1.2 mL of fluid, accommodates translational gliding of the disc and condyle against the glenoid fossa and eminence, while the inferior compartment, containing roughly 0.9 mL, supports rotational hinging between the condyle and disc.^[20] The capsule attaches superiorly to the articular eminence and glenoid rim and inferiorly to the condylar neck, providing loose allowance for movement while containing the synovial structures.^[21] Innervation of the TMJ arises primarily from branches of the mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve (CN V3), including the auriculotemporal nerve supplying the lateral capsule and posterior disc, the masseteric nerve innervating the anterolateral aspects, and deep temporal nerves contributing to the anterior region.^[19]^[20] Proprioceptive endings, such as Ruffini and Golgi-Mazzoni corpuscles, are present in the disc and capsule to monitor joint position and tension.^[19]

Muscles of Mastication

The muscles of mastication are the primary actuators responsible for mandibular movements during chewing, speaking, and other oral functions, providing essential context for understanding muscle-related contributions to temporomandibular joint dysfunction (TMD). These muscles originate from the first pharyngeal arch and are innervated by branches of the mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve (CN V3), enabling coordinated jaw actions.^[22] The masseter muscle is a powerful, superficial elevator of the mandible, consisting of superficial and deep layers. It originates from the zygomatic arch and inserts on the lateral surface of the mandibular ramus and coronoid process. Innervated by the masseteric nerve (a branch of CN V3), its superficial fibers contribute to protrusion while the deep fibers aid in retraction.^[22] The temporalis muscle, a fan-shaped elevator, arises from the temporal fossa and deep temporal fascia, inserting into the coronoid process and anterior border of the mandibular ramus. It receives innervation from the deep temporal nerves (branches of CN V3), with its anterior and middle fibers elevating the mandible and posterior fibers retracting it.^[22] The **medial pterygoid** muscle, located medially, originates from the medial surface of the lateral pterygoid plate and the pyramidal process of the palatine bone, inserting on the medial surface of the mandibular angle and ramus. Innervated by the nerve to the medial pterygoid (CN V3), it elevates the mandible, protrudes it, and facilitates contralateral lateral deviation.^[22] The **lateral pterygoid** muscle, the primary depressor and protruder, has two heads: the superior head originates from the infratemporal surface of the greater sphenoid wing, and the inferior head from the lateral surface of the lateral pterygoid plate. Both heads insert into the pterygoid fovea on the mandibular condyle neck and the articular disc of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ). Innervated by the nerve to the lateral pterygoid (CN V3), it depresses the mandible, protrudes it, and enables ipsilateral lateral movement.^[22] Accessory muscles assist in mandibular depression, particularly against resistance. The digastric muscle has an anterior belly originating from the digastric fossa near the mandibular symphysis and a posterior belly from the mastoid notch of the temporal bone; both converge via an intermediate tendon attached to the hyoid bone. The anterior belly is innervated by the mylohyoid nerve (a branch of the inferior alveolar nerve, CN V3), while the posterior belly receives innervation from the digastric branch of the facial nerve (CN VII); together, they depress the mandible and elevate the hyoid bone.^[23] The geniohyoid muscle originates from the inferior genial tubercle on the mandible and inserts on the anterior surface of the hyoid bone. Innervated by fibers from the C1 spinal nerve traveling via the hypoglossal nerve (CN XII), it depresses the mandible when the hyoid is fixed or elevates and protracts the hyoid bone.^[24] These muscles exhibit a mixture of fiber types, including type I (slow-twitch, oxidative fibers for sustained contraction and fatigue resistance) and type II (fast-twitch fibers, subtypes IIA and IIX, for rapid, powerful movements), along with masticatory-specific isoforms that support the diverse demands of chewing. In jaw elevation, the masseter, temporalis, and medial pterygoid contract synergistically to close the mouth. Protrusion involves coordinated action of the lateral pterygoid, medial pterygoid, and superficial masseter fibers to advance the mandible. Retraction is primarily driven by the posterior temporalis and deep masseter. Lateral movements occur through ipsilateral lateral pterygoid contraction paired with contralateral medial pterygoid action, allowing side-to-side grinding.^[22]^[25] The blood supply to the muscles of mastication is derived from branches of the maxillary artery, a terminal division of the external carotid artery, including the masseteric artery for the masseter, deep temporal arteries for the temporalis, and pterygoid branches for the medial and lateral pterygoids.^[22]

Normal Function and Biomechanics

The temporomandibular joint (TMJ) functions as a ginglymoarthrodial synovial joint, enabling a combination of hinge-like rotation and gliding translation to facilitate essential mandibular movements such as chewing, swallowing, and speaking. During initial mouth opening up to approximately 20-25 mm, the motion primarily involves rotation within the inferior articular compartment between the mandibular condyle and the articular disc. As opening progresses beyond this range, translation occurs in the superior compartment between the disc and the mandibular fossa, allowing the condyles to slide anteriorly along the articular eminence in a coordinated bilateral manner. This dual mechanism ensures efficient load transfer and smooth articulation, with the joint's synovial fluid providing lubrication to minimize friction during these dynamic actions.^[19] The articular disc plays a pivotal role in maintaining joint integrity by distributing compressive loads across the condylar surface and absorbing shock during functional activities like mastication and deglutition. Composed of fibrocartilage with avascular central regions and vascularized peripheral attachments, the disc adapts to varying stresses through its viscoelastic properties, with an elastic modulus typically ranging from 25 to 30 MPa, which helps dissipate energy and prevent direct bone-on-bone contact. This load-sharing function is crucial for protecting the thin articular cartilage layers (0.2-0.5 mm thick) and promoting even pressure distribution, thereby supporting prolonged joint durability under repetitive loading.^[26] Normal TMJ biomechanics rely on precise coordination among the muscles of mastication, including the masseter, temporalis, and pterygoids, which generate bite forces ranging from 20 to 100 kg during activities like clenching or biting on molars, with peak values influenced by factors such as gender and dental status. These forces are modulated through synergistic muscle activation patterns that balance protrusive, retrusive, and lateral excursions, ensuring the mandible remains stable against the maxilla. Proprioceptive feedback loops, mediated by mechanoreceptors in the joint capsule, ligaments, and periodontal tissues, provide continuous sensory input via the trigeminal nerve to the central nervous system, enabling reflexive adjustments for precise positioning and equilibrium during movement. This neural integration maintains smooth kinematics and prevents excessive strain, underscoring the TMJ's adaptive capacity in healthy individuals.^[27]^[19]^[28]

Signs and Symptoms

Pain Characteristics

Pain in temporomandibular joint dysfunction (TMD) is a primary symptom, often manifesting as myofascial pain, which presents as a dull, aching sensation in the muscles of mastication such as the masseter and temporalis.^[29] Arthritic pain, typically associated with intra-articular involvement like osteoarthritis, is characterized by sharp, localized discomfort directly over the temporomandibular joint (TMJ).^[30] Referred pain commonly extends from the TMJ or myofascial sites to adjacent areas, including the ear, temple, neck, or head.^[12]^[5] The most frequent locations of TMD-related pain include the preauricular region near the TMJ, the masseter and temporalis muscle areas, and radiating patterns to the face, neck, or shoulders.^[12]^[1] Patients often report unilateral or bilateral involvement, with pain intensity varying from mild to severe depending on the underlying pathology.^[30] Common triggers for exacerbating TMD pain include jaw movements such as chewing, yawning, or wide opening of the mouth, as well as psychosocial stressors that increase muscle tension.^[12]^[31] Patterns may involve morning stiffness or increased discomfort upon awakening, often linked to nocturnal parafunctional habits.^[29]^[32] Associated features frequently include tenderness to palpation over the TMJ or masticatory muscles, which can elicit local or referred pain responses.^[12]^[29] In chronic cases, allodynia may develop, where non-noxious stimuli like light touch provoke heightened pain sensitivity in the orofacial region.^[33] Psychosocial factors, such as stress, can amplify pain perception in TMD through heightened muscle guarding.^[12]

Movement Limitations

Movement limitations in temporomandibular joint dysfunction (TMD) represent a core functional impairment, characterized by restrictions in mandibular mobility that hinder normal jaw function. Patients often experience reduced maximum mouth opening, typically measured as interincisal distance, where normal interincisal opening of 35 mm or greater in adults; interincisal openings below 35 mm are considered limited and indicative of dysfunction.^[34] This restriction can manifest as difficulty achieving full jaw depression, impacting the ability to open the mouth wide enough for routine activities. Lateral excursions and protrusion are also commonly affected, with normal lateral movement ranging from 8 to 12 mm per side and protrusion from 8 to 12 mm; deficits in these ranges lead to asymmetric or incomplete jaw shifts.^[8] Lateral deviation during opening attempts may occur, where the jaw shifts toward the affected side, further compromising coordinated motion. Protrusion limitations prevent forward mandibular advancement, altering bite alignment and exacerbating functional challenges. Specific patterns include unilateral locking, where the jaw becomes acutely stuck in a partially open position on one side, often resolving with manipulation but recurring episodically. Bilateral trismus presents as symmetric, severe restriction resembling muscle stiffness, limiting overall jaw excursion to as little as 25-30 mm in advanced cases.^[1] These patterns can associate with joint noises during forced movements, though the primary issue remains kinematic restriction. Such limitations profoundly affect daily activities, including eating, where reduced opening complicates biting and chewing solid foods, often leading to dietary modifications or nutritional challenges. Speaking may become strained or slurred due to imprecise articulation from restricted mobility, contributing to social and communicative difficulties.^[1]

Joint Noises and Other Signs

Joint noises in temporomandibular joint dysfunction (TMD) commonly manifest as audible or palpable sounds during jaw movement, including clicking, popping, and crepitus. Clicking typically occurs as a single, repetitive sound associated with the repositioning of the articular disc during mouth opening or closing, while popping represents a more abrupt noise often linked to sudden disc displacement. Crepitus, characterized by a grating or crunching sensation, is indicative of degenerative changes within the joint, such as osteoarthritis, and is usually palpable or audible during mandibular excursions.^[1]^[28]^[35] These noises are reported in a significant portion of the general population, with clicking observed in approximately 30% of adults, though they become symptomatic and clinically relevant in the context of TMD when accompanied by pain or functional impairment. In TMD patients, such sounds often correlate with internal derangement of the joint, including disc displacement.^[7]^[36]^[35] Beyond joint noises, other observable signs include localized swelling around the joint or preauricular area, which may arise from inflammation or effusion. Facial asymmetry can develop due to unilateral joint involvement, leading to deviations in jaw alignment or mandibular positioning. Compensatory muscle hypertrophy, particularly of the masseter or temporalis muscles, may occur from chronic overuse or parafunctional habits, resulting in visible enlargement and contributing to altered facial contours.^[1]^[37]^[38] Non-joint signs frequently associated with TMD encompass headaches, often tension-type or migraine-like, originating from referred pain in the masticatory muscles or joint. Earaches, described as aching or fullness without evidence of infection, are common due to proximity of the temporomandibular joint to the ear canal and shared innervation.^[2]^[5]^[39]

Causes

Trauma

Trauma represents a significant etiological factor in temporomandibular joint dysfunction (TMD), particularly through acute physical injuries that disrupt joint integrity and function.^[1] Direct trauma, such as a blow to the jaw or face from assaults, falls, or sports impacts, can immediately damage the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) structures, leading to pain, limited mobility, and disc displacement. Indirect trauma, including whiplash from cervical acceleration-deceleration injuries in motor vehicle accidents, exerts rapid forces on the jaw via neck hyperextension, often resulting in delayed-onset TMD symptoms like myofascial pain and joint clicking.^[40] Prolonged dental procedures, such as extensive root canal therapy or orthognathic surgery, may also induce microtrauma through sustained mouth opening, contributing to capsulitis or muscle strain in susceptible individuals.^[41] The primary mechanisms of trauma-induced TMD involve structural disruptions within the TMJ. Condylar fractures, occurring in 10-40% of mandibular fractures, arise from high-impact forces that displace the condyle, potentially leading to hemarthrosis and long-term degenerative changes. Capsular tears frequently accompany condylar injuries, even without visible fractures on imaging, allowing synovial fluid leakage and inflammation that exacerbate pain and restrict movement. Disc perforation or displacement is another critical mechanism, where traumatic shear forces tear the articular disc or bilaminar zone, impairing load distribution and promoting anterior disc dislocation with reduction. Individuals engaged in contact sports, such as boxing or football, face elevated risks due to repetitive or acute facial impacts, with studies showing higher TMD prevalence among athletes compared to non-athletes.^[42] Motor vehicle accidents are a leading cause, particularly via whiplash, where 20-30% of affected individuals develop TMD symptoms, including pain and dysfunction, within months post-injury.^[40] Recent 2023-2025 research highlights increased post-traumatic TMD incidence in cases with concussion comorbidity, with up to 80% of traumatic brain injury patients exhibiting TMD signs, underscoring the role of craniomandibular interplay in symptom persistence.^[43]

Bruxism

Bruxism refers to the repetitive clenching or grinding of teeth, classified into two primary forms: awake bruxism, which involves semi-voluntary jaw muscle contractions during wakefulness often linked to concentration or stress, and sleep bruxism, characterized by involuntary masticatory muscle activity during sleep that may produce audible grinding sounds.^[44] These behaviors differ in etiology and manifestation, with awake bruxism typically under partial conscious control and sleep bruxism arising from autonomic nervous system influences during non-rapid eye movement sleep stages.^[45] The prevalence of bruxism in adults ranges from 8% to 31%, with variations depending on diagnostic methods and populations studied; sleep bruxism affects approximately 12-21% globally, while awake bruxism impacts 22-31%.^[46] This parafunctional activity imposes chronic overload on the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) and associated masticatory muscles through sustained or rhythmic contractions exceeding normal physiological loads, leading to muscle fatigue and hypertrophy of the masseter and temporalis muscles over time.^[47] The repetitive mechanical stress can contribute to TMJ dysfunction by altering joint biomechanics and promoting localized inflammation without acute injury.^[48] A 2025 meta-analysis by Zieliński et al. demonstrated that individuals with bruxism face a 2-3 times higher risk of developing temporomandibular disorders (TMD) compared to non-bruxers, based on pooled data from 29 studies across continents showing a global co-occurrence rate of approximately 17%.^[49] Bruxism often coexists with psychosocial factors such as anxiety, which may exacerbate its frequency, though it is not the sole causative element and interacts with multifactorial TMD pathways.^[50]

Occlusal Factors

Occlusal factors refer to abnormalities in the alignment and contact of teeth that may influence the function of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ). These include various forms of malocclusion, such as Class II and Class III relationships, anterior open bite, and crossbites, which have been investigated as potential contributors to temporomandibular disorders (TMD).^[51] However, the causality remains debated, with systematic reviews indicating mixed evidence and no strong direct link in most cases.^[52] Specific malocclusions like anterior open bite, overjets exceeding 6-7 mm, and unilateral lingual crossbites show weak associations with TMD signs, particularly in cases involving TMJ arthropathies, potentially due to altered joint loading.^[51] Posterior crossbite has been linked to increased odds of TMJ sounds in longitudinal data, with an odds ratio of 3.3 (95% CI 1.1-9.9).^[53] Tooth wear, often resulting from parafunctional habits, can alter occlusal surfaces and contribute to uneven bite forces, though its independent role in TMD etiology is limited and typically requires co-factors.^[54] Similarly, missing teeth, especially five or more posterior teeth, disrupt occlusal stability and have been associated with higher TMD prevalence, as seen in cross-sectional analyses where such losses correlated with intra-articular and pain-related disorders.^[51] Dental restorations, if improperly contoured, may exacerbate bite discrepancies by changing occlusal height or contacts, leading to adaptive joint stresses.^[54] Historically, occlusal factors were overemphasized as primary causes of TMD in the mid-20th century, prompting widespread use of adjustments and orthodontic interventions based on gnathological theories.^[55] Modern perspectives, informed by prospective studies, view them as minor contributors, often secondary to TMD or significant only when combined with other risks like bruxism, which can intensify occlusal instability.^[55] Longitudinal research over 20 years, tracking occlusion changes via the Peer Assessment Rating index, found associations between evolving malocclusions and TMD symptoms but no robust causal pathway in isolation, underscoring the multifactorial nature of the disorder.^[53]

Psychosocial Factors

Psychosocial factors, including stress, anxiety, and depression, play a significant role in amplifying the risk and severity of temporomandibular joint dysfunction (TMD) by contributing to muscle tension and altered pain perception. These elements often manifest through heightened autonomic nervous system activity, leading to parafunctional habits and increased masticatory muscle activity that exacerbate TMD symptoms. Comorbid psychosocial conditions, such as anxiety and depression, are common in patients with chronic TMD and correlate with greater pain intensity and functional limitations.^[56] Central sensitization, a mechanism where the central nervous system amplifies pain signals, is further influenced by emotional distress, resulting in heightened pain responses even to non-noxious stimuli in TMD patients. Psychosocial stressors can perpetuate this sensitization by modulating descending pain inhibitory pathways and promoting a cycle of chronic pain. Research demonstrates that individuals with elevated anxiety and depression scores show stronger associations with central sensitization symptoms in TMD, underscoring the interplay between psychological states and neuroplastic changes.^[57] The Diagnostic Criteria for Temporomandibular Disorders (DC/TMD) incorporate Axis II to systematically screen for psychosocial factors, including somatization, mood disorders, and pain-related disability, using validated questionnaires like the Patient Health Questionnaire. This axis facilitates identification of psychological contributors that may influence TMD progression and treatment outcomes. Prospective cohort studies, such as the OPPERA study, have linked life stressors, somatic symptoms, and affective distress to an increased risk of first-onset TMD, with global psychological factors emerging as the strongest predictors.^[56]^[58] Psychosocial factors may also interact with bruxism to heighten TMD risk, as stress-induced clenching behaviors compound joint loading.^[59]

Degenerative Joint Disease

Degenerative joint disease (DJD) of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) encompasses chronic conditions that contribute to temporomandibular dysfunction (TMD) through progressive joint deterioration. Osteoarthritis (OA), the most common form, involves the gradual erosion of articular cartilage, leading to exposed subchondral bone and subsequent remodeling, including sclerosis and osteophyte formation. This process alters joint biomechanics, often resulting in pain, limited mouth opening, and crepitus, particularly in individuals over 50 years of age, though it can manifest earlier in 20- to 40-year-olds. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA), an autoimmune disorder, causes synovitis with synovial hyperplasia and pannus formation, leading to bilateral TMJ involvement, cartilage destruction, and bone erosion, which exacerbates TMD symptoms through chronic inflammation.^[60]^[61]^[62] The prevalence of arthritic changes, including OA and RA, accounts for approximately 25% to 55% of TMD cases, with radiographic evidence of degeneration present in up to 70% of individuals aged 73 to 75. TMJ OA affects 8% to 16% of the general population clinically, while RA involves the TMJ in 19% to 86% of affected patients, often bilaterally and symmetrically. Risk factors include advancing age, which correlates with increased incidence—rising from about 35% in those aged 20 to 39 to 54% in those 60 to 69—and a female predominance, observed at roughly twofold higher rates in women, potentially linked to estrogen-related inflammatory pathways.^[61]^[60]^[62] DJD in the TMJ typically progresses slowly from idiopathic origins, where no clear precipitant is identified, to secondary forms triggered by prior trauma, such as condylar fractures, which can induce degenerative changes in up to 85% of cases. In RA, progression is driven by systemic autoimmune activity, leading to erosive changes that may overlap briefly with hormonal influences on synovial inflammation, particularly in females. Early intervention focuses on mitigating progression to prevent irreversible joint remodeling.^[60]^[61]^[62]

Genetic and Hormonal Factors

Temporomandibular joint dysfunction (TMD) exhibits a genetic component, with polymorphisms in pain-related genes contributing to increased susceptibility. For instance, variants in the catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) gene, which encodes an enzyme involved in catecholamine metabolism and pain modulation, have been associated with higher risk of chronic TMD pain. Specific single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) such as rs165656 and rs4646310 in the COMT promoter region are more frequent in TMD patients, conferring odds ratios of up to 5.3 for susceptibility after correction for multiple comparisons. Familial aggregation studies further support this, showing modest clustering of TMD cases within families, indicative of shared genetic influences.^[63] Twin studies provide evidence for heritability of TMD pain, estimating it at approximately 27% based on comparisons between monozygotic and dizygotic twins, suggesting that genetic factors account for a notable portion of variance alongside environmental influences. Additional genetic associations from large-scale studies like OPPERA identify SNPs in genes such as NR3C1 (glucocorticoid receptor, involved in stress response modulation) and HTR2A (serotonin receptor) as risk or protective factors for TMD development, with odds ratios ranging from 0.62 to 1.62. These genes likely interact with environmental stressors, amplifying TMD vulnerability through altered pain processing and inflammatory pathways. A systematic review of family and genetic association studies confirms partial heritability, particularly for pain phenotypes, with contributions from serotonergic and catecholaminergic systems.^[64]^[65]^[66] Hormonal factors, particularly estrogen fluctuations, play a significant role in TMD susceptibility, contributing to the observed 2:1 female-to-male predominance. Estrogen levels influence pain perception and temporomandibular joint (TMJ) remodeling, with higher prevalence during reproductive years and links to life stages such as puberty (onset of fluctuations), pregnancy (pain reduction despite elevated levels), and menopause (decline in incidence post-transition). Low estrogen correlates with increased TMD pain intensity, while high levels may exacerbate joint laxity and inflammation. Evidence from twin and cohort studies supports 30-50% heritability for related pain conditions, with hormonal influences interacting with genetic predispositions like estrogen receptor polymorphisms.^[67]^[68]^[69] Hormonal therapies, including estrogen replacement and oral contraceptives, have been linked to elevated TMD risk in case-control studies, with odds increases of 20-30% after adjusting for confounders like healthcare utilization. This risk appears dose-dependent for estrogen, potentially through effects on connective tissue metabolism and nociception. Interactions between genetic variants modulating stress response (e.g., NR3C1) and hormonal changes may further heighten vulnerability, as stress exacerbates estrogen's impact on TMJ inflammation.^[70]^[65]

Pathophysiology

Disc Displacement Mechanisms

Disc displacement in the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) represents a core pathophysiological feature of internal derangement, where the articular disc deviates from its normal position between the mandibular condyle and the glenoid fossa. This misalignment disrupts the joint's smooth translational and rotational movements during jaw function. Primarily, anterior disc displacement occurs, classified into two main types based on the disc's ability to return to its proper position: with reduction and without reduction.^[71] In anterior disc displacement with reduction, the disc is positioned anterior to the condylar head in the closed-mouth position but repositions onto the condyle during mouth opening, typically producing a reciprocal clicking or snapping sound. This clicking arises as the condyle overrides the posterior border of the displaced disc during translation, often audible during both opening and closing phases of jaw movement. The condition allows for relatively normal range of motion, though intermittent episodes of limited opening may occur if the disc temporarily fails to reduce.^[71]^[72]^[1] Conversely, anterior disc displacement without reduction involves a fixed anterior position of the disc that prevents repositioning, leading to mechanical obstruction and closed-lock symptoms. This manifests as restricted mouth opening, typically limited to 25-30 mm, often accompanied by jaw deviation toward the affected side and acute pain due to retrodiscal tissue compression. The absence of clicking is characteristic, as the disc no longer relocates during function.^[71]^[1]^[73] The etiology of disc displacement centers on factors that compromise the stabilizing ligaments and disc integrity, such as acute or chronic trauma and sustained stress, which induce ligamentous laxity and disc deformation. Macrotrauma, like direct impact, or microtrauma from repetitive loading can elongate the superior and inferior retrodiscal ligaments and the medial and lateral collateral ligaments, allowing the disc to slip anteriorly relative to the condyle. Concurrently, thinning or deformation of the disc's posterior border, often from prolonged abnormal positioning, facilitates this displacement by reducing its resistance to condylar forces.^[71]^[72]^[1] Biomechanically, disc displacement alters load distribution across the joint, increasing focal pressure on the condyle and retrodiscal tissues. In the normal TMJ, the disc evenly dissipates forces during condylar translation; displacement shifts these loads posteriorly, elevating stress on the bilaminar zone and potentially accelerating degenerative changes. This uneven pressure distribution further promotes disc adherence or deformation, perpetuating the derangement.^[71]^[72]^[73] Progression of disc displacement often follows a sequential pattern, beginning with the reducing form and advancing to non-reducing if untreated. The transition occurs due to loss of elasticity in the superior retrodiscal lamina, rendering the disc non-reducible and establishing a chronic lock; studies indicate this progression in approximately 6.5% of cases over about 9 months. In advanced stages, ongoing mechanical stress may lead to disc perforation, particularly in the posterior attachment, which compromises joint lubrication and invites secondary osteoarthritis.^[71]^[72]^[1]

Muscle and Soft Tissue Involvement

In temporomandibular joint dysfunction (TMD), muscle and soft tissue derangements play a central role in the pathophysiology, particularly affecting the masticatory muscles such as the masseter, temporalis, and pterygoids. These changes often stem from repetitive overload or protective responses, leading to localized pain and impaired jaw function. Myofascial alterations are prevalent, with studies indicating that up to 70% of TMD cases involve muscle-related issues rather than purely articular problems.^[74] Myofascial trigger points represent hyperirritable spots within taut bands of skeletal muscle, eliciting local and referred pain upon compression, stretching, or contraction. These points are classified as active (causing spontaneous pain) or latent (painful only on provocation) and contribute to chronic TMD pain through sustained local contraction knots that sensitize nociceptors. Formation arises from excessive masticatory muscle activity, often triggered by psychosocial stress or microtrauma, which disrupts sarcomere length and promotes endplate dysfunction at the neuromuscular junction.^[74]^[1] Muscle spasms and fatigue further exacerbate soft tissue involvement, manifesting as involuntary contractions or exhaustion in the masticatory muscles due to sustained overload. Spasms result from heightened sympathetic activity or direct irritation, leading to ischemia and accumulation of metabolic byproducts like lactic acid, which heighten pain sensitivity. Fatigue, commonly from prolonged clenching, impairs muscle endurance and perpetuates a cycle of tension, with electromyographic studies showing elevated activity in affected muscles during rest. This process is often intensified by bruxism, where nocturnal grinding imposes repetitive strain on soft tissues.^[1]^[75] Chronic progression can lead to fibrosis in the masticatory muscles, characterized by excessive collagen deposition that reduces tissue elasticity and impairs contractility. Magnetic resonance imaging reveals fibrotic changes as increased signal intensity and volume alterations, particularly in the lateral pterygoid muscle, where prevalence reaches 42-58% in TMD patients with trauma history. These irreversible adaptations arise from repeated micro-injuries and inflammation, limiting jaw mobility and contributing to persistent dysfunction.^[76] Protective co-contraction involves simultaneous activation of jaw-closing and -opening muscles to stabilize the temporomandibular joint against perceived threats, such as minor trauma or instability. This reflexive guarding response, mediated by altered proprioceptive input, initially prevents further damage but becomes maladaptive, fostering muscle fatigue and pain amplification through sustained tension. In TMD, it perpetuates a vicious cycle by reinforcing hypertonicity and limiting normal range of motion.^[77]

Pain and Inflammatory Pathways

In temporomandibular joint dysfunction (TMD), pain arises from the activation of nociceptors in the joint capsule, synovial tissues, and surrounding muscles, primarily triggered by inflammatory mediators such as substance P and prostaglandins. Substance P, a neuropeptide released from sensory nerve endings, sensitizes nociceptors and promotes vasodilation and plasma extravasation in inflamed tissues, contributing to localized pain hypersensitivity. Similarly, prostaglandins like PGE2, produced via cyclooxygenase enzymes during inflammation, lower the threshold for nociceptor firing and enhance pain transmission in the synovial fluid of affected joints, correlating with pain during mandibular movement.^[78] Inflammatory processes in TMD involve synovial inflammation (synovitis), where proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) play central roles in amplifying pain and tissue damage. These cytokines are elevated in the synovial fluid and tissue of TMD patients, promoting leukocyte recruitment, cartilage degradation, and nociceptor sensitization, with IL-1β strongly correlating with synovitis severity and palpation-induced pain (p = 0.015). TNF-α similarly associates with subjective TMJ pain and diagnostic inflammation markers (p = 0.016), driving a cascade that sustains joint effusion and discomfort. A neurogenic component exacerbates this through neuropeptides like calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), which is upregulated in the TMJ synovium during internal derangements, inducing vasodilation and further cytokine release to perpetuate inflammation.^[79]^[78]^[80] Central pain mechanisms in TMD involve sensitization, where peripheral nociceptive inputs lead to amplified processing in the central nervous system, explaining the transition to chronic pain. Peripheral sensitization heightens nociceptor responsiveness, while central sensitization manifests as the wind-up phenomenon—temporal summation of repeated stimuli resulting in exaggerated pain responses—and allodynia, where non-noxious inputs like light touch evoke pain. Quantitative sensory testing in TMD patients reveals enhanced temporal summation to thermal stimuli and widespread hyperalgesia, even remote from the joint, driven by increased glutamate and serotonin levels that facilitate neuronal hyperexcitability. This peripheral-to-central progression underlies the chronicity of TMD pain, with neuroplastic changes in brain regions like the thalamus correlating with pain duration.^[78]^[81]^[82]

Diagnosis

Clinical Assessment

The clinical assessment of temporomandibular joint dysfunction (TMD) begins with a detailed history-taking to identify the onset, characteristics, and potential triggers of symptoms. Patients are queried about the timing and nature of pain onset, which may be acute or chronic (lasting more than three months), and associated factors such as jaw movements like chewing or yawning that exacerbate discomfort.^[12] Triggers often include parafunctional habits like bruxism, stress-related clenching, or environmental stressors, and a pain diary is recommended to track symptom severity, duration, and patterns over time for better characterization.^[83] Psychosocial screening is integral, with tools like the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) used to evaluate depression, as elevated scores correlate with increased TMD risk and pain persistence.^[84] Physical examination focuses on evaluating joint and muscle function through systematic palpation, range of motion assessment, and auscultation. Palpation involves gently pressing the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) anterior to the tragus and the masticatory muscles (masseter, temporalis, and pterygoids) to detect tenderness, swelling, or asymmetry, which may indicate myalgia or intra-articular pathology.^[12] Range of motion is measured actively and passively, noting maximum mouth opening (typically 40-50 mm), lateral excursions, and protrusive movements; deviations or restrictions toward the affected side suggest disc displacement.^[83] Auscultation during jaw movements listens for joint sounds such as clicking, popping, crepitus, or locking, which can signal disc reduction or degenerative changes.^[8] Standardized tools enhance the precision of the assessment, including the visual analog scale (VAS) for quantifying pain intensity on a 100-mm line from "no pain" to "worst pain imaginable," often applied during functional tasks like opening.^[85] Joint loading tests, such as the tongue blade test where the patient bites on stacked wooden blades to stress the joint, help identify instability or pain provocation indicative of structural issues.^[83]^[86] Red flags during assessment warrant immediate referral to rule out serious conditions like malignancy or infection. These include unexplained swelling, persistent fever, cranial nerve deficits, history of cancer with potential metastasis to the head and neck, or pain unresponsive to jaw manipulation.^[87]^[88]

Diagnostic Criteria

The Diagnostic Criteria for Temporomandibular Disorders (DC/TMD) serve as a standardized, evidence-based protocol for diagnosing temporomandibular disorders (TMD) in both clinical and research contexts, replacing the earlier Research Diagnostic Criteria for Temporomandibular Disorders (RDC/TMD).^[11] Developed by the International RDC/TMD Consortium Network and the Orofacial Pain Special Interest Group, this system has demonstrated high reliability, with excellent inter-examiner agreement for Axis I pain-related diagnoses (kappa values ≥ 0.85) and strong validity metrics, including sensitivity ≥ 0.86 and specificity ≥ 0.98 for detecting common TMD pain conditions.^[11] A core requirement for diagnosis under DC/TMD is the presence of pain combined with functional impairment, such as pain exacerbated by jaw movement or function, which distinguishes symptomatic TMD from incidental findings.^[11] DC/TMD is structured into two primary axes to provide a comprehensive evaluation. Axis I addresses physical diagnoses of TMD, focusing on the most prevalent conditions through specific, validated criteria derived from clinical history and examination.^[11] For instance, myofascial pain—a common Axis I diagnosis—is confirmed by a patient's self-report of pain in the temporalis or masseter muscles, coupled with palpation-induced tenderness at three or more sites, achieving high diagnostic accuracy (sensitivity 0.90, specificity 0.99).^[11] Other Axis I categories include local myalgia, arthralgia, and disc displacement subtypes, all emphasizing reproducible physical signs over subjective reports alone.^[11] Axis II complements Axis I by assessing psychosocial factors that influence TMD chronicity and treatment outcomes, using brief, validated screening instruments.^[11] This includes evaluation of pain intensity via numeric rating scales, functional disability through the Jaw Functional Limitation Scale, and psychological distress with tools like the Patient Health Questionnaire-4 (PHQ-4) for depression and anxiety, as well as the Graded Chronic Pain Scale (GCPS) to gauge overall pain impact.^[11] Elevated scores in Axis II help identify patients at risk for persistent symptoms, guiding referrals to multidisciplinary care.^[11] While DC/TMD excels in diagnosing pain-related TMD, it has limitations and is not designed for all subtypes, such as isolated disc displacements or degenerative joint changes, which often necessitate supplementary imaging for confirmation.^[11] Since its 2014 publication, the framework has undergone refinements, including adaptations for adolescents in 2023 and continued emphasis on a multidisciplinary approach that integrates physical, psychological, and behavioral elements to address TMD complexity.^[11]^[89]

Imaging Techniques

Imaging techniques play a crucial role in evaluating temporomandibular joint (TMJ) pathology when clinical findings are equivocal or suggest structural abnormalities, providing visualization of bony and soft tissue components to aid diagnosis of temporomandibular joint dysfunction (TMD).^[12] These methods range from basic radiographic approaches to advanced cross-sectional imaging, selected based on suspected pathology such as disc displacement, effusion, or osseous changes.^[90] Plain radiography, including transcranial or transpharyngeal projections, serves as an initial screening tool for detecting gross bone changes like condylar fractures, dislocations, or advanced degenerative disease in TMD.^[12] However, it offers limited views of soft tissues and early osseous alterations due to its two-dimensional nature and susceptibility to positioning errors.^[90] Panoramic tomography provides a broad overview of both TMJs simultaneously, allowing assessment of condylar position, asymmetries, and late-stage bony pathology such as erosions or osteophytes.^[90] It is useful for identifying potential odontogenic or periodontal contributors to TMD but has low sensitivity for subtle changes owing to superimposition of structures.^[12] Computed tomography (CT), particularly multidetector CT, delivers high-resolution multiplanar images ideal for detailed evaluation of osseous structures, including fractures, erosions, and tumors in the TMJ.^[91] It excels in detecting subtle bony morphology alterations not visible on plain films, though its use is tempered by concerns over ionizing radiation exposure.^[90] Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the gold standard for assessing soft tissue components of the TMJ, such as disc position, morphology, and joint effusion, with protocols employing T1-weighted, proton density, and T2-weighted sequences in open- and closed-mouth positions.^[91] Dynamic sequences during jaw movement enhance its utility in confirming disc displacement mechanisms, offering non-ionizing visualization of early dysfunction and inflammatory changes.^[92] Ultrasound has emerged as a non-ionizing, real-time imaging option for evaluating TMJ effusion and muscle involvement in TMD, utilizing high-frequency transducers (7.5-15 MHz) for dynamic assessment of disc motion and soft tissue stiffness.^[92] Its advantages include low cost and accessibility, but results are operator-dependent and limited for medial disc visualization.^[90] Clinical guidelines recommend reserving advanced imaging like MRI for cases with suspected internal derangement or persistent symptoms unresponsive to conservative management, while advising against routine use in uncomplicated TMD to minimize unnecessary radiation and costs.^[12] Plain radiography or panoramic views may suffice for initial bony screening, with CT preferred for complex osseous pathology.^[90]

Management

Behavioral Interventions

Behavioral interventions for temporomandibular joint dysfunction (TMD) focus on modifying maladaptive habits and psychological responses to alleviate pain and improve function, particularly by addressing stress-related parafunctional behaviors such as clenching and grinding. Supported self-management (SSM), as emphasized in 2025 guidelines, is the cornerstone, including patient education on self-awareness of these habits to promote behavioral changes.^[93] For instance, individuals are instructed to avoid excessive gum chewing, maintain teeth slightly apart during wakefulness, and adopt a softer diet to reduce masticatory strain, which can exacerbate TMD symptoms.^[94] Studies indicate that such education, when delivered individually, effectively reduces pain intensity and enhances oral health-related quality of life by fostering habit modification and stress management awareness.^[95] Biofeedback, particularly surface electromyographic (SEMG) biofeedback, trains patients to achieve muscle relaxation by providing real-time feedback on masticatory muscle activity, helping to interrupt patterns of hyperactivity associated with TMD.^[96] This technique is especially useful for targeting parafunctional behaviors like bruxism, allowing patients to consciously regulate jaw tension. Systematic reviews of controlled trials demonstrate that SEMG biofeedback, when combined with other behavioral strategies, is efficacious in reducing TMD pain and disability, with approximately 69% of treated patients achieving symptom-free status or significant improvement compared to 35% in control groups.^[97] Alone, it shows probable efficacy, though guidelines conditionally recommend against its isolated use due to variable long-term outcomes.^[98] Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) addresses the psychosocial contributors to TMD, such as stress and maladaptive pain coping, through structured sessions that teach relaxation, cognitive restructuring, and behavioral activation to mitigate chronic pain cycles.^[98] In randomized controlled trials, brief CBT interventions have led to clinically meaningful pain reductions, with 50% of participants experiencing at least a 50% decrease in pain intensity at one-year follow-up, compared to 29% in controls.^[99] Systematic reviews of multiple studies confirm CBT's effectiveness, showing significant improvements in pain, jaw function, and psychological well-being in 7 out of 8 evaluated trials, often outperforming standard treatments alone.^[100] Mindfulness and relaxation techniques, including guided meditation and progressive muscle relaxation, promote emotional regulation and reduce TMD-related pain perception by enhancing awareness of bodily sensations without judgment.^[101] Randomized controlled trials have demonstrated their benefits, with an 8-week mindfulness program significantly decreasing the number of painful sites, increasing pain pressure thresholds in facial and body areas, and lowering stress levels in women with chronic TMD.^[101] These interventions yield moderate pain score reductions, comparable to other psychological approaches, and support long-term self-management when integrated into routine care.^[102]

Pharmacological Treatments

Pharmacological treatments for temporomandibular joint dysfunction (TMD) focus on symptom relief, particularly pain and inflammation, as part of a conservative management strategy. These interventions target acute and subacute symptoms without addressing underlying structural issues and are typically short-term to minimize risks such as gastrointestinal complications or dependency. Evidence from systematic reviews supports their use in combination with behavioral modifications, though no single agent is universally superior due to variability in patient response and limited high-quality trials.^[103]^[12] Analgesics form the cornerstone of initial pharmacological therapy for TMD. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as ibuprofen at 400-600 mg every 6-8 hours or naproxen at 500 mg twice daily, effectively reduce pain and inflammation by inhibiting cyclooxygenase pathways, with studies showing significant symptom improvement over 10-14 days in acute cases.^[104]^[103] For milder pain or patients with contraindications to NSAIDs (e.g., renal issues), acetaminophen up to 4 g daily provides analgesia without anti-inflammatory action, though evidence for its efficacy in TMD is weaker and primarily based on general pain management principles.^[105]^[106] Muscle relaxants are indicated for TMD involving myofascial spasms or tenderness, with cyclobenzaprine at 5-10 mg nightly demonstrating superior pain reduction compared to placebo in randomized trials, typically limited to 1-2 weeks to avoid central nervous system side effects like drowsiness.^[12]^[105] For persistent or neuropathic TMD pain, low-dose tricyclic antidepressants such as amitriptyline at 10-25 mg at bedtime or serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) such as duloxetine (30-60 mg daily) are used, exerting effects through modulation of central pain processing; duloxetine may be preferred due to a more favorable side-effect profile, per 2025 guidelines.^[103]^[104]^[93] Professional guidelines from organizations like the American Academy of Family Physicians and the American Academy of Orofacial Pain advocate first-line conservative pharmacotherapy with NSAIDs or acetaminophen, escalating to muscle relaxants or antidepressants only if needed, while strongly discouraging opioids due to addiction risks and insufficient evidence for long-term benefit.^[12]^[106] Treatment durations are recommended to be under 2 weeks for most agents to prevent tolerance or adverse events, aligning with efforts to interrupt inflammatory cascades in TMD.^[107]

Physical Therapy

Physical therapy plays a central role in the non-invasive management of temporomandibular joint dysfunction (TMD), focusing on restoring joint mobility, reducing muscle tension, and alleviating pain through targeted rehabilitative techniques.^[108] It addresses movement limitations by promoting coordinated muscle function and postural alignment, often yielding moderate improvements in symptoms when integrated into a structured program.^[109] Key exercises in physical therapy for TMD include jaw stretching, postural correction, and resistance training. Jaw stretching involves controlled active and passive opening and closing of the mouth, typically held for 6-10 seconds per repetition to enhance range of motion.^[110] Postural correction exercises target the cervical and shoulder regions, such as axial neck extension and maintaining neutral tongue and teeth positions, to alleviate compensatory strain on the temporomandibular joint.^[94] Resistance training employs isometric contractions, like resisted jaw closure against manual pressure for 5-10 seconds, performed in 10-repetition sets to strengthen masticatory muscles without exacerbating pain.^[94] Therapeutic modalities commonly used include ultrasound, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS), and manual therapy for joint mobilization. Ultrasound therapy, applied at intensities of 0.8-1 W/cm² for 3 minutes per session, helps reduce inflammation and improve tissue extensibility when combined with exercises.^[110] TENS provides pain relief by delivering low-frequency electrical stimulation to the masticatory muscles, demonstrating effectiveness in controlling pain intensity in TMD patients.^[111] Manual therapy techniques, such as gentle mobilization of the temporomandibular joint, aim to restore normal biomechanics and have shown moderate effects on pain reduction and maximum mouth opening in systematic reviews.^[112] Standard protocols for physical therapy in TMD typically span 6-12 weeks, with sessions occurring 2-5 times per week and incorporating a mix of exercises and modalities to achieve progressive gains.^[113] Meta-analyses indicate that these interventions lead to moderate short-term pain reduction (standardized mean difference of -0.63) and improvements in function, with some studies reporting up to 48% decreases in pain scores on visual analog scales after consistent application.^[114] Long-term benefits vary, emphasizing the need for ongoing adherence to maintain outcomes.^[109] Home programs are essential for reinforcing clinical gains, featuring daily self-directed exercises like the Rocabado 6x6 routine—six specific movements performed six times daily—to promote muscle strengthening and compliance.^[94] These programs, often including stretching and mobilization techniques with weekly monitoring, have demonstrated significant enhancements in pain-free mouth opening (up to 14 mm increase) and overall functionality when patients maintain regular practice.^[115]

Occlusal Devices and Adjustments

Occlusal devices, commonly known as splints or oral appliances, are removable dental appliances designed to alter the occlusion temporarily and reduce mechanical stress on the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) and associated muscles. These devices are primarily used in the conservative management of temporomandibular joint dysfunction (TMD), particularly for patients with myogenous pain originating from masticatory muscle hyperactivity or bruxism. They function by providing a flat occlusal surface that promotes even tooth contact, minimizes joint loading, and discourages parafunctional habits such as clenching or grinding, often worn nocturnally to target nighttime bruxism.^[116]^[117] Stabilization splints, fabricated from hard acrylic material, represent the most commonly recommended type for myogenous TMD, as they maintain the jaw in a centric relation without attempting to alter disc position. These splints are typically 2 mm thick and worn at night or continuously for 3–12 months, leading to moderate evidence of pain reduction in myalgia cases, with approximately 71.8% of patients reporting symptom improvement. In contrast, repositioning splints, such as anterior repositioning appliances (ARAs), are indicated for specific arthrogenous conditions like disc displacement with reduction (DDwR), where they guide the mandible forward to recapture the articular disc; these show moderate efficacy in reducing joint pain (86.5%) and clicking (98.33%) but carry risks of occlusal changes if used long-term. Stabilization splints provide short-term relief for up to 70% of myogenous TMD cases but are less effective for all arthrogenous subtypes, where ARAs may be considered cautiously.^[117]^[118] Occlusal adjustments involve irreversible modifications to the dentition, such as selective grinding to eliminate premature contacts or interferences that may exacerbate TMD symptoms, often guided by an initial splint to identify discrepancies. This technique aims to achieve balanced occlusion with disclusion times under 0.4 seconds, thereby reducing myofascial pain, though evidence is limited to small studies showing comparability to conservative therapies. Orthodontic interventions may address underlying malocclusions contributing to TMD, but research indicates that occlusion is rarely the primary cause, limiting their routine use to symptomatic cases with verifiable discrepancies. The American Academy of Orofacial Pain (AAOP) guidelines emphasize reversible occlusal devices over adjustments, recommending them only for persistent symptoms unresponsive to behavioral or pharmacological approaches.^[119]^[116] Controversies surrounding occlusal therapy stem from risks of over-treatment, where assumptions of occlusal etiology lead to unnecessary irreversible procedures despite low-quality evidence from randomized trials showing only suggestive benefits over placebo or no intervention. Systematic reviews highlight methodological flaws in studies, such as short follow-ups and inadequate blinding, underscoring that while splints offer comparable short-term pain relief to alternatives like physical therapy, long-term success rates hover around 51–60% without superior outcomes. AAOP advises against routine occlusal changes, prioritizing conservative, reversible options to avoid iatrogenic harm in asymptomatic or mildly affected patients.^[120]^[118]

Surgical Options

Surgical options for temporomandibular joint dysfunction (TMD) are typically reserved for severe, refractory cases that do not respond to conservative management, affecting fewer than 5% of patients. These procedures aim to address structural issues such as internal derangement or degenerative changes, with indications limited to advanced pathology confirmed by clinical and imaging findings, such as mouth opening less than 30 mm per 2025 guidelines.^[121]^[93] Arthrocentesis represents a minimally invasive lavage technique primarily used for closed-lock conditions associated with non-inflammatory internal derangement of the joint. The procedure involves needle insertion into the superior joint space to irrigate with saline, lysing adhesions and removing inflammatory mediators without direct visualization. It is indicated for acute or chronic disc displacements without bony ankylosis, offering rapid symptom relief in outpatient settings. Studies report success rates of approximately 83.5% in reducing pain and improving mandibular function, with multiple sessions (three to five) enhancing outcomes for persistent cases.^[122]^[123] Complications are rare, primarily limited to transient swelling or temporary pain exacerbation. Arthroscopy provides both diagnostic and therapeutic capabilities for disc recapturing in anterior disc displacement, corresponding to Wilkes stages II-III. Performed under general anesthesia, it uses a small arthroscope to visualize the joint, allowing lysis of adhesions, disc manipulation, and synovial biopsy if needed. This approach is preferred over open surgery for its lower morbidity and faster recovery, with reported success rates of 85-98% in achieving disc repositioning and pain reduction.^[124]^[125] Earlier clinical improvements, such as increased mouth opening, are observed compared to more invasive methods, though potential risks include infection or iatrogenic damage to articular structures. Open joint surgery serves as a last resort for advanced TMD, encompassing discectomy for irreparable disc pathology and condylar reconstruction for severe degenerative disease or trauma-induced deformities. Discectomy involves excision of the damaged meniscus, often followed by placement of interpositional materials or total joint prostheses, while condylar reconstruction may utilize autogenous grafts or alloplastic implants to restore anatomy and function. These procedures are indicated for late-stage joint destruction unresponsive to prior interventions, yielding dramatic improvements in pain and jaw mobility in suitable candidates.^[124] Risks are higher than in minimally invasive options, including postoperative adhesions, nerve injury, and heterotopic ossification. Overall, surgical interventions for TMD demonstrate success rates of 60-80% in alleviating symptoms and restoring function, though outcomes vary by procedure and patient factors such as prior treatments. Adhesions and infection represent key risks, particularly with open approaches, underscoring the need for careful patient selection.^[126]^[127]

Alternative Therapies

Alternative therapies for temporomandibular joint dysfunction (TMD) encompass non-mainstream interventions such as acupuncture, chiropractic manipulation, and prolotherapy, which are often explored as adjunctive options for pain relief and functional improvement in mild cases. These approaches aim to address musculoskeletal imbalances or stimulate healing responses but generally lack robust, high-quality evidence compared to conventional treatments. Clinical guidelines position them as complementary rather than primary therapies, emphasizing the need for patient education on potential risks and limited efficacy data; acupuncture is strongly recommended as an adjunct for myogenous TMD per 2025 guidelines.^[128]^[93] Acupuncture involves the insertion of fine needles at specific points to alleviate TMD-related pain, particularly of muscular origin, by modulating neural pathways and reducing inflammation. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have demonstrated moderate short-term benefits, with meta-analyses showing acupuncture superior to sham controls in reducing pain intensity (odds ratio 6.20, 95% CI 2.70-14.24). For instance, a 2024 systematic review of 11 RCTs found favorable effects in 6 studies, though only 4 had low risk of bias, indicating limited overall evidence quality. Laser acupuncture variants also outperform placebo (odds ratio 14.08, 95% CI 4.01-49.47), but results vary, and long-term outcomes remain unclear.^[129]^[129]^[129] Chiropractic care for TMD typically includes spinal and cervical manipulation to address potential links between neck dysfunction and jaw pain, alongside soft tissue techniques targeting the temporomandibular joint (TMJ). A 2021 systematic review of 6 RCTs involving craniomandibular manual therapy (a related approach) reported significant mid-term pain reduction and improved mouth opening in all studies, but superiority over comparators like self-care was shown in only 2 trials. Evidence is of very low quality due to small sample sizes, high heterogeneity, and bias risks, with TMJ-specific chiropractic data largely limited to case series rather than large-scale RCTs.^[130]^[130]^[130] Prolotherapy entails injecting irritant solutions, such as dextrose, into ligaments around the TMJ to promote tissue strengthening and reduce hypermobility or instability. A 2024 systematic review and meta-analysis of 8 RCTs indicated low-quality evidence that dextrose prolotherapy decreases pain and maximal mouth opening compared to placebo, with no significant differences versus autologous blood injections or botulinum toxin in qualitative assessments. Earlier descriptive studies support improved quality of life and function, but anecdotal reports dominate, and high-quality confirmatory trials are absent.^[131]^[131]^[131]^[132] Professional guidelines from organizations like the American Academy of Family Physicians recommend alternative therapies solely as adjuncts to evidence-based interventions, cautioning against unproven methods that may delay effective care or introduce pseudoscientific risks. Patients considering these options should consult qualified providers and weigh benefits against the paucity of rigorous data.^[128]^[128]

Prevention

Lifestyle Modifications

Lifestyle modifications form a cornerstone of TMD prevention, targeting modifiable daily behaviors that contribute to jaw overuse, muscle tension, and joint stress. By incorporating these changes, individuals can mitigate risk factors such as parafunctional habits and poor ergonomics, potentially averting the development or worsening of symptoms in susceptible populations. These strategies emphasize self-management and are particularly beneficial for those with predisposing factors like high stress levels or occupational demands involving repetitive jaw movements. Key habit avoidance measures include ceasing gum chewing, nail-biting, and other parafunctional activities that exert unnecessary force on the temporomandibular joint (TMJ). Excessive gum chewing, for instance, promotes sustained jaw muscle activity, which can lead to fatigue and inflammation over time. Similarly, nail-biting introduces irregular loading patterns that strain the joint and supporting structures. During acute flares or high-risk periods, transitioning to a soft diet—such as pureed foods, soups, and mashed items—significantly reduces the mechanical demands on the jaw, allowing for recovery without compromising nutrition. This approach not only alleviates immediate discomfort but also prevents cumulative damage in chronic cases. Stress management is integral, as psychological tension often manifests as jaw clenching or grinding, exacerbating TMD risk. Techniques like yoga have been shown to lower muscle hyperactivity and improve overall coping mechanisms, thereby reducing clenching episodes. Complementing this, sleep hygiene practices—such as maintaining a consistent bedtime routine, avoiding caffeine late in the day, and using supportive pillows to promote neutral jaw positioning—help minimize nocturnal bruxism, a common precursor to TMD. These interventions target bruxism-related risks by interrupting the stress-clenching cycle at its behavioral roots. Adopting ergonomic postures further supports prevention by alleviating secondary strain on the neck and jaw. For example, configuring workstations with adjustable chairs, monitors at eye level, and supportive headsets prevents forward head posture, which can indirectly overload the TMJ through altered biomechanics. Regular breaks to stretch the neck and shoulders reinforce these benefits, distributing load more evenly across the musculoskeletal system. Evidence from preventive programs underscores the efficacy of these modifications, particularly in high-risk groups. A randomized controlled trial involving adolescent girls found that school-based education on TMD risks and lifestyle adjustments reduced TMD incidence from 28% in the control group to 19% in the intervention group, achieving a relative reduction of approximately 30%. Such programs, focusing on habit awareness and stress reduction, demonstrate scalable potential for lowering TMD onset in vulnerable populations like youth or stressed professionals.

Early Detection Measures

Early detection of temporomandibular joint dysfunction (TMD) relies on self-monitoring strategies that empower individuals to recognize subtle symptoms before they escalate. Patients can maintain pain journals to track jaw discomfort, headaches, or clicking sounds, noting triggers such as stress or chewing patterns, which facilitates timely consultation with healthcare providers. Mobile applications, such as JawSpace and myTMJ, offer digital tools for logging symptoms, monitoring jaw movement, and setting reminders for self-care. Emerging AI-driven features in these apps, evaluated in recent studies as of 2025, support proactive TMD management. These tools promote proactive awareness, particularly for those with genetic predispositions that may warrant heightened vigilance. Professional screening during routine dental examinations plays a crucial role in identifying TMD early, focusing on signs like joint noises, tooth wear, or limited jaw mobility. Dentists are recommended to incorporate brief assessments, such as palpation of masticatory muscles and auscultation for crepitus, into standard check-ups to detect at-risk individuals. The Diagnostic Criteria for Temporomandibular Disorders (DC/TMD) provide a standardized framework for screening, including self-report questionnaires and clinical exams, particularly targeting demographics like females aged 20-40 who exhibit higher prevalence. Simplified tools, such as the three screening questions (3Q/TMD), enable quick identification of pain-related TMD during regular visits, with high diagnostic accuracy validated in primary care settings. Public education campaigns enhance early detection by raising awareness of TMD symptoms and the importance of prompt reporting. Organizations like the National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR) support initiatives, including recognition of National TMJ Awareness Month in November, to inform the public on risk factors and self-advocacy. The American Dental Association (ADA), through its research and patient resources, promotes dental professional training on screening protocols to foster community-wide vigilance. The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine have advocated for multimedia campaigns to bridge knowledge gaps, emphasizing prevention through informed public action. Longitudinal studies demonstrate that early intervention substantially mitigates the risk of chronic TMD, with significantly lower prevalence of chronic pain in those receiving prompt care compared to non-intervention groups, effectively reducing the likelihood of persistence. Such approaches, including biopsychosocial assessments, not only alleviate acute symptoms but also lower associated emotional distress, underscoring the value of vigilant monitoring in altering disease trajectory.

Prognosis and Epidemiology

Prognostic Factors

Temporomandibular joint dysfunction (TMD) is generally considered a benign and self-limiting condition, with most cases resolving or significantly improving without progression to severe disability. Studies indicate that 50% of patients experience symptomatic improvement within one year, increasing to 85% by three years, primarily through conservative management. Up to 40% of cases may remit spontaneously without intervention, underscoring the favorable natural course in the majority of individuals.^[1]^[133]^[1] Favorable prognostic factors include acute onset, myogenous (muscle-related) presentations, and early initiation of treatment, which contribute to higher resolution rates. For instance, acute TMD cases show improvement in approximately 70-80% of patients following reversible conservative therapies, with over 80% achieving long-term effectiveness in early interventions like occlusal splints. Myogenous types, often involving myofascial pain, tend to respond better to non-invasive approaches compared to joint-specific issues. Overall, 80-90% of treated cases demonstrate successful outcomes, including resolution within one year.^[134]^[135]^[136] Unfavorable factors encompass chronic duration, arthrogenous (joint-related) involvement, and elevated psychosocial distress, which are associated with persistence in 20-30% of cases. Chronic TMD, defined as symptoms lasting over six months, progresses to persistent pain in about 25% of instances, particularly when structural issues like disc displacement or degenerative joint disease are present, remaining stable in 71-76% over long-term follow-up. High psychosocial scores, such as those indicating somatization or psychoticism on scales like the SCL-90-R, elevate the risk of ongoing pain by 1.03-1.05 times per point increase, leading to poorer treatment responses.^[137]^[134]^[7]^[138] Additional influences on prognosis include patient compliance with therapy and the presence of comorbidities. Adherence to conservative regimens, such as physical therapy or splint use, markedly enhances recovery rates, while non-compliance correlates with prolonged symptoms. Comorbid conditions like fibromyalgia or other musculoskeletal disorders negatively impact outcomes by exacerbating pain persistence and reducing treatment efficacy.^[1]^[7]

Prevalence and Demographics

Temporomandibular joint dysfunction (TMD) is a common condition, with symptomatic cases—characterized by pain, restricted jaw movement, or functional impairment—affecting 5% to 12% of the global population. In contrast, subclinical signs such as joint clicking, crepitus, or muscle tenderness are more prevalent, observed in up to 30% of individuals across various studies. These estimates vary by diagnostic criteria and population sampled, but they highlight TMD as a leading cause of orofacial pain requiring clinical attention.^[128]^[18] Demographically, TMD demonstrates a pronounced gender disparity, occurring approximately twice as often in females as in males (2:1 ratio), which may relate to hormonal influences exacerbating susceptibility to myofascial and joint issues. Prevalence peaks in young to middle adulthood, particularly between 20 and 40 years of age, though a secondary rise is noted around 50 years. Ethnic variations exist, with higher rates reported in Asian populations compared to some Western groups, potentially linked to genetic or lifestyle factors.^[128]^[18]^[139] Projections for future burden indicate a substantial increase, with global TMD prevalence potentially reaching 44% by 2050, driven by population aging, rising stress levels, and associated comorbidities. This forecast, based on modeling from current trends, underscores the need for enhanced epidemiological surveillance. Additionally, in subgroups with bruxism—a key risk modifier—the prevalence of TMD is markedly elevated, with a 2025 meta-analysis estimating 63.5% co-occurrence among affected individuals worldwide.^[140]^[141]

History

Early Recognition

In the late 19th century, early medical descriptions of temporomandibular joint (TMJ) issues focused on structural abnormalities rather than broader dysfunction, with British surgeon Thomas Annandale providing the first published account of disc displacement in the TMJ, which he surgically repositioned using horsehair sutures to alleviate symptoms such as pain and locking.^[142] These symptoms were often characterized as "ear pain" or neuralgia, reflecting limited understanding of their origin in joint mechanics.^[143] By the early 20th century, initial acknowledgments began linking TMJ disturbances more explicitly to otalgia and sinus-like symptoms, as otolaryngologist James B. Costen described in 1934 a syndrome involving ear pain, dizziness, and sinus discomfort due to disturbed TMJ function, often resulting from mandibular overclosure after posterior tooth loss.^[144] Early views predominantly attributed these issues exclusively to dental problems, such as malocclusion or tooth wear, leading to treatments like bite adjustments without recognizing multifactorial causes.^[145] From the 1920s to the 1950s, TMD gained recognition as a distinct clinical entity, with reports like Wright's 1920 documentation of hearing issues from condylar retrusion and Costen's work highlighting joint-muscle interactions, paving the way for targeted interventions.^[145] This period also saw the first systematic surgical attempts, including disc excisions for painful locking as early as Otto Lanz's 1906 procedure and subsequent meniscectomies in the 1930s–1950s to address internal derangements.^[146] However, misdiagnoses were common, with symptoms frequently confused with sinusitis—due to overlapping ear and facial pain—or psychogenic pain, delaying appropriate care until multidisciplinary perspectives emerged.^[145]

Key Milestones in Understanding

In the 1960s, understanding of temporomandibular joint dysfunction shifted from a primary emphasis on occlusal abnormalities to theories centered on internal derangements, particularly disc displacement. Laszlo L. Schwartz advanced this perspective by describing the "temporomandibular joint pain-dysfunction syndrome" and highlighting the role of disc malposition in joint pathology, moving away from purely dental etiologies toward a more comprehensive view of joint mechanics.^[147] This era also saw initial explorations of synthetic implants for disc replacement, though many were later recalled due to complications.^[148] The 1990s marked a pivotal advancement with the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Consensus Development Conference on the Management of Temporomandibular Disorders in 1996, which established a multifactorial model for TMD etiology, incorporating biological, psychological, and social factors rather than singular causes like occlusion.^[149] This consensus also formalized the term "temporomandibular disorders" (TMD) as an umbrella for a range of conditions affecting the joint and masticatory muscles, building on its initial adoption by the American Dental Association in 1983 but gaining widespread clinical and research acceptance.^[8] These developments emphasized evidence-based approaches over anecdotal treatments.^[150] During the 2010s, diagnostic standardization progressed with the publication of the Diagnostic Criteria for Temporomandibular Disorders (DC/TMD) in 2014, providing validated Axis I protocols for clinical and research use, including reliable screening for pain-related TMD and improved classification of subtypes like myalgia and arthralgia.^[56] Concurrently, guidelines reinforced a conservative care paradigm, prioritizing noninvasive interventions such as patient education, physical therapy, and self-management over invasive procedures, with multidisciplinary approaches showing success in resolving pain and dysfunction in most cases.^[12] In the 2020s, research has increasingly linked TMD to psychosocial stressors exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic, with studies documenting rises in symptoms like masticatory muscle pain and parafunctional habits during lockdowns due to heightened anxiety and altered routines.^[151] Recent 2025 investigations have further explored bruxism's role, identifying clinical, psychological, and hematological predictors of sleep bruxism in TMD patients, while projecting global TMD prevalence to reach 39% by 2030 amid rising stress-related factors.^[152]^[140]

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The Effectiveness of Physiotherapy in the Management of Temporomandibular Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis ... J Oral Facial Pain Headache. 2016 ...
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A home-based exercise program for temporomandibular joint ... - NIH
Feb 28, 2022 · This study demonstrated significant improvements in pain, function, and joint disc position and represents a valuable tool for the long-term ...
[115]
[PDF] Temporo- Mandibular Joint Disorders
This brochure is intended to provide general informafion on temporomandibular disorders and is not a subsfitute for careful evaluafion and treatment by a ...
[116]
Recommendations on the Use of Oral Orthotic Occlusal Appliance ...
Jun 27, 2023 · However, it is not generally recommended for TMJ disorders because it has been demonstrated that joint sounds and joint loading could increase ...
[117]
Efficiency of occlusal splint therapy on orofacial muscle pain reduction
Mar 28, 2023 · Low-quality evidence suggests that a hard stabilizing splint alone is effective in reducing the signs and symptoms of myogenic TMD compared with ...
[118]
Occlusal interventions for managing temporomandibular disorders
To assess the effects of occlusal interventions in people diagnosed with TMD, compared to other interventions or no treatment, for reduction in joint pain.
[119]
Occlusal treatments in temporomandibular disorders: a qualitative ...
Occlusal treatments (occlusal splints and occlusal adjustment) are controversial but widely used treatment methods for temporomandibular disorders (TMD).
[120]
33: Temporomandibular Joint Surgery (Including Arthroscopy)
Open Temporomandibular Joint Surgery. Overall, open joint surgery is indicated in less than 5% of patients with TMJ symptoms. The remainder can be treated ...
[121]
Arthroscopy versus arthrocentesis in the management of internal ...
The average overall success rate of arthrocentesis was reported to be 83.5% by multiple studies, for the management of internal derangement of TMJ and pain ...
[122]
Arthrocentesis of the Temporomandibular Joint: Systematic Review ...
In summary, it can be suggested that TMJ arthrocentesis improves jaw function and reduces pain levels, and the execution of multiple sessions (three to ﬁve) is ...
[123]
Recent Advances in Temporomandibular Joint Surgery - PMC
Overall, this review provides valuable insights into significant recent advancements in TMJ disorders and their surgical management. Keywords ...
[124]
Meta-Analysis TMJ Disorders Arthroscopy versus arthrocentesis and ...
... temporomandibular joint disorders: a systematic review with ... TMJ arthroscopy results in similar pain reduction and complication rates to arthrocentesis.
[125]
Current thinking in open temporomandibular joint surgery. Is this still ...
Open surgery of the TMJ remains a successful intermediate management of arthrogenous TMD, with success rates around 80% being expected.
[126]
Outcomes of open temporomandibular joint surgery following failure ...
A total of 22 patients (71%) reported improvement in pain score and 19 (61%) reported an improvement in mouth opening 12 months postoperatively. Overall, 12 ...Missing: 60-80% | Show results with:60-80%
[127]
Temporomandibular Disorders: Rapid Evidence Review - AAFP
This rapid evidence review focuses on patient-oriented evidence for managing patients with issues related to the temporomandibular region.
[128]
a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials
Feb 3, 2024 · The efficacy of acupuncture and decompression splints in the treatment of temporomandibular joint pain-dysfunction syndrome. Med Oral Patol ...Eligibility Criteria · Meta-Analysis · Quality Assessment Of The...
[129]
Effectiveness of manual therapy applied to craniomandibular ...
Dec 20, 2021 · All studies showed a significant improvement in pain and maximum mouth opening for CMMT from baseline in the mid-term, but only two showed superiority compared ...BACKGROUND · METHODS · RESULTS · DISCUSSION
[130]
Efficacy of dextrose prolotherapy for temporomandibular joint hypermobility: A systematic review and meta-analysis
### Summary of Findings on Prolotherapy for TMD
[131]
Efficacy of Prolotherapy in Temporomandibular Joint Disorders - NIH
Jan 13, 2020 · In our descriptive study, dextrose prolotherapy used on patients presented with TMJ pain and dysfunction showed an improved quality of life. The ...
[132]
TMJ disorders - Diagnosis and treatment - Mayo Clinic
Dec 24, 2024 · Treatment options for pain in your jaw joint and in the muscles that control jaw movement can include pain management, medical therapies and ...Symptoms and causes · Care at Mayo Clinic · Doctors and departmentsMissing: characteristics | Show results with:characteristics
[133]
Caring for Individuals with a TMD - Temporomandibular Disorders
This chapter discusses these challenges and describes the current state of prevention, detection, assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of TMDs.
[134]
a narrative review - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
This narrative review provides an integrative overview of current treatments for TMD-associated chronic pain.
[135]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3304195/
[136]
Evaluation of temporomandibular disorder self-management apps in ...
Mar 18, 2025 · This study aimed to systematically evaluate apps with temporomandibular disorder (TMD) self-management content available in Australia for quality, clinical ...
[137]
JawSpace
JawSpace is your guide to better TMD (Temporomandibular Disorders) and jaw pain management. ... This version provides access to general TMD self-management tools, ...
[138]
myTMJ - App Store - Apple
Track jaw pain, clicking & headaches with myTMJ. Monitor symptoms, set reminders & get expert-backed guidance. Smart care for your jaw anytime, anywhere.
[139]
OPPERA Study - The TMJ Association
It identified risk factors, signs, symptoms, genetic factors and environmental events that contribute to the development and chronicity of painful TMJ disorders ...Missing: early intervention
[140]
Diagnostic criteria for temporomandibular disorders (DC/TMD) for ...
Apr 5, 2021 · This paper is focused on the Delphi process related to the DC/TMD Axis I, while the Delphi process related to the DC/TMD Axis II and the full ...Missing: exams | Show results with:exams
[141]
[PDF] Diagnostic accuracy of three screening questions (3Q/TMD) in ...
Objective: To determine the diagnostic accuracy of three screening questions (3Q/TMD) in relation to the Diagnostic Criteria for Temporomandibular Disorders ...
[142]
Looking Forward to Greater IMPACT on Temporomandibular ...
Nov 15, 2023 · Explore NIDCR's vision for greater impact on Temporomandibular Disorders in 2023. Learn about the research efforts in orofacial pain.
[143]
Early Treatment of TMD May Prevent Chronic Pain and Disability
May 19, 2015 · The goal of this article is to review clinical studies that identify patients at high risk for chronic TMD and suggest early interventions that ...
[144]
A TWO-YEAR FOLLOW-UP STUDY - PMC - PubMed Central
Nov 18, 2016 · Because TMD is typically regarded as a chronic pain condition, it was natural to expect that an early intervention program would be effective in ...
[145]
Temporomandibular Joint (TMJ) Syndrome Treatment & Management
Jun 3, 2024 · As many as 50% of patients have symptomatic improvement in 1 year and 85% in 3 years. Initial management of TMJ disorders is with a conservative ...Missing: 80-90% | Show results with:80-90%<|control11|><|separator|>
[146]
Prognostic factor analysis in patients with temporomandibular ...
Jul 2, 2021 · The objective of this prospective cohort study is to identify prognostic factors that are associated with clinical outcomes of reversible treatment in patients ...
[147]
Outcomes of management of early temporomandibular joint disorders
Treatment of early TMD with IOS was effective and moderately effective in long-term in over 80% of the patients during the follow-up period of 1–9 years.
[148]
The role of inflammatory markers in Temporomandibular Myalgia
We aim to analyze if there is a relation between inflammation and TM myalgia, and if we can identify and measure inflammatory markers in patients suffering ...
[149]
Predictors for Future Clinically Significant Pain in Patients ... - PubMed
Abstract · Background: Up to 30% of patients with temporomandibular disorder (TMD) run the risk of progressing to chronic pain with significant disability.
[150]
Influence of psychological factors on the prognosis of ... - NIH
A correlation is identified between psychological factors and treatment outcome in patients with TMD-related pain.
[151]
A Meta-Analysis of the Global Prevalence of Temporomandibular ...
Feb 28, 2024 · This meta-analysis aims to evaluate the proportion of people with TMDs in different studies, considering factors such as geographical region, patient age, and ...
[152]
Quo Vadis Temporomandibular Disorders? By 2050, the Global ...
Jun 20, 2025 · TMD is an umbrella term that encompasses a range of diagnoses sharing common features such as pain, dysfunction, and restricted movement, ...
[153]
Journal - Dental and Medical Problems
A meta-analysis was conducted to estimate the pooled prevalence of TMD among adult patients with bruxism, stratified by continent. The analysis included 29 ...
[154]
Temporomandibular Joint Facts and Foibles - PMC - NIH
May 1, 2023 · In 1887, Thomas Annandale, a Scottish surgeon, reported the repositioning of an “internally deranged” TMJ disc with horsehair sutures [6]. Soon ...
[155]
ON DISPLACEMENT OF THE INTER-ARTICULAR CARTILAGE OF ...
ON DISPLACEMENT OF THE INTER-ARTICULAR CARTILAGE OF THE LOWER JAW, AND ITS TREATMENT BY OPERATION. · T. Annandale · Published 26 February 1887 · Medicine · The ...
[156]
I. A syndrome of Ear and Sinus Symptoms Dependent upon ...
An alternative view of the temporomandibular joint pain-dysfunction syndrome ... Response to: Chorda tympani in Chronic Inflammatory Middle ear Disease, from Dong ...
[157]
Temporomandibular joint dysfunction: from Costen to the present
Present treatment protocol for temporomandibular joint dysfunction emphasizes the need for an accurate diagnosis by the dentist or physician--as to whether the ...
[158]
HISTORY OF TEMPOROMANDIBULAR THERAPY - Pocket Dentistry
Jun 3, 2016 · Thomas Annandale generally is credited with the first published description of temporomandibular joint disc repair in 1887 ( Figure 41-1 ).
[159]
Temporomandibular Disorders: Moving from a Dentally Based to a ...
Aug 8, 2025 · It was not until 1955, when Dr Laszlo L. Schwartz from Columbia University wrote about "temporomandibular joint pain and dysfunction syndrome, " ...
[160]
Summary - Temporomandibular Disorders - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
This report focuses on temporomandibular disorders (TMDs), a set of more than 30 health disorders associated with both the temporomandibular joints (TMJs) and ...
[161]
[PDF] The National Institutes of Health (NIH) Consensus Development ...
Temporomandibular disorders (TMD) refer to a collection of medical and dental conditions affecting the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) and/or the muscles of ...Missing: multifactorial | Show results with:multifactorial
[162]
History and evolution of TMD concepts
Historically the field of temporomandibular disorders (TMD) has been based on testimonials, clinical opinion, and blind faith rather than on science.
[163]
The continuous adverse impact of COVID-19 on temporomandibular ...
Oct 4, 2023 · The present study compares the effect of the pandemic on TMD and bruxism (sleep and awake) in three time periods: before the pandemic (pre-COV), during the ...Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
[164]
Clinical, psychological, and hematological factors predicting sleep ...
May 31, 2025 · This cross-sectional observational study aimed to identify the predictors of sleep bruxism (SB) in patients with temporomandibular disorder ...