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Wattle

Wattle is a term with multiple meanings, primarily referring to plants in the genus Acacia, a building technique using interwoven branches, or fleshy appendages on certain animals. In Australian English, it most commonly denotes the native acacias, known as wattles.

Botany

In botany, wattle is a common name for species in the genus Acacia, a diverse group of shrubs and trees in the subfamily Mimosoideae of the pea family Fabaceae, characterized by their often globular or cylindrical yellow flower heads, bipinnate leaves or phyllodes (flattened leaf stalks), and pods containing seeds. Prior to taxonomic revisions in 2005–2011, Acacia sensu lato (s.l.) encompassed approximately 1,350 species worldwide, making it one of the largest genera in the plant kingdom; it has since been split into five genera, with Acacia sensu stricto (s.s.) comprising about 1,080 species, predominantly native to Australia.^[1]^[2] These are distributed across tropical and subtropical regions in Africa, Asia, Australia, and the Americas, with the remaining genera including Vachellia and Senegalia.^[3] In Australia, where over 1,000 species are native—making it the largest genus of vascular plants there—wattles play a crucial ecological role in diverse habitats from coastal areas to arid inland regions, often forming dominant vegetation in woodlands and savannas due to their drought tolerance and nitrogen-fixing abilities.^[1]^[4] The golden wattle (Acacia pycnantha) holds particular prominence as Australia's national floral emblem, proclaimed on 1 September 1988, and is celebrated annually on Wattle Day, 1 September, marking the start of spring and symbolizing national unity.^[1] Indigenous Australians have long valued wattles for multifaceted uses, including seeds ground into flour for food, gum as an edible substance, bark for tannins in leather processing and medicines, and wood for tools, weapons, and termite-resistant structures.^[5] Ecologically, many species feature adaptations like phyllodes for efficient photosynthesis in dry climates, and their flowers, which bloom year-round but peak in spring and summer, attract pollinators while varying in color from cream and gold to rare reds, pinks, and purples.^[5]^[1] Globally, wattles contribute to agriculture and industry; for instance, species like Acacia mangium are planted extensively in Asia for timber, charcoal, and pulp production, covering millions of hectares in plantations as of 2024.^[5] However, some Acacia species pose environmental challenges as invasives outside their native ranges, prompting management efforts.^[1] In horticulture, wattles are prized as hardy, fast-growing ornamentals, propagated easily from seeds or cuttings, with foliage ranging from green to silver-grey and new growth often displaying vibrant bronze or pink hues.^[1]

Construction

In construction, wattle refers to a technique using woven branches or twigs (often from willow or hazel) as a framework for walls, filled with clay or mud in wattle and daub building, common in traditional architecture worldwide.

Zoology

In zoology, wattles are fleshy, often brightly colored lobes of skin hanging from the head or neck of certain birds (e.g., turkeys, chickens) and other animals, serving functions like display or thermoregulation.

Etymology and other meanings

The word "wattle" derives from Old English "watel," meaning interwoven rods. It also appears in miscellaneous references, such as place names or cultural symbols.

Botany

Description and characteristics

Wattle plants belong to the genus Acacia within the family Fabaceae, consisting primarily of shrubs or trees that feature bipinnate leaves in juvenile stages or phyllodes—flattened, leaf-like petioles that serve as the primary photosynthetic structures in mature plants.^[1]^[6] These phyllodes vary in shape from linear to sickle-like, often with a prominent midrib, and contribute to the plant's distinctive foliage appearance across diverse habitats.^[6]^[1] Prominent morphological traits include small, fragrant, yellow flowers clustered in globular heads or elongated spikes and racemes, typically blooming in spring or summer to attract pollinators.^[7]^[1] Fruits develop as straight or coiled pods containing multiple seeds, while many species bear paired thorns or spines along branches for protection against grazing animals.^[7]^[6] Acacias demonstrate key adaptations for survival in arid and nutrient-poor environments, such as symbiotic root nodules with Rhizobium bacteria that enable nitrogen fixation, thereby improving soil quality.^[7] Drought tolerance is further enhanced by extensive deep root systems and phyllodes, which minimize water loss through reduced surface area and transpiration compared to bipinnate leaves.^[6]^[1] Most species exhibit evergreen habits, though some are semi-deciduous in response to seasonal conditions.^[1] With over 1,000 species native to Australia—representing the largest genus of vascular plants in the country—the global tally stood at approximately 1,300 before 2010s taxonomic revisions split the polyphyletic group into five genera, retaining the name Acacia for the Australian clade and a few others.^[1]^[8]

Species and distribution

The genus Acacia, commonly known as wattles in Australia, underwent a significant taxonomic revision in the early 2000s following phylogenetic studies that revealed its polyphyletic nature, leading to the segregation of non-Australian species into distinct genera. Australian wattles, comprising the bulk of the diversity, are now classified under Acacia sensu stricto (s.s.), which includes approximately 1,082 species, nearly all endemic to Australia. In contrast, the original African and pantropical species, previously under Acacia sensu lato (s.l.), were reclassified primarily into Vachellia (about 164 species) and Senegalia (about 220 species), reflecting the genus's African origins with roughly 160 species historically documented there. Prominent Australian examples include the golden wattle (Acacia pycnantha), Australia's national floral emblem; the silver wattle (A. dealbata), known for its silvery foliage; and the black wattle (A. mearnsii), valued for its rapid growth.^[9]^[10]^[11] Acacia s.s. species are predominantly Australian, with over 1,073 species occurring naturally on the continent and more than 90% endemic, occupying diverse habitats from arid inland deserts to coastal rainforests and temperate woodlands. While the genus traces its evolutionary roots to Africa, the Australian clade diversified extensively following ancient continental separations. Several species have been introduced globally for ornamental, agroforestry, or erosion-control purposes, but many have become invasive; for instance, A. saligna forms dense stands in South Africa's fynbos biome and California's coastal regions, outcompeting native vegetation. Similarly, A. pycnantha has naturalized in coastal California.^[9]^[12]^[13]^[14] Ecologically, wattles serve as pioneer species in disturbed soils, rapidly colonizing post-fire or cleared areas with nitrogen-fixing root nodules that enhance soil fertility and support subsequent plant succession. They provide critical habitat and nectar sources for wildlife, including birds, insects, and mammals, fostering biodiversity in regenerating ecosystems. However, their invasiveness abroad, such as A. saligna's displacement of indigenous flora in South Africa, underscores their competitive advantages in novel environments.^[10]^[15] Conservation challenges affect around 70 Australian Acacia species, which are listed as threatened due to habitat fragmentation from agriculture and urbanization, as well as hybridization with non-native congeners. As of 2020, this includes five critically endangered, 33 endangered, and 38 vulnerable taxa, with two species extinct. A 2021 international debate further highlighted tensions over the Acacia nomenclature, as African botanists advocated retaining the name for their native species, while Australian taxonomists defended its restriction to the s.s. clade based on priority rules.^[10]^[12]

Cultural and economic uses

First Nations peoples of Australia have utilized over 100 species of wattle (Acacia) for millennia, incorporating them into daily life and cultural practices.^[16] For food, seeds from various species are harvested, roasted, milled, and ground into flour to produce damper or cakes, providing a nutrient-rich staple during lean seasons.^[17] The gum exuded by some wattles serves as a natural adhesive for binding tools and weapons, while bark infusions are prepared as medicines to alleviate pain, inflammation, and infections.^[18]^[19] Wattles also supply durable wood for crafting digging sticks, boomerangs, spears, and other tools and weapons, valued for their strength and flexibility.^[20] Additionally, the flowering of certain species signals seasonal changes, such as the onset of spring, guiding hunting, gathering, and ceremonial activities.^[5] The golden wattle (Acacia pycnantha) holds profound national symbolism in Australia, reflecting unity and resilience. Proclaimed the official floral emblem on September 1, 1988, during the bicentenary celebrations, it embodies the nation's green and gold colors and is featured on coins, stamps, and public emblems.^[21] National Wattle Day, first observed on September 1, 1910, promotes national cohesion and environmental appreciation, with communities planting wattles and hosting events to honor Australian heritage.^[22] Sprigs of wattle are traditionally worn in buttonholes during ceremonies, including ANZAC Day commemorations, as a symbol of remembrance for those who served and sacrificed in wars.^[23]^[24] Economically, wattles contribute significantly to Australia's industries through their versatile properties. The bark of black wattle (Acacia mearnsii), rich in tannins, is used in leather processing as a sustainable alternative to synthetic chemicals.^[25]^[26] Timber from species like Acacia mangium provides hardwood for furniture, flooring, and construction, while its fast growth makes it ideal for fuelwood and charcoal production.^[27]^[5] In horticulture, wattles are popular for ornamental planting in gardens and as drought-tolerant species in landscaping, enhancing urban green spaces with their vibrant blooms and adaptability to arid conditions. Emerging applications include potential biofuels from biomass, as seen in studies on Acacia dealbata for renewable energy production, and pharmaceuticals derived from alkaloids in various species, which exhibit anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties.^[28]^[29] Despite these benefits, wattles pose modern challenges as invasive species abroad, prompting international control efforts. In regions like South Africa, where Australian acacias cover millions of hectares, programs employ biological agents, herbicides, and mechanical removal to mitigate impacts on biodiversity and water resources, with initiatives like Working for Water clearing extensive areas since the 1990s.^[30] Recent research highlights sustainable innovations, such as CSIRO's 2024 explorations of wattle extracts for natural dyes and eco-friendly materials, aiming to repurpose invasive stands while reducing environmental harm.^[5]

Construction

Technique and materials

The core technique of wattle construction involves interweaving flexible branches, twigs, or reeds—known as wattles—around upright wooden stakes to create a lattice framework for walls, fences, or portable panels called hurdles. These stakes are typically driven directly into the ground for temporary structures or fixed to a supporting frame for more permanent buildings, forming an open infill that provides structural flexibility.^[31]^[32] Materials for wattle are selected for their pliability and availability, often consisting of fresh saplings such as hazel, willow, or oak in European traditions, which are coppiced to yield straight, supple rods ideal for weaving. In early Australian colonies, Acacia branches were commonly used due to their local abundance and similar flexibility. The lattice is frequently combined with daub—a mixture of clay or subsoil, sand, chopped straw or animal hair for reinforcement, and sometimes dung, lime, or chalk as binders—to form wattle and daub, which seals gaps and weatherproofs the structure by applying the damp mixture in layers from both sides.^[31]^[32]^[33] Variations include plain wattle for temporary hurdles, where the weave alone suffices without daub for uses like livestock enclosures, and reinforced versions incorporating horizontal rods or split canes woven between vertical staves for added stability in load-bearing panels. Modern eco-friendly adaptations employ bamboo splits or even recycled plastic strips to mimic the traditional weave, often coated with lime or cement-stabilized earth for enhanced durability in sustainable housing.^[32]^[34]^[35] This method offers advantages such as low cost from locally sourced materials, ease and speed of assembly by small teams, and inherent flexibility that accommodates structural movement without cracking, providing good thermal insulation compared to masonry. However, without daub or protective coatings, it is vulnerable to rot from moisture exposure and insect damage, requiring regular maintenance to prevent decay.^[31]^[32]

History and regional applications

The origins of wattle construction trace back to the Neolithic period in Europe, with archaeological evidence from sites in the United Kingdom dating to approximately 4000 BCE, where rectangular timber houses featured walls of woven hazel rods plastered with mud.^[36] Prehistoric applications also appear in the Americas, such as in Mayan dwellings constructed from wooden poles interlaced with clay and mud for walls, and in Africa, where early Nubian structures employed wattle and daub with mudbrick elements as foundational building techniques.^[37]^[38]^[39] By the Bronze Age, wattle had become widespread across these regions, integrated into diverse housing forms as a versatile, locally sourced method for creating durable enclosures.^[32] In medieval and early modern Europe, wattle dominated infill panels in timber-framed houses, particularly in England and Wales from the 12th century onward, where it formed the walls of many rural and urban dwellings, often combined with limewash for protection.^[40] This technique persisted into colonial contexts, notably in the Caribbean, where enslaved Africans and Indigenous groups adapted wattle and daub for simple huts using local reeds and clay, a practice that continued until the 19th century despite the rise of more permanent European-style buildings.^[41]^[42] European settlers in Australia from 1788 utilized native Acacia species—commonly known as wattles—for constructing lightweight huts, weaving flexible branches into frames plastered with clay, which became a staple of early colonial architecture in response to scarce resources.^[43] These wattle huts remained common in rural areas into the 20th century, serving as affordable shelters in outback settlements, and have seen revival in the 21st century within sustainable architecture projects that emphasize low-impact, earthen materials for modern eco-homes.^[44]^[45] Beyond these core regions, wattle featured in ancient Mesopotamian domestic structures as an early form of walling with woven reeds and mud, predating monumental mud-brick architecture.^[46] In the 16th-century Roanoke colony in North America, English settlers employed wattle and daub for fort walls and houses, as evidenced by excavated panels of woven wood coated in clay mixtures.^[47] Today, heritage restorations in the United Kingdom, such as those at the Weald and Downland Living Museum, recreate and repair wattle panels in relocated historic buildings to preserve traditional craftsmanship.^[48]

Zoology

Anatomical features

Wattles are fleshy, vascular caruncles comprising soft skin flaps that typically hang from the head, neck, or chin of certain birds and mammals; they are usually paired and exhibit bright coloration or textured surfaces due to their rich blood supply.^[49] In birds, wattles consist of connective tissue rich in collagen bundles, extensive networks of blood vessels, and occasional fat deposits within the dermis and hypodermis.^[50]^[51] Examples include the pendulous, lobe-like structures dangling from beneath the beaks of gallinaceous birds such as chickens and turkeys, where the tissue forms elastic, vascular extensions supported by interwoven protein fibers.^[52] In vultures, such as the turkey vulture, the bare head and neck feature wrinkled, red skin folds that function similarly to wattles, with a vascular dermis overlaid by thin epidermis.^[53] In mammals, wattles occur less frequently and are often restricted to specific breeds or populations. In pigs, such as the Red Wattle hog, they manifest as paired appendages hanging from each side of the neck, measuring 50 to 100 mm in length and 10 to 20 mm in diameter, consisting of a central cartilaginous core covered by haired skin.^[54]^[55] Goats exhibit thumb-shaped wattles on the ventral throat, formed from normal epidermis, dermis, subcutis, striated muscle, nerves, blood vessels, and a cartilaginous core, resembling underdeveloped limb structures.^[56] Breed-specific examples include Kunekune pigs, where wattles hang as tassel-like flaps from the lower jaw, consistently present as a dominant genetic trait.^[57] Wattle size and shape vary by species, sex, and age, with males typically displaying larger structures; for instance, in guinea fowl, male wattles elongate more rapidly and extensively than those in females after four weeks of age.^[58] Textures range from smooth and elastic in chickens to bumpy and irregular in vultures or hair-covered in mammalian forms like pigs and goats. These congenital features are genetically determined, appearing in some individuals while absent in others of the same population, such as the 7.5% incidence of unilateral wattles in goats.^[56]

Functions and examples in animals

Wattles in animals primarily serve as structures for sexual display, thermoregulation, and indicating health status. In sexual display, wattles often swell and brighten during breeding seasons to attract mates, with their size and coloration signaling genetic quality and vitality. Thermoregulation occurs through increased blood flow to the vascular tissue, allowing heat dissipation via evaporation in hot conditions, as birds lack sweat glands. As health indicators, changes in wattle color or size—such as pallor or shrinkage—can signal illness, dehydration, or stress, enabling early detection in social or farmed animals. In birds, these functions are prominently illustrated in species like the wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), where males inflate their wattles with blood during courtship displays to appear more vibrant and dominant, enhancing mating success. Domestic chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) utilize wattles for thermoregulation, with vasodilation in the blood vessels promoting heat loss during high temperatures, a critical adaptation in poultry management. Wattles also aid in health assessment in chickens, where pale or shrunken wattles indicate conditions like anemia, parasitic infections, or viral diseases. In mammals, wattles appear in select breeds such as the red wattle pig (Sus scrofa domesticus), where fleshy appendages hang from the neck but have no established function, potentially serving sensory or social roles though this remains unconfirmed; they are absent in wild boars and result from selective breeding in heritage varieties. The function of wattles in goats also remains unclear, possibly ornamental or sensory.^[56] Evolutionarily, wattles derive from caruncle tissue, fleshy excrescences that evolved as ornaments in galliform birds, with studies linking their size to testosterone levels and overall condition during breeding periods. In poultry farming, wattle appearance holds veterinary importance for disease detection, as swelling, discoloration, or cyanosis of wattles can signal outbreaks like avian influenza, facilitating rapid intervention to prevent flock losses.

Etymology and other meanings

Linguistic origins

The word "wattle" derives from Old English watel or watul, attested before 1150 and signifying a hurdle or interwoven barrier made from flexible branches or twigs. This term likely stems from Proto-Germanic wadlaz, ultimately tracing back to the Proto-Indo-European root *au- (3), meaning "to weave," reflecting the interlacing technique used in its construction.^[59] Alternatively, some linguistic analyses link it to PIE wey-, denoting "to turn, wind, or bend," emphasizing the twisting of materials in fabrication.^[60] Cognates appear in Old High German wadal, referring to a bandage or woven strip akin to a willow switch, underscoring a shared Germanic heritage focused on binding or flexible enclosures.^[61] In Middle English, the form evolved to wattel, retaining its primary sense of a construction framework while expanding semantically. The earliest recorded verbal use, meaning "to interweave poles or branches," dates to 1377 in the works of poet William Langland, marking a shift toward active description of the weaving process.^[62] By the 16th century, the term extended to anatomical features, denoting a fleshy, pendulous flap of skin on birds' necks or throats, possibly by analogy to the loose, folded appearance of woven material; the first known use in this sense appears around 1513.^[61] This anatomical application, initially applied to avian structures, later influenced jocular references to human features by the 1560s.^[59] The application of "wattle" to plants emerged in the 18th and 19th centuries among European settlers in Australia, where flexible acacia branches were ideally suited for constructing hurdles and walls in colonial building practices. Early accounts from the Sydney Cove settlement in 1788 highlight their use for wattling and daubing, leading to the common naming of Acacia species as "wattles" by the 1790s in botanical descriptions by explorers such as Joseph Banks. This semantic shift tied the term directly to practical utility in the new environment, distinguishing it from broader European usages while preserving the core idea of pliability for weaving.^[15]

Miscellaneous references

In the field of tanning, Acacia bark extracts, particularly from species like Acacia mearnsii, were extensively used in 19th-century Australia to process leather, supporting a dedicated industry that emerged in the 1880s and relied on bark harvesting for its high tannin content, up to 40%, ideal for heavy-duty applications.^[63]^[64] Recent research has explored Acacia bark for sustainable textile dyes; a 2024 study demonstrated the extraction of natural dyes from Acacia nilotica bark for coloring Tencel fabrics, offering eco-friendly alternatives with good color fastness properties.^[65] The term "wattle" appears in several named entities unrelated to its primary meanings. The Steam Tug Wattle, launched in 1933 at Cockatoo Island Dockyard in Australia, was the nation's first oil-fired steam tugboat, serving in commercial and naval roles until 1969 and now preserved as a heritage vessel in Melbourne.^[66] Wallace D. Wattles (1860–1911) was an American New Thought author known for works like The Science of Getting Rich, which emphasized mental and spiritual principles for personal success.^[67] In dermatology, "wattle" refers to congenital cartilaginous rests of the neck, rare benign anomalies presenting as skin tags or folds with cartilaginous cores, often excised for cosmetic reasons.^[68] As a surname, Wattle has English origins tied to occupations involving the weaving of pliable branches into hurdles or fences, a practice common in medieval rural labor.^[69] In astronomy, the star WASP-19 was officially named Wattle by the International Astronomical Union in 2023, honoring the Australian plant genus as part of an exoplanet naming initiative.^[70] Indigenous Australian lore occasionally references wattle branches in cultural practices symbolizing renewal and protection, though such uses are broadly integrated into traditional knowledge systems without specific charms documented in primary ethnographic records.^[18]

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[51]
EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF TURKEYS - Poultry Extension
A turkey has a wattle under its beak and fleshy growths on the head and neck called caruncles. A male turkey, or a Tom, has a tuft of long, bristle-like fibers ...
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What Are Wattles For? - National Audubon Society
Feb 25, 2019 · Wattles are an adaptive feature that come in handy in several ways. On a hot day, with the sun bearing down, the bare skin of neck and wattle helps release ...
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[PDF] Wild Pigs - Savannah River Site
Wattles are normally approximately 50 to. 100 mm in length and 10 to 20 mm in diameter. The entire structure is covered with hair. The “red wattle” breed of ...
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INHERITANCE AND HISTOLOGY OF WATTLES IN SWINE
D is a cross-section of a swine's wattle showing the fibrous connective tissue, the cartilaginous care, adipose tissue, and the skin struc- tures (X7.4). A ...Missing: composition | Show results with:composition
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Wattles in goats are associated with the FMN1/GREM1 region ... - PMC
Wattles represent congenital thumb‐shaped appendages on the ventral throat and are common in domestic goats (Capra hircus). They consist of normal epidermis, ...
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How to Predict Wattles in KuneKunes
Wattles are a simple dominant trait. Which means that if your Kunekune has wattles, then they are either homozygous dominant (two copies of the wattle gene- one ...
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Age related differences in wattle length between male and female ...
The difference in wattle lengths between male and female birds emerged at 4 WOA (some males and most females did not posses wattles at 1 WOA), and continued ...
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Wattle - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
Wattle, from Old English watel meaning "hurdle," refers to a bird's neck flap or a woven stick framework, origin uncertain but linked to weaving roots.
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wattle - Wiktionary, the free dictionary
Noun · A construction of branches and twigs woven together to form a wall, barrier, fence, or roof. · A single twig or rod laid on a roof to support the thatch.
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WATTLE Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster
Nov 2, 2025 · The meaning of WATTLE is a fabrication of poles interwoven with slender branches, withes, or reeds and used especially formerly in building.
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https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/wattle
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[PDF] WATTLE : A TANNING INDUSTRY - History Group : Topics
Sep 14, 2016 · An industry began in the 1880's to harvest bark from wattle trees for its use in tanneries. This was a regular source of income for many ...
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Acacia mearnsii - PROTA4U
It is the world's principal source of tanbark; the bark contains up to 40% of excellent tannin especially suitable for use in the manufacture of heavy leather ...<|separator|>
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Study on tencel fabric dyeing with acacia nilotica bark natural dyes
Jul 1, 2024 · This research aimed to evaluate the performance of dyes extracted from Acacia Nilotica bark on Tencel fabric dyeing. The extraction of dye ...
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B6443 Steam Tug Wattle - Victorian Heritage Database
The vessel is the first oil fired steam tug in Australia and the only oil fired steamship fitted with natural draught still existing in Australia. She served ...
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About - Wallace D Wattles
Wallace Delois Wattles (1860–1911) was an American author. A New Thought writer, he remains personally somewhat obscure.
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Congenital Cartilaginous Rests of the Neck (Wattles) - DermNet
Congenital cartilaginous rests of the neck are rare, benign, congenital anomalies that likely represent branchiogenic malformations.
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List of Old English Occupations and descriptions
English (chiefly Manchester) occupational name for someone whose job was to ... WATTLE HURDLE MAKER Made a type of fence / enclosures from wattle to ...
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The IAU names more WASP exoplanets
Jun 25, 2023 · The star WASP-19 is named Wattle (a genus of 1000 species of shrubs ... The star WASP-43 is named Gnomon (after the astronomical ...