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Extraversion and introversion

Extraversion and introversion are core personality dimensions that represent contrasting orientations in how individuals direct their psychological energy and attention, with extraversion characterized by a focus on the external world, objects, and social interactions, while introversion emphasizes the internal subjective realm, ideas, and solitude.^[1] These concepts were first systematically articulated by Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung in his 1921 work Psychological Types, where he described extraversion as an attitude in which "the extravert maintains a positive relation to the object," adapting to external conditions and deriving energy from environmental stimuli, in contrast to introversion, defined as an abstracting orientation in which the introvert withdraws libido from the object as though to frustrate any attempted ascendancy by it, leading to energy conservation and withdrawal from external demands.^[1] In contemporary psychology, extraversion and introversion are integrated into the Five Factor Model (FFM) of personality, also known as the Big Five, as a single bipolar dimension where high extraversion manifests as sociability, assertiveness, and positive emotionality, while low extraversion (introversion) involves reserved, solitary, and reflective tendencies.^[2] Key facets of extraversion in the FFM include warmth, gregariousness, and excitement-seeking, which contribute to individuals' engagement in social settings and pursuit of external rewards, whereas introversion is associated with a preference for independent activities and lower sensitivity to social cues.^[2] This dimensional approach underscores that most people fall along a continuum rather than strict categories, with behavioral expressions varying by context and allowing for within-person fluctuations where even introverts may exhibit extraverted behaviors temporarily.^[3] The distinction holds significant implications across psychological domains, influencing social behavior, emotional well-being, and interpersonal dynamics; for instance, extraverts tend to experience higher levels of positive affect through goal-directed social pursuits like connecting with others, while introverts may derive satisfaction from introspective goals such as self-reflection,^[4] highlighting extraversion's role in motivating approach-oriented behaviors.^[3] Research in the FFM framework further links high extraversion to leadership emergence and adaptability in group settings, whereas introversion correlates with deeper analytical thinking and creativity in low-stimulation environments,^[5] though both traits can present adaptive advantages depending on situational demands.^[2]

Definitions and Varieties

Extraversion

Extraversion is a fundamental personality trait defined as the tendency to focus psychological energy on the external world, characterized by high levels of assertiveness, excitement-seeking, warmth, and gregariousness.^[6] Individuals high in extraversion exhibit a preference for engaging with others and the environment, deriving satisfaction from social and stimulating experiences.^[3] Key behavioral indicators of extraversion include a strong inclination toward group activities, frequent talkativeness, tendencies toward dominance in social interactions, and rapid engagement with novel situations or stimuli.^[6] These behaviors manifest as outgoing participation in social gatherings, energetic communication, leadership in group dynamics, and proactive pursuit of new opportunities, reflecting an overall orientation toward external rewards and interpersonal connections.^[7] Extraversion exists on a dimensional spectrum, ranging from low to high levels, where those at the high end gain psychological energy and motivation primarily from social interactions and external stimulation.^[8] In contrast to introversion, which involves drawing energy from internal reflection, high extraversion promotes vitality through outward engagement.^[6] This continuum allows for varying degrees of the trait across individuals, with ambiversion representing a balanced midpoint.^[9] From an evolutionary perspective, extraversion confers adaptive benefits through enhanced social cooperation and efficacy in leadership roles within ancestral environments, facilitating alliance formation, resource acquisition, and competitive success in group settings.^[10] High extraverts' sociable and ambitious tendencies likely promoted reproductive fitness by increasing mating opportunities and social status, though balanced by potential risks such as impulsivity-related vulnerabilities.^[11]

Introversion

Introversion is a fundamental personality trait defined by an inward orientation toward internal mental and emotional experiences, rather than external social interactions. It is characterized by traits such as reserve, introspection, independence, and a reduced need for external stimulation to maintain energy levels.^[12] Individuals high in introversion derive satisfaction from solitary reflection and thoughtful processing, focusing energy on personal ideas and inner worlds over outward engagement.^[13] This trait emphasizes self-sufficiency and a preference for depth in experiences, allowing introverts to process information deliberately and creatively in low-stimulation settings.^[14] Key behavioral indicators of introversion include a strong preference for solitary or small-group activities over large social gatherings, a tendency to listen attentively rather than dominate conversations, and the ability to sustain deep concentration on individual tasks without frequent interruption. Introverts often experience discomfort or fatigue in highly stimulating environments, such as crowded parties or prolonged networking events, prompting them to seek quieter spaces for recovery. These patterns reflect a deliberate approach to social energy expenditure, where interactions are selective and purposeful rather than expansive.^[15] For instance, introverts may excel in roles requiring sustained focus, like writing or research, where minimal external input enhances productivity.^[16] On the dimensional spectrum of personality traits, introversion occupies the low end of the extraversion continuum, particularly within established frameworks like the Five-Factor Model (FFM). In the FFM, low extraversion scores indicate introversion, with individuals recharging through alone time to restore mental resources depleted by social demands. This positioning highlights introversion as a complementary pole to extraversion, where introverts thrive in independent work environments that reward persistence and analytical depth over collaborative dynamism. Research underscores that such traits contribute to strengths in sustained attention and problem-solving in autonomous contexts.^[17]^[18] A prevalent misconception portrays introversion as synonymous with shyness or social anxiety, implying a pathological aversion to people; in reality, it represents a natural energy conservation strategy that enables effective functioning without the fear or distress associated with those conditions. Shyness involves apprehension about negative evaluation, whereas introversion is a stable preference for internal focus that does not inherently impair social ability when chosen environments align with it. This distinction clarifies introversion as a healthy variation in personality, not a deficit requiring correction.^[19]^[20]

Ambiversion

Ambiversion represents the midpoint on the extraversion-introversion continuum, where individuals exhibit a balanced combination of traits from both poles, demonstrating situational variability in their social and energetic preferences.^[21] Unlike the more fixed orientations of extraversion or introversion, ambiverts adapt their behavior flexibly, drawing on elements of both to navigate different contexts effectively.^[22] This positions ambiversion as a hybrid manifestation that builds briefly on the core definitions of extraversion and introversion by emphasizing adaptability rather than consistency.^[21] Key characteristics of ambiverts include the ability to shift seamlessly between social engagement and periods of solitude based on circumstances, moderate levels of sociability that avoid extremes, and energy levels that fluctuate contextually rather than remaining consistently high or low.^[22] For instance, an ambivert might thrive in collaborative group settings during energizing interactions but prefer independent reflection when needing to recharge or focus deeply.^[23] This flexibility fosters self-awareness and balanced communication skills, allowing ambiverts to listen attentively or assert themselves as the situation demands.^[24] Ambiversion is prevalent among the general population, with estimates indicating that more than half of individuals fall into this category, making it the most common position on the continuum rather than the extremes of pure extraversion or introversion.^[22] Identification typically occurs through personality inventories where scores on extraversion dimensions, such as those in the Big Five model, cluster in the middle range rather than at the poles, reflecting variable rather than polarized responses.^[22] One notable advantage of ambiversion lies in its versatility across diverse environments, enabling individuals to switch adeptly from collaborative tasks requiring social interaction to independent work demanding focus and introspection.^[22] Research has shown that ambiverts outperform both introverts and extraverts in certain performance contexts, such as sales roles, where their balanced approach yields higher revenue—24% more than introverts and 32% more than extraverts—due to their intuitive timing in pushing or pulling back. This adaptability enhances overall effectiveness in dynamic professional and social settings.^[25]

Historical Development

Early Psychological Concepts

The roots of extraversion and introversion trace back to ancient philosophical conceptions of human temperament, particularly the humoral theory attributed to Hippocrates around 460–370 BCE. This framework posited four fundamental personality types based on the balance of bodily fluids: the sanguine (associated with blood, characterized by sociability and optimism) and choleric (yellow bile, marked by assertiveness and energy) temperaments exhibited outward-oriented traits akin to modern extraversion, while the melancholic (black bile, reflective and withdrawn) aligned with introverted tendencies. These ideas, later elaborated by Galen, provided an early proto-psychological basis for distinguishing between externally focused and internally directed dispositions, influencing subsequent personality classifications.^[6] The modern psychological conceptualization emerged prominently through Carl Gustav Jung's seminal work Psychological Types (1921), where he delineated extraversion and introversion as opposing attitudes governing the flow of psychic energy, or libido. Extraversion manifests as an outward orientation, with consciousness adapting to objective conditions and external objects, leading individuals to derive motivation from social and environmental stimuli. In contrast, introversion directs energy inward, emphasizing subjective factors and abstracting from external influences to safeguard personal integrity, often resulting in a more contemplative and self-reliant approach. Jung derived these types from clinical observations of patients, positioning them as fundamental to understanding psychological adaptation.^[1] Freudian psychoanalysis contributed indirectly to these early formulations through its emphasis on libido as the primary psychic energy, influencing views on its directional flow, though such concepts were peripheral to Freud's core focus on unconscious conflicts and sexuality. In Freud's framework, an inward redirection of libido—resembling introversion—was typically interpreted pathologically as a regressive withdrawal from reality, necessitating therapeutic restoration of outward engagement, as seen in his discussions of transference dynamics. Jung, building on this while diverging, integrated Freud's energy model into a more neutral typology, highlighting both pathological and adaptive aspects of energy orientation in clinical settings.^[26] Preceding later dimensional models, Alfred Adler's individual psychology (developed in the 1910s–1920s) introduced social interest, or Gemeinschaftsgefühl, as a cornerstone of healthy personality, linking robust outward social engagement—paralleling extraverted traits—to overcoming inferiority feelings and achieving communal usefulness. Adler distinguished this from mere sociability, viewing low social interest as indicative of maladjustment akin to introverted isolation, thus providing an early clinical lens on interpersonal orientation that complemented Jung's attitudes without equating them directly.^[27]

Key Theoretical Contributions

Building upon Carl Jung's foundational typological framework of extraversion and introversion as opposing attitudes, mid-20th-century theorists shifted toward biologically grounded, dimensional models that conceptualized these traits along continuous spectra rather than discrete categories.^[28] Raymond Cattell advanced this shift in the 1940s through his factor-analytic approach to personality, identifying 16 primary factors and higher-order global factors, including extraversion as a second-order dimension combining traits like dominance, liveliness, and social boldness. His 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF), developed in 1949, provided an empirical basis for measuring these dimensions, influencing the move from qualitative types to quantitative trait continua.^[29] Hans Eysenck's arousal theory, developed in the 1950s and 1960s, posited that extraversion and introversion reflect differences in baseline cortical arousal levels regulated by the ascending reticular activating system. According to this model, extraverts exhibit lower tonic arousal, prompting them to seek external stimulation to achieve optimal arousal, while introverts maintain higher arousal, leading them to avoid overstimulation to prevent discomfort.^[28] Eysenck integrated these ideas into his hierarchical personality structure, where extraversion-introversion forms a superordinate dimension influenced by genetic and physiological factors, supported by empirical links to conditioning and sensory sensitivity. In the 1970s, Jeffrey Gray extended and modified Eysenck's framework through his reinforcement sensitivity theory, emphasizing neurobehavioral systems in reward and punishment processing. Gray proposed that extraversion is primarily associated with the behavioral approach system (BAS), which facilitates sensitivity to rewarding stimuli and impulsivity, rotating Eysenck's extraversion axis toward positive reinforcement rather than pure arousal.^[30] This theory highlighted how extraverts' greater BAS reactivity drives approach behaviors, contrasting with anxiety-related avoidance in introverts via the behavioral inhibition system.^[30] During the 1980s, Paul Costa and Robert McCrae advanced the integration of extraversion into the five-factor model (FFM) of personality, portraying it as a broad, multifaceted trait encompassing gregariousness, assertiveness, activity, excitement-seeking, warmth, and positive emotions.^[31] Their NEO Personality Inventory operationalized extraversion through these six facets, emphasizing its role as a heritable dimension that predicts social engagement and emotional expressivity within a comprehensive trait taxonomy. Theoretical critiques have increasingly challenged Jung's categorical typology in favor of dimensional approaches, arguing that extraversion-introversion functions as a continuum where individuals vary in degree rather than type. This shift facilitated more precise predictions of behavior and heritability estimates, underscoring the superiority of trait-based continua over binary classifications for capturing personality variability.^[32]

Measurement Approaches

Self-Reporting Techniques

Self-reporting techniques constitute a cornerstone of personality assessment for extraversion and introversion, relying on individuals' introspective evaluations of their own traits through structured questionnaires. These methods capture subjective self-perceptions, often contrasting with more objective approaches, and are favored for their scalability in research and clinical settings. By prompting respondents to rate trait descriptors or endorse behavioral statements, such techniques yield quantitative scores on the extraversion-introversion continuum, where high extraversion reflects sociability and energy from external stimulation, while high introversion indicates preference for solitude and internal reflection.^[33] The lexical method draws from the lexical hypothesis, positing that important personality differences are encoded in language, and employs adjective checklists for assessment. In this approach, individuals rate the self-descriptiveness of trait adjectives on scales such as 1 (very inaccurate) to 9 (very accurate). Lewis Goldberg's Big-Five factor markers exemplify this, featuring 20 adjectives for extraversion (e.g., "outgoing," "talkative," "energetic") and 20 prototypic opposites for introversion (e.g., "reserved," "shy," "quiet"), derived from factor analyses of over 1,700 personality terms in English. Scores are computed by averaging ratings within each pole, providing a bipolar measure of the trait. This method's brevity facilitates large-scale studies while maintaining fidelity to natural language descriptors.^[34] Statement-based self-reporting, in contrast, uses full sentences to describe behaviors or feelings, allowing for nuanced endorsement via Likert scales (e.g., 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree) or forced-choice formats. The Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) by Paul T. Costa Jr. and Robert R. McCrae assesses extraversion across six facets—warmth, gregariousness, assertiveness, activity, excitement-seeking, and positive emotions—through 48 items, such as "I really enjoy talking to people" or "I don't talk a lot" (reverse-scored). Facet scores aggregate to a domain-level extraversion score, enabling hierarchical analysis of subtraits. This format enhances comprehensibility for respondents and supports detailed profiling beyond a unipolar dimension.^[35] Common inventories include the International Personality Item Pool (IPIP) scales, which offer public-domain items mirroring proprietary measures like the NEO-PI-R. For extraversion, IPIP provides both lexical markers (e.g., 20 adjectives akin to Goldberg's) and statement-based scales (e.g., 10-50 items like "I am the life of the party"), selectable for research needs without licensing fees. These scales emphasize brevity and adaptability, with the 50-item IPIP Big-Five markers serving as a standard for cross-cultural applications.^[36] Reliability of these self-report techniques is robust, with test-retest correlations for extraversion scales typically ranging from 0.75 to 0.90 across intervals of weeks to years, indicating temporal stability. For instance, the NEO-PI-R extraversion domain yields a median test-retest reliability of 0.83 over six years, while IPIP 100-item extraversion markers achieve alphas of 0.89 and retest rs above 0.80. Validity is supported by factor analyses, which confirm the unidimensionality of extraversion as a distinct factor in the personality structure, with high loadings (often >0.70) on its primary dimension and low cross-loadings on others like neuroticism. Convergent validity is evident in strong correlations (rs > 0.75) between measures, such as IPIP extraversion and NEO-PI-R equivalents, alongside predictive links to social behaviors. Eysenck's Personality Inventory (EPI), a yes/no statement-based measure, similarly assesses extraversion-introversion with retest reliability around 0.80, aligning with broader theoretical models.^[33]^[37]^[34]^[37]^[38]

Biological and Observational Methods

Biological and observational methods provide objective assessments of extraversion and introversion by examining physiological responses, genetic influences, and behavioral patterns in controlled settings, offering empirical data that complement self-reporting techniques. These approaches focus on measurable indicators such as social engagement during interactions, stress-related hormonal changes, cardiovascular reactivity, and neural activity during reward tasks, allowing researchers to validate trait manifestations without relying on subjective introspection. Seminal studies have employed these methods to quantify trait differences, revealing consistent patterns in how extraverts and introverts respond to social and rewarding stimuli. Observational coding involves systematic rating of behaviors like social initiation or withdrawal in laboratory-based interaction tasks, providing direct evidence of extraversion-related tendencies. For instance, in controlled dyadic or group settings, coders evaluate participants' talkativeness, eye contact, and approach behaviors during structured social exercises, such as getting-acquainted conversations or cooperative problem-solving activities. The Riverside Behavioral Q-sort (RBQ), a widely used tool, enables detailed coding of over 50 behavioral items, including sociability and assertiveness, from videotaped interactions; studies show that higher extraversion correlates with observed outgoing behaviors in these paradigms, with interrater reliability often exceeding 0.80. Such methods, applied in laboratory studies like the Personality Interaction Laboratory Study (PILS), demonstrate that extraverts initiate more interactions and exhibit greater expressiveness compared to introverts, capturing real-time social dynamics with high ecological validity. Genetic studies, primarily through twin and adoption designs, estimate the heritability of extraversion at 40-60%, indicating substantial biological underpinnings. Meta-analyses of twin studies across large cohorts reveal that monozygotic twins show greater similarity in extraversion scores than dizygotic twins, attributing roughly half of the variance to additive genetic factors, with the remainder influenced by non-shared environments. For example, a comprehensive review of Big Five traits confirms this range for extraversion, highlighting its moderate to high genetic stability across cultures and ages. These findings underscore the polygenic nature of the trait, with genome-wide association studies further identifying specific loci associated with extraversion-related behaviors. Biological markers, including cortisol responses to stress and heart rate variability (HRV) in social contexts, differentiate extraverts and introverts through autonomic and endocrine profiles. Extraverts typically exhibit blunted cortisol reactivity during psychosocial stress tasks, such as the Trier Social Stress Test, where salivary cortisol increases are lower compared to introverts, reflecting greater resilience to social evaluation. Similarly, in social interaction scenarios, extraverts display higher baseline HRV and reduced heart rate reactivity, indicating efficient vagal regulation and lower sympathetic arousal; laboratory experiments show that extraversion predicts attenuated cardiovascular responses to recurrent social stressors, with effect sizes around 0.30. These markers provide quantifiable insights into how extraversion buffers physiological stress in interpersonal settings. Electrophysiological tools, particularly electroencephalography (EEG) and event-related potentials (ERPs), reveal differences in reward processing linked to extraversion. Extraverts show enhanced Reward Positivity (RewP), an ERP component peaking around 300 ms post-feedback, during monetary or social reward tasks, suggesting heightened dopaminergic sensitivity to positive outcomes. Reviews of EEG studies indicate that extraversion modulates early ERPs like the P3 amplitude in response to rewarding stimuli, with extraverts displaying larger responses to anticipated gains in gambling or cooperation paradigms. These neural signatures, observed in lab-based oddball or feedback tasks, correlate moderately (r ≈ 0.25-0.40) with self-reported extraversion, offering a window into the trait's motivational underpinnings.

Theoretical Models

Eysenck's Personality Theory

Hans Eysenck's theory of personality represents a foundational biological approach, emphasizing the extraversion-introversion dimension as a heritable trait governed by physiological processes. Building briefly on Carl Jung's earlier psychological concepts, Eysenck integrated them into an empirical framework centered on neurophysiology.^[39] At its core, the model posits that differences in extraversion arise from variations in the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS), a brainstem structure responsible for regulating cortical arousal levels. Introverts maintain higher baseline arousal in the cerebral cortex, rendering them more susceptible to overstimulation from external stimuli, which prompts avoidance of high-stimulation environments to preserve an optimal arousal state; in contrast, extraverts exhibit lower baseline arousal and actively seek sensory and social input to achieve similar equilibrium.^[40] This arousal-based explanation underscores extraversion as a adaptive mechanism for balancing excitatory and inhibitory neural processes.^[41] Eysenck conceptualized personality within a hierarchical structure, positioning extraversion as a second-order supertrait that subsumes several first-order primary traits, including sociability (tendency to engage with others), impulsivity (spontaneous and uninhibited behavior), and activity (energetic and fast-paced lifestyle). This multilevel organization allows for the decomposition of broad dimensions into measurable components, enabling precise prediction of behavioral patterns across contexts. For instance, high scorers on extraversion typically display elevated sociability and activity, reflecting the supertrait's influence on interpersonal and motivational tendencies.^[42] Such hierarchy facilitates both theoretical integration and practical application in personality assessment.^[38] Supporting evidence for the model derives from classical conditioning paradigms, where introverts demonstrate superior performance in acquiring inhibitory responses compared to extraverts. In experiments involving eyelid conditioning or avoidance learning, introverts extinguish conditioned responses more rapidly due to their heightened cortical sensitivity, which amplifies the strength of inhibitory neural pathways and aligns with the ARAS arousal hypothesis.^[43] These findings, replicated across verbal and motor conditioning tasks, validate the biological underpinnings of extraversion by linking trait differences to observable differences in learning and inhibition.^[44] To operationalize extraversion, Eysenck and his collaborator Sybil Eysenck introduced the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) in 1964, a self-report questionnaire comprising 57 items designed to yield reliable scores on the extraversion dimension. The EPI's extraversion scale incorporates subscales targeting sociability (e.g., enjoyment of parties), liveliness (e.g., quick to laugh), and activity (e.g., preference for vigorous pursuits), with items phrased as true/false statements to minimize ambiguity. Development involved factor-analytic refinement of earlier inventories like the Maudsley Personality Inventory, ensuring high internal consistency (alpha ≈ 0.80 for extraversion) and test-retest reliability over intervals up to two years.^[45] The tool's brevity and focus on phenotypic traits have made it a cornerstone for empirical research on personality biology.^[46]

Five-Factor Model Integration

In the Five-Factor Model (FFM) of personality, also known as the Big Five, Extraversion represents one of five broad, orthogonal dimensions that capture the fundamental structure of individual differences in personality. These dimensions—Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and Openness to Experience—were derived through factor analyses of personality-descriptive terms in natural languages, rooted in the lexical hypothesis that the most salient traits are embedded in everyday vocabulary.^[47] Early lexical studies by researchers such as Allport and Odbert (1936) and subsequent refinements by Tupes and Christal (1961) and Norman (1963) consistently identified these five robust factors, with Extraversion emerging as a dimension characterized by sociability, energy, and positive emotionality.^[47] The FFM's empirical foundation distinguishes it as a comprehensive, data-driven framework, orthogonal by design to allow independent assessment of each trait.^[17] Within the FFM, Extraversion is further delineated into six specific facets using instruments like the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R), providing a hierarchical structure for nuanced measurement. These facets include Warmth (E1: friendliness and affection toward others), Gregariousness (E2: preference for company and social engagement), Assertiveness (E3: leadership and dominance in social situations), Activity (E4: pace of living and energy level), Excitement-Seeking (E5: pursuit of stimulation and adventure), and Positive Emotions (E6: tendency to experience joy and enthusiasm).^[31] This facet-level approach, developed by Costa and McCrae, allows for a more granular understanding of Extraversion, revealing variations such as an individual high in Assertiveness but low in Excitement-Seeking, and has been validated through psychometric analyses showing high internal consistency (alpha coefficients typically above 0.70) and convergent validity with behavioral observations.^[31] The NEO-PI-R's structure underscores Extraversion's role in interpersonal and motivational domains while integrating it orthogonally with the other Big Five factors. Empirically, the FFM's Extraversion dimension shows moderate to strong overlap with Eysenck's earlier conceptualization of Extraversion, with correlations between NEO-PI-R Extraversion scores and Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) Extraversion typically ranging from 0.60 to 0.85 across studies, indicating substantial convergence on core sociability aspects.^[48] However, the FFM provides broader coverage by incorporating diverse facets that extend beyond Eysenck's arousal-based focus, such as positive emotionality and warmth, which account for additional variance in personality prediction (e.g., in job performance and relationship satisfaction models).^[48] This integration enhances the FFM's utility in multifaceted applications, as evidenced by meta-analyses confirming its superior predictive power over narrower models when facets are considered.^[49] Cross-cultural research has robustly validated the consistency of the Extraversion factor across diverse languages and societies, supporting the FFM's universality. Studies using translated NEO-PI-R versions in over 50 cultures, including European, Asian, African, and South American samples, have demonstrated high factorial invariance for Extraversion, with congruence coefficients exceeding 0.90 in lexical and questionnaire-based factor analyses.^[50] For instance, McCrae and Costa's analyses of personality terms in languages like Chinese, Spanish, and Hebrew replicated the Extraversion factor with similar loadings on sociability and energy-related adjectives, though minor variations in facet emphasis (e.g., higher activity in individualistic cultures) highlight subtle cultural modulations without undermining the core dimension.^[50] This cross-cultural stability affirms Extraversion's foundational role in the FFM, facilitating global personality assessment and comparison.^[51]

Behavioral Manifestations

Extraverts tend to exhibit more outgoing social behaviors, frequently initiating conversations and engaging in a broader range of topics during interactions. This pattern aligns with extraverts' propensity to speak up more often in group settings, which contributes to their emergence as leaders by signaling competence and attracting followers. Extraverts also maintain larger social networks, as higher levels of extraversion and its facets—such as sociability, liveliness, social boldness, and social self-esteem—correlate with expanded advice-seeking networks.^[52] These behaviors may stem from theoretical differences in arousal seeking, where extraverts pursue stimulating social environments to optimize cortical arousal. In contrast, introverts display more reserved social patterns, preferring selective socializing over frequent interactions and often deferring to others in larger crowds. They tend to withdraw or show less interest in group dynamics, opting for limited engagement to conserve energy.^[53] Introverts prioritize deeper one-on-one connections, where high levels of targeted social engagement—such as collaborative or supportive interactions—enhance their self-esteem more than superficial group involvement.^[53] Ambiverts demonstrate flexibility in social behaviors, adjusting their level of expressiveness based on context, such as becoming more verbose in small, familiar groups while toning down in larger or unfamiliar ones. This adaptability allows them to balance assertiveness and restraint, outperforming pure extraverts or introverts in dynamic interpersonal scenarios by modulating talkativeness to match situational demands. Gender variations influence the expression of these traits, with women scoring higher on the enthusiasm aspect of extraversion, manifesting as greater relational and sociable tendencies in interpersonal behaviors. Men, conversely, exhibit higher assertiveness, leading to more dominant displays in social and group contexts.^[54] Age-related differences are subtler, with extraversion slightly declining over time, resulting in more tempered social initiations among older adults compared to younger ones, though core patterns persist.

Cognitive and Motivational Patterns

Extraverts and introverts exhibit distinct cognitive styles in information processing, with extraverts tending toward broader, externally oriented scanning of stimuli and introverts favoring deeper, more focused internal analysis. This difference aligns with descriptions in the Five-Factor Model, where extraversion is characterized by breadth of activities and engagement with external cues, contrasting with the depth-oriented approach of introversion. Research using cognitive style assessments, such as field dependence measures, has shown that extraverts often rely more on contextual or external references for perception and decision processing, while introverts demonstrate greater field independence, enabling concentrated attention on internal details without external interference.^[55] These patterns influence how individuals approach problem-solving, with extraverts scanning widely for opportunities and introverts delving deeply into selected topics for thorough understanding. Motivational drivers also diverge along the extraversion-introversion continuum, with extraverts primarily propelled by extrinsic rewards, social excitement, and stimulation-seeking goals. Studies integrating trait and motivational perspectives reveal that state extraversion—manifesting as outgoing behaviors—is strongly associated with pursuits like having fun (β = .43), entertaining others (β = .45), and stirring up excitement (β = .45), explaining up to 74% of variance in extraverted actions.^[56] In contrast, introverts are more driven by intrinsic motivations, such as personal reflection and meaningful, self-directed goals that require solitude for contemplation. This intrinsic focus fosters sustained engagement in tasks that align with internal values, differing from the reward-sensitive orientation of extraverts. In decision-making, extraverts display a propensity for risk-taking, often embracing uncertainty to pursue potential gains, whereas introverts exhibit greater caution and deliberate evaluation to minimize losses. Empirical evidence from investment behavior studies indicates that high extraversion moderates the link between cognitive biases and irrational choices, promoting risk-seeking investments (β = 0.47, p < 0.001), while low extraversion (introversion) weakens this association and supports more conservative strategies.^[57] These tendencies extend beyond financial contexts to general goal pursuit, where extraverts' optimism toward rewards encourages bold actions, and introverts' reflective caution ensures thorough risk assessment. Links to creativity highlight how these patterns shape ideation processes, with introverts excelling in solitary environments that allow deep, unfettered exploration, and extraverts thriving in collaborative settings that leverage social energy. Neuroscientific research supports that extraverts generate original ideas under conditions of reduced cortical arousal, as indicated by elevated EEG alpha power during brainstorming tasks, facilitating novel associations in group dynamics.^[58] Conversely, introverts' preference for introspection enables profound solitary ideation, often yielding innovative insights through sustained internal focus, though both traits contribute uniquely to creative output depending on the context.

Biological Foundations

Genetic and Neurochemical Influences

Twin and adoption studies have consistently demonstrated a substantial genetic component to extraversion, with meta-analyses estimating heritability at approximately 40-50% for this trait.^[59] These estimates derive from behavioral genetic data across multiple cohorts. Such findings underscore the polygenic nature of extraversion, where no single gene dominates but rather a combination of variants contributes to individual differences. Recent genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified multiple genomic loci associated with extraversion, further confirming its polygenic basis.^[60] Candidate gene studies have identified polymorphisms in dopamine-related genes as potential contributors to extraversion, particularly through their influence on reward sensitivity. For instance, the COMT Val158Met polymorphism, affecting dopamine degradation via the catechol-O-methyltransferase enzyme, links to reward processing efficiency, with the Val allele correlating with greater extraversion and sensitivity to positive reinforcement in social contexts.^[61] At the neurochemical level, extraversion aligns with heightened activity in dopamine reward pathways, facilitating stronger motivational responses to social and environmental incentives. This enhanced dopaminergic signaling in extraverts promotes approach-oriented behaviors and positive affect, consistent with models positing dopamine as a key facilitator of incentive motivation.^[62] Gene-environment interactions further shape these traits, where social experiences can amplify genetic predispositions for extraversion; for example, supportive interpersonal environments enhance the expression of reward-sensitive genotypes, leading to more pronounced extraverted tendencies. This interplay highlights how genetic vulnerabilities or strengths in dopamine systems interact dynamically with life experiences to influence personality development.^[63]

Brain Structure and Activity

Neuroimaging studies have identified structural differences in brain regions associated with reward processing and behavioral inhibition between individuals high and low in extraversion. Specifically, greater gray matter volume in the nucleus accumbens has been observed in those with higher agentic extraversion, particularly among males, supporting its role in reward anticipation and motivation.^[64] In contrast, introverts, characterized by lower extraversion, exhibit greater cortical thickness in prefrontal regions such as the inferior frontal cortex and right middle frontal gyrus, which may facilitate enhanced inhibitory control and internal reflection.^[65]^[66] Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) research reveals heightened activity in the ventral striatum among extraverts during reward processing, particularly in response to social stimuli like positive social feedback or affiliation cues. This enhanced responsivity aligns with extraversion's link to reward sensitivity, where extraverts show stronger activation in dopaminergic pathways compared to introverts.^[67] These patterns underscore the ventral striatum's involvement in encoding the motivational value of interpersonal interactions for extraverted individuals.^[68] Electrophysiological evidence from electroencephalography (EEG) highlights alpha wave asymmetry in frontal regions as a marker of extraversion-related approach behaviors. Extraverts typically display greater left-hemisphere dominance, reflected in reduced alpha power over the left frontal cortex relative to the right, which correlates with increased approach motivation and positive affect processing.^[69] This asymmetry persists at rest and during tasks involving reward or social engagement, distinguishing extraverts from introverts who show more balanced or right-dominant patterns.^[70] Post-2010 resting-state fMRI studies have further elucidated connectivity variations in the default mode network (DMN), which supports self-referential and social cognition. Extraversion is associated with modulated hubs in the DMN, including stronger connectivity between posterior cingulate cortex and prefrontal areas in extraverts, potentially facilitating their outward-oriented mindset.^[71] Sex-specific differences emerge, with adolescent girls showing positive DMN connectivity links to extraversion, while boys exhibit negative associations, indicating developmental nuances in these networks.^[72] These findings highlight how extraversion influences intrinsic brain dynamics beyond task-based activation.

Cultural and Societal Contexts

Regional Prevalence Differences

Large-scale cross-cultural surveys using the Big Five personality framework have identified notable variations in average extraversion levels across geographic regions, with higher means typically observed in individualistic societies compared to collectivistic ones. For instance, data from the Personality Profiles of Cultures Project, involving observer ratings in 51 countries using the NEO Personality Inventory–Revised (NEO-PI-R), show that populations in the United States (T-score mean = 52.2) and Australia (T-score mean = 53.8) exhibit elevated extraversion, characterized by greater sociability and assertiveness, relative to East Asian nations like Hong Kong (T-score mean = 46.2) and mainland China (T-score mean = 46.6).^[73] These patterns align with broader regional trends, where Europeans and North Americans score higher on average than Asians and Africans.^[73] Survey evidence from extensive datasets, such as the NEO-PI-R assessments across dozens of cultures and the Big Five Inventory (BFI) in 56 nations, confirms these differences, with mean extraversion scores varying by 0.2 to 0.6 standard deviations between regions (where standard deviations typically range from 8 to 10). East Asian countries consistently rank lowest, while Southern European nations like Serbia (T-score mean ≈ 52) and Croatia show among the highest levels.^[74] These variations, though modest in effect size (η² ≈ 0.01–0.03), highlight geographic clustering of traits without implying universality within regions. Demographic factors further modulate these patterns, particularly urban versus rural divides, where urban settings often promote higher extraversion through denser social networks and opportunities for interaction. In a study of Indian college students using the NEO Five-Factor Inventory, urban males scored significantly higher (mean = 31.06, SD = 3.12) than rural counterparts (mean = 29.81, SD = 3.18; t = 3.13, p < 0.05), suggesting environmental norms in cities encourage outgoing behaviors.^[75] Similar trends appear in other contexts, with urban areas fostering extraverted expressions across diverse populations.^[76] Longitudinal analyses indicate potential upward trends in extraversion amid globalization, as successive birth cohorts show modest increases in related traits like sociability and self-confidence. For example, in Finland, data from over 400,000 military conscripts born between 1962 and 1976 revealed rises of approximately 0.4 standard deviations in activity-energy and 0.6 in self-confidence, traits aligned with extraversion, paralleling societal shifts toward interconnectedness.^[77] These changes, observed in economically developing contexts, suggest globalization may gradually elevate average extraversion levels globally.

Cultural Shaping of Traits

In collectivist societies such as Japan, where social harmony and group cohesion are prioritized, introversion is often valued for promoting restraint, modesty, and deference to others, leading to lower average levels of extraversion compared to more individualistic cultures.^[78] This cultural emphasis on interdependence discourages overt self-promotion and assertiveness, traits associated with extraversion, as they may disrupt relational balance.^[79] Conversely, in individualistic cultures like the United States, extraversion is highly prized for its alignment with values of personal achievement, assertiveness, and social dominance, fostering environments where outgoing behaviors are rewarded in professional and social spheres.^[80] Such societies emphasize self-expression and leadership, positioning extraverted traits as markers of success and adaptability.^[81] Acculturation processes among immigrants further illustrate cultural shaping, as individuals often adjust their expression of extraversion or introversion to align with host country norms; for instance, Japanese immigrants to the United States exhibit increased extraversion over generations, converging toward American personality profiles.^[82] This adaptation reflects the interplay between enduring traits and environmental pressures, with studies showing that higher extraversion facilitates integration in individualistic settings.^[83] In Western contexts, media portrayals and educational systems reinforce extraverted ideals by depicting outgoing characters as heroic and successful while marginalizing introverts as socially deficient, perpetuating a bias that equates visibility with value.^[84] Educational practices, such as group-based active learning, disproportionately favor extraverted participation styles, disadvantaging introverts and embedding cultural preferences for sociability from an early age.^[85]

Implications for Well-Being

Links to Happiness and Affect

Research consistently demonstrates a robust positive association between extraversion and subjective well-being (SWB), with meta-analyses indicating a correlation of approximately r = 0.30.^[86] This link holds across various measures of happiness, including positive affect and life satisfaction, and persists even after accounting for measurement artifacts, underscoring extraversion's role as one of the strongest personality predictors of affective experience.^[87] The temperamental perspective explains this association through extraverts' inherent sensitivity to rewards, leading to a higher baseline of positive affect.^[88] Individuals high in extraversion exhibit greater responsiveness to rewarding stimuli, such as social approval or achievement, which elevates their overall emotional tone compared to introverts.^[89] This view posits a direct, biologically rooted connection where extraversion predisposes people to experience more frequent and intense positive emotions as a default state.^[90] In contrast, the instrumental view highlights how extraverts actively pursue rewarding activities, particularly social interactions, which in turn generate more positive experiences and contribute to higher happiness levels.^[90] By seeking out stimulating environments and relationships, extraverts create opportunities for positive reinforcement, mediating the trait's impact on SWB through behavioral choices rather than solely innate predispositions.^[91] Extraverts also demonstrate superior affect regulation, particularly in upregulating positive emotions during neutral or mildly positive situations. Experimental evidence shows they respond more strongly to positive mood inductions and maintain elevated positive states longer than introverts, facilitating greater overall emotional well-being.^[92] This regulatory advantage further amplifies the happiness benefits associated with the trait.

Interactions with Other Traits

The effects of extraversion on well-being are significantly moderated by neuroticism, such that individuals scoring high on extraversion and low on neuroticism exhibit the highest levels of subjective well-being, including greater life satisfaction and positive affect. This combination leverages extraversion's association with positive emotional experiences and neuroticism's inverse link to emotional instability, resulting in a synergistic boost to overall happiness within the Big Five personality framework. In contrast, high neuroticism tends to diminish the benefits of extraversion, while low extraversion paired with high neuroticism yields the lowest well-being outcomes.^[93]^[94]^[86] Among other Big Five traits, openness to experience amplifies the positive impact of extraversion on well-being by fostering curiosity and adaptability in social contexts, enabling extraverts to derive greater satisfaction from novel interactions and experiences. Similarly, conscientiousness serves as a buffer for introverts, mitigating potential dips in well-being through disciplined routines and achievement-oriented behaviors that provide a sense of purpose independent of social stimulation. These interactions underscore the multifaceted nature of personality influences on happiness, where traits do not operate in isolation but interplay to shape affective outcomes.^[95]^[96] Cultural factors further moderate the extraversion-well-being link, with the positive association between extraversion and happiness being weaker in collectivistic societies compared to individualistic ones. In collectivistic contexts, such as those emphasizing group harmony over personal expression, the rewards of extraverted behaviors may be less pronounced, as social well-being relies more on relational interdependence than individual positive affect. This cultural variation highlights how societal norms can qualify the universality of personality effects on happiness.^[97]^[98] Biased self-reports influenced by self-deception also complicate observed correlations between extraversion and well-being, often inflating them as individuals with high self-deceptive tendencies internalize overly positive views of their extraverted traits. This bias arises from the tendency to present oneself in a socially desirable light, particularly for traits like extraversion that align with cultural ideals of sociability, thereby distorting the true magnitude of the relationship in self-assessment measures.^[99]^[100]

Applications and Outcomes

Extraversion and introversion significantly influence workplace fit, with individuals often excelling in roles aligned with their trait tendencies. Extraverts tend to thrive in dynamic, socially demanding positions such as sales and leadership, where their energy and sociability enhance performance. A meta-analysis of Big Five personality traits found that extraversion has a moderate positive correlation (ρ = .15) with job performance in sales occupations, attributed to extraverts' assertiveness and interpersonal skills. Similarly, leader extraversion predicts higher team performance through increased work engagement, with an indirect effect of .26 in low-clarity environments. However, research challenges the assumption that extreme extraversion is optimal in sales; ambiverts—those moderately extraverted—outperform both pure extraverts and introverts by 24-32% in revenue generation, balancing enthusiasm with attentive listening.^[101]^[102]^[103] In contrast, introverts often excel in independent, analytical roles like research and data analysis, where sustained focus and minimal social interruption foster productivity. Studies indicate that introverts perform well in quiet, task-oriented positions requiring deep concentration, such as technical or writing-based work, due to their preference for solitary environments. Meta-analyses indicate low correlations between extraversion and performance in roles low in social demands, suggesting compatibility with introverted tendencies, leading to effective task mastery in independent settings. For instance, introverts demonstrate superior productivity in roles emphasizing individual reflection over group interaction, though they may face challenges in highly collaborative contexts.^[104]^[105] Team dynamics also reflect these traits, with extraverts often dominating interactive processes like brainstorming while introverts contribute meaningfully to structured planning. Extraverts generate more ideas in group brainstorming sessions due to their verbal fluency and low social inhibition, leading to higher perceived creativity in diverse teams. However, introverts add value in planning phases by providing thoughtful, detail-oriented insights that refine ideas and mitigate risks, enhancing overall team outcomes in sequential tasks. Mixed-personality teams benefit from this balance, as extravert-led ideation combined with introvert-driven evaluation improves decision quality.^[106] In social environments, extraverts typically maintain larger networks, facilitating broader relational opportunities, whereas introverts form fewer but deeper, more intimate bonds. Research shows extraverts have significantly larger social layers across casual and close ties than introverts, supporting expansive professional and personal connections. Introverts, conversely, invest in high-quality, emotionally close relationships, reporting greater satisfaction in intimate settings despite smaller circles. This pattern influences workplace social dynamics, where extraverts build alliances quickly, while introverts foster trust through sustained, one-on-one interactions.^[107]^[108] Post-2020 shifts to remote work have particularly benefited introverts by providing virtual solitude that aligns with their need for low-stimulation environments, boosting engagement and productivity. Longitudinal studies reveal that remote setups attenuate the positive link between extraversion and work engagement (moderation effect B = -0.11), allowing introverts to thrive without the drain of constant interaction. For example, full-time remote workers with introverted traits report higher job satisfaction and innovative behavior in independent tasks, as the format reduces social overload and enables focused output. This adaptation has narrowed performance gaps in hybrid models, enabling introverts to contribute effectively across distributed teams.^[109]

Therapeutic and Developmental Uses

In cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) for social anxiety disorder, approaches distinguish treatable anxiety symptoms—such as excessive fear of evaluation—from non-pathological preferences for solitude, using cognitive restructuring to challenge maladaptive beliefs without altering inherent temperament. Empirical evidence from group CBT trials indicates that such tailoring reduces detachment (a proxy for low extraversion) and correlates with decreased depressive symptoms, though anxiety relief may depend more on reductions in negative affectivity.^[110] Developmental interventions in educational and psychological settings promote balanced skill-building for children across the extraversion-introversion spectrum, such as teaching extraverted youth reflective practices to enhance self-regulation and introspection alongside their natural social tendencies. For instance, programs incorporating mindfulness and reflection training have been shown to improve executive functions like impulse control in preschoolers, helping high-extraversion children develop the downtime needed to process experiences without overwhelming their outgoing nature.^[111] Similarly, interventions targeting shyness—a related but distinct construct from introversion—use school-based social skills training and exposure to foster confidence, with meta-analyses revealing large effect sizes in reducing psychosocial difficulties for withdrawn children, including modest increases in extraversion scores post-treatment.^[112] These strategies emphasize leveraging personality strengths, such as pairing low-extraversion children's focus with peer modeling to build interpersonal skills without stigmatizing their quieter disposition.^[113] Coaching models grounded in personality psychology, such as those using the Big Five framework, harness extraversion and introversion strengths to optimize therapeutic progress, for example by directing extraverts' high energy toward dynamic group activities that amplify engagement and motivation. In therapy groups, extraverted participants often thrive in interactive formats that build alliance and adherence, while introverted clients benefit from individualized sessions allowing deeper self-exploration.^[114] This strengths-based approach, informed by models like the HEXACO, tailors interventions to traits like extraversion to enhance outcomes, such as improved empathy and conscientiousness in personal growth plans.^[115] Recent approaches in the 2020s integrate mindfulness practices to support introverted individuals in recharging amid social demands, with empirical studies demonstrating that mindfulness meditation significantly lowers speaking anxiety and boosts performance more effectively in introverts than extraverts by fostering emotional regulation and self-awareness.^[116] Complementing this, assertiveness training programs, often combined with acceptance and commitment therapy, equip low-extraversion individuals with tools to express needs confidently, reducing stress and anxiety levels through structured skill-building that respects their reflective style.^[117] These methods, evaluated in randomized trials, yield moderate to large effect sizes in alleviating interpersonal distress without requiring personality overhaul.^[118]

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[98]
High Self-Deceivers Internalize Self-Presentation of Extraversion ...
Nov 29, 2021 · This study examined whether high self-deceivers form their overly positive perception of their traits through overestimating their performance ...
[99]
Self-deception as a mediator of the relationship between ...
This paper suggests that self-deception may serve as one important psychological variable that partly explains the disposition-subjective well-being link. Our ...Missing: extraversion | Show results with:extraversion
[100]
[PDF] The Big Five Personality Dimensions And Job Performance - Gwern
This study investigated the relation of the “Big Five” personality di- mensions (Extraversion, Emotional Stability, Agreeableness, Consci-.
[101]
Leader extraversion and team performance: A moderated mediation ...
Dec 9, 2022 · We find that leader extraversion predicts team performance through a motivational mechanism operationalized as leader work engagement.
[102]
[PDF] Rethinking the Extraverted Sales Ideal: The Ambivert Advantage
These results suggest that ambiverts have a sales advantage over extra- verts regardless of their standing on the other four Big Five personality traits. Fig. ...Missing: characteristics | Show results with:characteristics
[103]
https://faculty.wharton.upenn.edu/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/Grant_PsychScience2013.pdf
[104]
[PDF] exploring the impact of introversion and extroversion on career ...
Extroverts thrive in social, high-energy roles, while introverts excel in independent, quiet roles. This study explores how these traits impact career success ...
[105]
The Moderating Effect of Extraversion–Introversion Differences on ...
Sep 21, 2011 · Previous research provides evidence that individual differences in the personality characteristic of extraversion/introversion can play a ...
[106]
[PDF] Extraverts Have Larger Social Network Layers - Prof. Thomas Pollet
We examined the relationships between extraversion, network size, and emotional closeness for 117 individuals. The results demonstrated that extraverts had ...
[107]
Extraversion is associated with advice network size, but not network ...
Jan 1, 2021 · We found that higher levels of extraversion (and its four facets: social self-esteem, social boldness, sociability, and liveliness) corresponded to a ...Missing: initiation | Show results with:initiation
[108]
The Influence of Remote Work on Personality Trait–Performance ...
Jul 5, 2024 · Remote work reduces the influence extraversion has on work engagement, while remote work five days a week also reduces the effect ...
[109]
Social Anxiety and Introversion: Difference & Similarities
Introversion is a normal, healthy personality trait—not a disorder, problem, or something to “fix.” Introverts tend to feel more energized by time alone and may ...
[110]
Am I Socially Anxious or Introverted? - Cognitive Behavior Associates
Jan 12, 2021 · Cognitive behavior therapy is a common treatment for people who struggle with social anxiety. It works by helping the patient to identify ...Examining The Underlying... · Nature Vs. Nurture · Determining When You Need...
[111]
Trait and symptom change in group cognitive behaviour therapy for ...
Apr 27, 2023 · This study examined associations between changes in personality traits (ie negative affectivity and detachment) and alleviation of anxiety and depression ...Missing: tailored | Show results with:tailored
[112]
Mindfulness Plus Reflection Training: Effects on Executive Function ...
Feb 25, 2018 · Children who arrive at school with well-practiced EF skills may find it easier to sit still, pay attention, remember and follow rules, control ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[113]
Effects of interventions for social anxiety and shyness in school ...
This systematic review and meta-analysis aim to identify interventions for shy children and to evaluate the effectiveness in reducing psychosocial difficulties ...
[114]
The Influence of Children's Personalities on Interventions for ...
Sep 11, 2013 · The intervention reduced aggressive behavior in children with high levels of conscientiousness, and in children with low levels of extraversion.
[115]
Do Personality Traits Impact Coaching & Therapy Outcomes?
Apr 25, 2025 · This article explores several key personality models and how traits can influence outcomes in coaching and therapy.
[116]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/395229390_The_effects_of_mindfulness_practices_on_speaking_anxiety_and_performance_among_introvert_vs_extrovert_EFL_learners
[117]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11392326/
[118]
(PDF) The effects of mindfulness practices on speaking anxiety and ...
Sep 15, 2025 · Results indicated that mindfulness significantly improved speaking performance and reduced anxiety levels in the experimental groups compared to ...
[119]
Efficiency of assertiveness training on the stress, anxiety, and ... - NIH
Jul 5, 2024 · It is possible that increasing an individual's level of assertiveness might be a helpful strategy for reducing feelings of anxiety, stress, and depression.
[120]
Functional assertiveness with acceptance and commitment therapy ...
Jan 23, 2025 · This study aimed to preliminarily examine the efficacy of a functional assertiveness training program incorporating acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT)