Gilbert Burnet
Gilbert Burnet (18 September 1643 – 17 March 1715) was a Scottish-born clergyman, historian, and political figure who rose to become Bishop of Salisbury in the Church of England.[1][2] Born in Edinburgh to a prominent legal family, he received an early education at Marischal College, Aberdeen, earning his Master of Arts at age fourteen, before pursuing theology and serving as a minister in Scotland and professor of divinity at the University of Glasgow.[2][1] Relocating to England in the 1670s amid religious tensions, Burnet gained favor as a chaplain and advisor, but his outspoken criticism of absolutism and support for religious toleration led to exile in 1686; he returned triumphantly after the Glorious Revolution, accompanying William of Orange and influencing the new regime's ecclesiastical policies as bishop from 1689.[3][2] His major achievements include authoring the expansive History of the Reformation of the Church of England (published in volumes from 1679 to 1715), which defended Protestant reforms through extensive archival research, and the posthumous History of His Own Time, a firsthand account of late Stuart politics valued for its detail despite acknowledged Whig biases favoring constitutional monarchy and religious liberty.[3][1] Burnet advocated latitudinarian principles, promoting comprehension within the church and opposing sectarian persecution, though his works drew controversy for perceived partisanship against Catholic influences and Tory elements.[3][2]Early Life and Scottish Ministry
Birth, Family, and Education
Gilbert Burnet was born on 18 September 1643 in Edinburgh, Scotland, into a family of legal and ecclesiastical prominence.[4] [1] His father, Robert Burnet (c. 1593–1661), served as an advocate and later as a judge in the Court of Session under the title Lord Crimond, aligning with Royalist and Episcopalian causes during a period of religious and political upheaval in Scotland.[4] [1] The elder Burnet hailed from an established family in Aberdeen, reflecting roots in northeastern Scotland's scholarly and professional circles.[4] Burnet's mother, whose Presbyterian convictions contrasted with her husband's Episcopalianism, introduced early exposure to divergent religious perspectives within the household.[5] Burnet benefited from rigorous private instruction by his father until age ten, fostering a foundation in classical and theological subjects amid the disruptions of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms.[6] At around that age, he enrolled at Marischal College, University of Aberdeen, a center for Presbyterian-leaning education despite the family's Episcopalian ties.[6] [7] There, he pursued an intensive curriculum encompassing arts, law, and divinity, graduating with a Master of Arts in philosophy in 1657 at the prodigious age of 14; contemporaries noted his diligence, often exceeding 14 hours of daily study.[7] [8] This early academic achievement positioned him for subsequent travels and clerical pursuits, though his formation reflected the era's tensions between covenanting Presbyterians and restored Episcopacy.[8]Initial Clerical Roles and Influences
Burnet was licensed to preach in the Church of Scotland in 1661, shortly before the re-establishment of episcopal government under the Restoration.[2] He accepted ordination within this framework, receiving episcopal ordination from the Bishop of Edinburgh in 1665.[1] That year, he assumed the ministry at the rural parish of Saltoun (also spelled Salton) in East Lothian, having informally served there since October 1664 and receiving formal institution in June 1665; his stipend included £397 10s. Scots from the local laird, equivalent to about £33 sterling, plus additional bolls of grain.[2] [9] Over the next four years, Burnet devoted himself to pastoral reform, emphasizing moral discipline, education, and economic improvement among parishioners, whom he found in conditions of widespread ignorance and vice; he introduced catechizing, supported a schoolmaster, and mediated local disputes, earning respect despite initial resistance.[2] In 1669, at age 26, Burnet was appointed professor of divinity at the University of Glasgow, transitioning from parish work to academic theology; he held this chair until 1673, lecturing on patristics, scripture, and church history while maintaining preaching duties.[1] [2] His tenure involved defending episcopalian order against presbyterian dissenters and engaging in debates over uniformity, reflecting his pragmatic conformity to the post-Restoration church structure despite his family's presbyterian roots—his mother, a strict Calvinist, had instilled early piety, while his father's judicial role exposed him to civil authority.[2] Key influences on Burnet's early clerical development included his Aberdeen education at Marischal College, where he studied arts, philosophy, and divinity, graduating M.A. around 1657, fostering a scholarly bent toward rational theology and languages (Latin, Greek, Hebrew).[8] Prior to ordination, travels in England and possibly the continent acquainted him with diverse religious practices, sharpening his ecumenical yet anti-papist outlook and commitment to toleration within a national church; these experiences, combined with mentorship under episcopal figures like the Bishop of Edinburgh, oriented him toward a via media blending reformed doctrine with hierarchical governance, evident in his Saltoun sermons against superstition and enthusiasm.[8] [2]London Ministry and Political Engagement
Arrival and Preaching Career
Burnet arrived in London in 1673, initially to facilitate the publication of his edition of the Memoirs of the Dukes of Hamilton, during which he gained an audience with Charles II and impressed the court with his erudition and conversational skills.[2] Shortly thereafter, he secured ecclesiastical positions that launched his preaching career in the English capital, leveraging recommendations from influential figures such as Lord Holles and Sir Harbottle Grimston, Master of the Rolls.[9] By November 15, 1674, he had delivered a sermon that drew acclaim for its eloquence and depth, as recorded by diarist John Evelyn, marking his rapid ascent among London's clerical circles.[4] In 1675, Burnet was appointed lecturer at St. Clement Danes and preacher at the Chapel of the Rolls, roles that afforded him a platform to address congregations comprising lawyers, courtiers, and civic officials.[7] [8] His sermons, characterized by rigorous argumentation, historical allusions, and a commitment to Protestant orthodoxy, frequently critiqued absolutism and popery while advocating toleration for nonconformists, aligning him with Whig patrons like Grimston.[4] These addresses, such as his annual Gunpowder Treason sermon on November 5, 1684, at the Rolls Chapel—delivered at Grimston's insistence despite Burnet's reservations—underscored his willingness to confront Catholic influences amid rising political tensions.[10] Burnet's style, blending erudition with persuasive rhetoric, earned him a reputation as one of the era's most compelling preachers, though it also invited scrutiny from court factions wary of his Scottish Presbyterian roots and reformist leanings.[4] Throughout the 1670s and early 1680s, Burnet's preaching extended to civic occasions, including sermons before the Lord Mayor and aldermen, such as on September 2, 1680, at Bow Church, where he expounded on themes of national deliverance and moral renewal.[11] His ministry thus intertwined religious exhortation with political commentary, fostering networks among opposition figures and positioning him as a vocal defender of constitutional liberties against perceived monarchical overreach.[8] This phase solidified his influence in London until escalating conflicts under James II prompted his departure in 1685.[4]Response to the Popish Plot and Anti-Catholic Stance
Burnet's opposition to Catholicism was evident well before the Popish Plot's disclosure in late 1678, rooted in theological critiques of Roman doctrines and practices. In 1673, he published The Mystery of Iniquity Unvailed, a treatise systematically contrasting Catholic worship, transubstantiation, papal authority, and saint veneration with scriptural Protestant principles, portraying the former as deviations from apostolic Christianity that fostered superstition and clerical tyranny.[12] This work established his reputation as a polemicist against "popery," emphasizing causal links between Catholic theology and political absolutism, which he viewed as threats to civil liberties and true faith.[13] The fabricated Popish Plot, alleging a Jesuit conspiracy to assassinate Charles II and advance Catholic dominance under James, Duke of York, amplified Burnet's public rhetoric amid widespread Protestant alarm. In late 1678, he issued vehemently anti-Catholic pamphlets, including The Unreasonableness and Impiety of Popery, framing the Plot's revelations as empirical vindication of long-standing warnings about Catholic intrigue and doctrinal errors that incentivized subversion of Protestant monarchies.[13] [14] These writings urged vigilance against papal influence, citing historical precedents of Catholic plots and treaties as inherently unreliable due to doctrines prioritizing ecclesiastical supremacy over secular oaths.[15] Burnet maintained that while not all Plot details were verifiable, the underlying Catholic threat—bolstered by James's open adherence—was causally real, warranting exclusionary measures to preserve constitutional order.[13] As a court preacher, Burnet leveraged sermons to reinforce anti-Catholic sentiment during the Plot's hysteria, which prompted parliamentary fast days. On December 22, 1680, he delivered a sermon before the House of Commons at St. Margaret's, Westminster, interpreting the Plot's persistence as divine judgment on national toleration of popery and calling for rigorous enforcement of anti-Catholic laws to avert further conspiracies.[16] His addresses blended empirical references to Plot testimonies with first-principles arguments against Catholic ecclesiology, which he contended inherently subverted monarchical authority by vesting ultimate loyalty in the Pope.[17] Burnet's stance aligned with Whig efforts in the Exclusion Crisis (1679–1681), where he advocated barring James's succession via bills in Parliament, arguing that a Catholic heir posed an existential risk grounded in doctrinal imperatives for conversion or conquest, not mere personal piety.[13] Though Charles II confided in him during accusations against Queen Catherine, Burnet prioritized systemic Catholic dangers over individual exonerations, critiquing overly credulous Plot narratives while affirming the broader causal validity of anti-papist precautions.[13] His positions drew from primary ecclesiastical histories and contemporary affidavits, eschewing hysteria for reasoned defense of Protestant establishment against perceived ideological aggression.Historical Scholarship
History of the Reformation of the Church of England
Gilbert Burnet's The History of the Reformation of the Church of England stands as his principal historical achievement, comprising three volumes that chronicle the break from Roman Catholicism under the Tudors. The first volume, published in 1679, details the events of Henry VIII's reign, emphasizing the royal assertion of supremacy over the church.[18] The second volume followed in 1681, covering the Protestant advances under Edward VI and the Catholic restoration under Mary I.[18] A third volume, intended as a supplement with additional documents and corrections, appeared posthumously in 1714.[19] Burnet drew extensively from primary sources, including archival records, state papers, and manuscripts such as those in the Cotton Library, which he accessed during his research in England.[20] He collated these against originals to ensure fidelity, presenting transcripts and analyses to support his narrative of the Reformation as a providential liberation from papal tyranny and corruption.[17] His interpretation framed the movement as establishing independent national churches under monarchical authority, aligning with Anglican principles of royal supremacy and episcopal governance.[17] The work's publication met with acclaim for its erudition and use of evidence, bolstering Burnet's standing as a defender of Protestant historiography amid Restoration-era debates.[5] It sold rapidly and was reprinted multiple times, influencing subsequent Whig views of ecclesiastical history.[5] Yet, contemporaries like the nonjuring cleric Jeremy Collier contested Burnet's accounts, accusing him of selective emphasis and Protestant partisanship in portraying Catholic figures and doctrines.[18] Modern scholars note that while groundbreaking in archival reliance, the history reflects Burnet's Latitudinarian commitments, prioritizing toleration and constitutional monarchy over strict confessional purity.[21] Burnet's structure combined chronological exposition with evaluative digressions on theology, politics, and personalities, such as his sympathetic treatment of Cranmer and critical stance toward Wolsey.[21] This approach aimed not merely to recount events but to justify the Church of England's separation as a causal outcome of doctrinal abuses and political necessities, rather than mere royal caprice.[17] Though later superseded by more nuanced studies incorporating continental perspectives, it endured as a foundational text in English Reformation scholarship until the Victorian era.[22]History of His Own Time and Methodological Approach
Burnet began composing History of His Own Time in 1683, drawing on his firsthand involvement in English politics from the 1670s onward to document events from the Restoration of Charles II in 1660 through the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713.[22] The work was published posthumously per his will, with the first volume appearing in 1723 (covering up to the Glorious Revolution of 1688–1689) and the second in 1734; initial editions suppressed passages deemed inflammatory to spare living figures, while later versions, such as the 1833 Oxford edition edited by M. J. Routh, incorporated these with annotations from contemporaries like the Earls of Dartmouth and Hardwicke.[23] [24] Burnet's methodological approach emphasized eyewitness testimony and direct access to principals, relying on private conversations with statesmen, his own diaries and letters, and select documents rather than exhaustive archival research, as evidenced by Harleian manuscripts revealing early autobiographical drafts revised for detachment.[25] Influenced by predecessors like Clarendon and de Thou, he sought clarity and professed impartiality, restructuring narrative from personal reflections (begun amid 1680s exile fears) into a more formal chronicle by 1703 revisions, which excised overt self-references amid criticism of memoir-like intrusion.[25] This hybrid style—blending analytical history with insider anecdotes—marked an innovative shift toward subjective yet reasoned historiography, prioritizing causal explanations of political motivations over mere chronology.[22] Despite aims of objectivity, Burnet's Whig partisanship permeated the text, portraying William III's invasion and the Revolution as providential necessities against Stuart tyranny, while downplaying absolutist critiques and favoring latitudinarian reforms; his advisory role to William afforded unique insights but skewed judgments, as contemporaries like Bevil Higgons noted in critical remarks appended to editions.[23] [25] Scholars assess it as a vital primary source for vivid details unavailable elsewhere, yet caution its reliability due to memory lapses, selective omissions, and ideological tilt, positioning it midway between impartial history and biased memoir rather than modern empirical standards.[22] Later supplements, drawing from Burnet's unpublished memoirs and correspondence edited by H. C. Foxcroft, clarify ambiguities but underscore his interpretive lens.[22]Exile and Alignment with William of Orange
Flight from James II's Regime
Following the death of Charles II on February 6, 1685, and the accession of his Catholic brother James II, Gilbert Burnet, a prominent Protestant cleric with a history of opposing James's eligibility for the throne during the Exclusion Crisis of 1679–1681, faced immediate professional and personal jeopardy. Burnet had already been dismissed from his role as clerk of the closet to Charles II in 1679 for his Whig sympathies and anti-Catholic writings, and James's regime, prioritizing Catholic advancement and viewing Protestant dissenters like Burnet as threats, intensified scrutiny. To avert arrest on charges of plotting—rumors fueled by his associations with exclusionist factions—Burnet petitioned James for leave to travel abroad, which the king granted, possibly underestimating the cleric's influence or seeking to neutralize him quietly. Burnet departed England from London on May 11, 1685, initiating a self-imposed exile that reflected broader Protestant anxieties over James's policies, including the nascent promotion of Catholics in military and civil offices.[13] Burnet's itinerary began in France, where he observed Louis XIV's absolutist court and Huguenot struggles post-Edict of Nantes revocation, before proceeding to Italy, Germany, and Switzerland. These travels, documented in his 1686–1687 publication Some Letters Containing an Account of What Seemed Most Remarkable in Switzerland, Italy, &c., served dual purposes: scholarly inquiry into continental Protestantism and Catholicism, and evasion of James's consolidating regime, which by mid-1685 had begun dismissing non-conformist officials and enforcing loyalty oaths. Avoiding direct refuge in the Netherlands initially to evade diplomatic sensitivities, Burnet critiqued Catholic practices and absolutism in his letters, reinforcing his commitment to Anglican toleration amid empirical observations of religious coercion. This period underscored causal links between monarchical religious policy and clerical flight, as Burnet's departure paralleled that of other Protestant exiles fearing the erosion of the Test Acts.[2][26] By late 1686, Burnet relocated to The Hague in the Dutch Republic, aligning with the court of William, Prince of Orange, and his wife Mary (James's Protestant daughter). Here, his linguistic skills and prior acquaintance with the couple—gained during earlier visits—secured him as a trusted advisor, tutoring their son and corresponding with English malcontents. This shift marked the transition from flight to strategic opposition, as James's escalating measures, such as the 1687 Declaration of Indulgence suspending penal laws against Catholics and dissenters, validated Burnet's preemptive exit. Burnet's exile thus embodied Protestant resistance to perceived Catholic encroachment, grounded in his firsthand assessments of James's early reign as portending doctrinal and constitutional upheaval.[2][26]Advisory Role in the Invasion and Revolution
In mid-1688, as preparations for the invasion intensified, Gilbert Burnet drafted detailed proposals for the administration of England following the anticipated overthrow of James II, recommending specific appointments for senior political and ecclesiastical positions based on his assessments of loyal Whig and moderate figures capable of stabilizing the realm under William and Mary.[27] These suggestions drew on Burnet's extensive network and understanding of British elites, influencing William's pre-revolution contacts and the rationale for key post-revolution governance structures, though William's decisions ultimately prioritized his established Dutch and English allies.[27] Burnet's input reflected his advocacy for a latitudinarian Anglican settlement that would accommodate Protestant nonconformists while marginalizing Catholic influences, aligning with William's strategic need to frame the expedition as a defensive restoration of English liberties rather than conquest.[28] Owing to William's prior concerns about Burnet's inability to maintain secrecy—evident from earlier leaks of sensitive discussions—Burnet was deliberately excluded from the invasion's core planning until July 1688, when his expertise on English public opinion and religious divisions became indispensable for propaganda and recruitment efforts.[29] Appointed as the expedition's chaplain, Burnet sailed aboard William's flagship from Hellevoetsluis on November 1, 1688 (Old Style), providing counsel on theological justifications for the intervention and helping to disseminate assurances of religious toleration to potential English supporters amid stormy delays that postponed the landing until November 5 at Torbay, Devon.[30] His presence underscored William's intent to project Protestant unity, with Burnet leveraging his preaching reputation to counter James II's narratives of foreign aggression. Following the uncontested advance inland, Burnet advised on immediate political maneuvers in Exeter, where William established headquarters on November 10, 1688; through Burnet, the prince issued declarations emphasizing preservation of laws, religion, and property to rally defections from James's army and civilian elites.[30] Burnet's role extended to coordinating with English intermediaries, such as Henry Sidney, to facilitate the rapid collapse of royalist resistance by late December, culminating in James's flight and the Convention Parliament's summons on December 22, 1688, which Burnet had anticipated in his administrative outlines as essential for legitimizing the regime change.[27] While Burnet's self-reported accounts in later histories emphasize his influence, contemporary evidence confirms his contributions primarily lay in ideological framing and personnel recommendations rather than military strategy, with William retaining ultimate control over operations.[28]Episcopate and Political Influence
Appointment as Bishop of Salisbury
Following the Glorious Revolution and the accession of William III and Mary II, Gilbert Burnet received appointment as Bishop of Salisbury in early 1689, filling the vacancy left by the death of incumbent Seth Ward on 6 January 1689.[2][5] Burnet's close advisory role to William during the invasion from the Netherlands, including landing at Torbay on 5 November 1688 and contributing to key declarations, positioned him for ecclesiastical preferment under the new monarchs. As royal chaplain, he had earned William's trust, leading to this bishopric among the first post-revolution appointments to reinforce loyalty within the Church of England.[31] Burnet was consecrated on 31 March 1689 by a commission of bishops, to whom Archbishop William Sancroft had delegated authority after refusing to perform the rite personally amid the transitional political and ecclesiastical tensions.[2] This delegation occurred as Sancroft, later a non-juror, navigated reluctance to fully endorse the new regime, yet enabled the consecration without direct non-juror obstruction. Burnet promptly took the oaths of allegiance to William and Mary, aligning himself against non-juring clergy who withheld recognition of the sovereigns' legitimacy. The appointment elicited limited immediate opposition, primarily from high church elements wary of Burnet's Scottish presbyterian background, latitudinarian theology, and political activism, though William's favor ensured its execution.[8] Shortly after consecration, around Easter 1689 (7 April), Burnet was sworn in as Chancellor of the Order of the Garter, further integrating him into the regime's honors.[29] This elevation underscored his transition from exiled advisor to influential English prelate, setting the stage for ongoing debates over church governance and toleration.Service Under William III and Mary II
Burnet was consecrated as Bishop of Salisbury on 31 March 1689 by a commission of bishops, shortly after the Glorious Revolution.[2] In this capacity, he served as a key ecclesiastical figure under the joint monarchy, administering the diocese with zeal by discouraging clerical plurality of livings and establishing a divinity school for training.[2] He also delivered four discourses to the clergy in 1694, emphasizing pastoral duties amid the post-revolutionary religious landscape.[2] As a close advisor to William III, Burnet acted as chaplain and Clerk of the Closet, roles that positioned him among the few confidants of the king and facilitated his influence on religious policy.[32] He preached the coronation sermon for William III and Mary II on 11 April 1689 at Westminster Abbey, framing their accession as a divine deliverance for Protestantism.[29] Politically aligned with the Whigs, Burnet contributed to justifying the regime through publications, including a 1689 pastoral letter that grounded the monarchs' title in conquest—a position later deemed controversial and ordered burned by the House of Commons in 1692.[2] His Inquiry into the Measures of Submission to the Supreme Authority (1688) further defended allegiance to the new sovereigns on practical grounds of self-preservation and public good.[2] Burnet participated in William III's ecclesiastical commission established after Mary II's death in 1694, which handled the disposal of vacant benefices.[2] Between 1696 and 1697, he advocated redirecting first fruits and tenths—clergy taxes traditionally reserved for the crown—to augment poor livings, a reform realized posthumously as Queen Anne's Bounty in 1704.[2] In 1699, despite initial reluctance, he accepted appointment as tutor to William, Duke of Gloucester, the only surviving son of Princess Anne, overseeing his education in divinity, history, and governance until the prince's death in 1700.[2] This role drew parliamentary scrutiny, with an unsuccessful 1699 attempt in the Commons to remove him, reflecting tensions over his Whig sympathies and perceived meddling.[4] Burnet's tenure thus blended rigorous episcopal oversight with active political counsel, promoting comprehension among Protestants while navigating opposition from High Church elements.[33]