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Intermammary cleft

The intermammary cleft, also known as the intermammary sulcus or sulcus intermammarius, is the central vertical depression on the anterior chest wall that separates the two breasts, formed by the skin and subcutaneous adipose tissue overlying the sternum. It delineates the medial boundaries of the breasts, which extend from the second to the sixth rib and reach medially to the lateral edge of the sternum.^[1] This surface feature is present in both males and females and is officially recognized in anatomical terminology as a key landmark of the mammary region.^[2] In females, the intermammary cleft becomes more prominent during puberty due to the development of mammary glandular tissue and adipose deposition, often accentuated by the suspensory ligaments (Cooper's ligaments) that shape the breast contours. The width of the cleft is determined by the distance between the medial attachments of the breast tissue to the underlying pectoral fascia and periosteum of the sternum. While primarily an anatomical structure providing mobility to the breasts via the retromammary space, it serves as an aesthetic focal point in cosmetic surgery, where alterations aim to optimize symmetry and projection.^[3] The intermammary cleft can be affected by various clinical conditions, including infections and structural anomalies, and its anatomy is relevant to surgical procedures such as those for breast cancer.^[1]

Introduction

Definition

The intermammary cleft, also known as the intermammary sulcus or sulcus intermammarius, is a vertical central depression or groove situated along the midline of the sternum, demarcating the separation between the two breasts in females or the pectoral regions in males.^[4]^[5] This surface anatomical feature represents the medial borders of each breast, formed by the medial attachments of the breast tissue to the sternal periosteum and underlying pectoral fascia, and serves as a key landmark in thoracic surface anatomy.^[6]^[3] In females, the cleft lies between the mammary glands, which typically extend from the second to the sixth ribs, creating a distinct sulcus due to the prominence of breast tissue.^[1] In males, where mammary glands are rudimentary, it corresponds to the midline of the chest wall, providing a similar vertical depression without significant glandular separation.^[7] Historically, this structure has been termed the intermammary sulcus in medical nomenclature, with "cleavage line" used as a colloquial synonym emphasizing its role in delineating breast contours.^[4] The intermammary cleft relates closely to surrounding bony landmarks, originating superiorly at the level of the second rib and descending along the sternum to the inframammary folds at the sixth rib.^[6]^[1] This positioning aligns it directly over the sternal body, facilitating its visibility and palpability in clinical examinations of the anterior thoracic wall.

Etymology

The term "intermammary cleft" is composed of the Latin prefix inter-, meaning "between," the adjective mammarius, derived from Latin mamma ("breast" or "mammary gland"), and the English noun "cleft," which originates from Old English geclyft, denoting a split, fissure, or division.^[8]^[9] This nomenclature reflects the anatomical position as a dividing line between the breasts. An alternative medical term is "intermammary sulcus," incorporating the Latin sulcus, which signifies a groove, furrow, or trench, emphasizing the depressed or furrowed nature of the feature.^[10] In non-medical contexts, the area is colloquially known as "cleavage," a usage that emerged in 1946 to describe the visible separation of the breasts created by low-neckline clothing.^[11] The terminology for this feature evolved in medical literature alongside the standardization of anatomical terms in the 19th century, with Latin-derived descriptors like sulcus intermammarius appearing in texts to denote precise surface divisions of the thorax.

Anatomy

Skin and Subcutaneous Tissue

The skin overlying the intermammary cleft is thin and elastic, typically measuring 1 to 2 mm in thickness, similar to that of the adjacent breast skin. This epidermal and dermal structure provides flexibility to accommodate movement and breast positioning while serving as a protective barrier. The region exhibits an intermediate density of sebaceous glands compared to other body areas, ranging from 400 to 900 glands per square centimeter, which secrete sebum to lubricate the skin and maintain its hydration.^[12] Additionally, eccrine sweat glands are present at a density of approximately 100 to 200 glands per square centimeter on the trunk, including the chest, facilitating moisture production for evaporative cooling.^[13] Hair follicles are distributed throughout the skin of the intermammary cleft, with terminal hair more prominent in males due to androgen-driven development, forming part of the secondary sexual characteristics on the anterior chest wall. In females, the area generally features finer vellus hair, contributing to a smoother appearance aligned with estrogen-influenced patterns. These follicles are associated with the sebaceous glands, forming pilosebaceous units that support skin integrity.^[14] The subcutaneous tissue beneath the skin consists primarily of adipose tissue and loose connective fibers, which vary significantly by sex, age, and body fat percentage, influencing the overall contour and depth of the cleft. In females, this layer may be relatively thinner in the midline compared to the lateral breast regions, while in males it tends to be more uniform but less voluminous overall. With advancing age, subcutaneous fat diminishes, leading to a more pronounced cleft definition, and higher body fat percentages increase tissue thickness, softening the contour. This adipose layer aids in cushioning and energy storage while contributing to the region's susceptibility to friction from skin-to-skin contact, particularly during physical activity. The combined glandular activity supports thermoregulation by balancing moisture and oil to prevent excessive dryness or irritation in this dynamic area.^[15]^[16]

Muscular and Ligamentous Framework

The intermammary cleft is bordered laterally by the pectoralis major muscles on each side, which originate from the medial half of the clavicle, the sternum, and the costal cartilages of ribs 1 through 6 or 7, providing a robust muscular framework that underlies the breast tissue and defines the cleft's boundaries.^[1] The deeper pectoralis minor muscles, originating from the anterior surfaces of ribs 3 through 5, further contribute to the structural support by stabilizing the overlying pectoralis major and forming part of the anterior axillary wall, though they lie more posterolaterally relative to the cleft.^[1] In some individuals, the sternalis muscle, an anatomical variant present in approximately 8% of females and 6% of males, provides additional midline support along the sternum within the intermammary cleft; this superficial, strap-like muscle originates from the upper sternum or manubrium and inserts variably into the pectoral fascia or lower costal cartilages, potentially aiding in chest wall stability or pectoral girdle movement.^[17] The breasts' stability within the cleft is maintained by Cooper's ligaments, specialized fibrous septa that extend from the pectoral fascia through the breast parenchyma to the dermis, forming a network of vertical and horizontal supports that anchor the glandular tissue and prevent sagging, with denser attachments along the sternal midline.^[18] These ligaments integrate with the superficial fascia system, which consists of anterior and posterior lamellae surrounding the breast and fusing at the cleft to create a firm adherence to the underlying pectoral fascia.^[18] The superficial pectoral fascia, a thin connective tissue layer covering the pectoralis major, envelops the inferior and medial aspects of the breast base and contributes to the overall integrity of the cleft by separating the retromammary space—a loose areolar plane allowing glandular mobility—from the deeper muscular structures.^[1]

Vascular Supply

The primary arterial supply to the intermammary cleft region derives from perforating branches of the internal thoracic (mammary) artery, which emerge from the second to sixth intercostal spaces and penetrate the chest wall to nourish the medial breast tissue and overlying sternal skin.^[1] These branches, typically 0.5–1.0 mm in diameter, provide the dominant vascular input to the midline groove between the breasts, supporting tissue oxygenation and nutrient delivery in this area.^[19]^[20] Collateral arterial circulation enhances reliability through contributions from the lateral thoracic artery, which supplies lateral extensions, and intercostal arteries, which anastomose with the perforators to form a interconnected network across the anterior thoracic wall.^[21] Venous drainage parallels this pattern, with medial superficial veins converging into the internal thoracic vein and perforating veins linking to intercostal tributaries that ultimately connect to the azygos venous system, facilitating efficient deoxygenated blood return; the absence of valves in these veins promotes bidirectional flow and extensive anastomoses.^[1] Anatomical variations in perforator size, number, and origin—such as large branches present in the first intercostal space in 87% of cases and the second in 91%—can alter local vascular density, influencing postoperative healing and increasing risks like flap necrosis or delayed wound closure in medial chest surgeries, including autologous breast reconstruction.^[22] These differences underscore the need for preoperative imaging to map vessels and mitigate complications.^[22]

Lymphatic Drainage

The lymphatic drainage of the intermammary cleft, which corresponds to the medial aspect of the breast tissue, primarily follows pathways that collect interstitial fluid and immune cells from the subcutaneous layers and direct them toward the internal mammary (parasternal) lymph nodes. These nodes, located along the sternum adjacent to the internal thoracic vessels, receive approximately 20-25% of the total breast lymphatic drainage, with a higher proportion originating from the medial quadrants due to the anatomical proximity and direct perforating vessels through the intercostal spaces and deep fascia. Lymphatic vessels in this region accompany the branches of the internal thoracic artery, facilitating efficient transport from the cleft area into the parasternal chain.^[1]^[23] Secondary lymphatic pathways from the intermammary cleft converge with broader breast drainage routes to the axillary and subpectoral lymph nodes, accounting for the majority (75-80%) of overall flow. These routes involve collecting vessels that traverse the lateral border of the pectoralis major muscle, entering the axilla via interpectoral (Rotter's) nodes and anterior pectoral groups before ascending to central and apical axillary nodes. In the subcutaneous tissue overlying the cleft, lymphatic vessels form a network of fine, branching collectors with a notable density in the medial subcutaneous layers, where they interface closely with the dermal plexus and glandular tissue to support fluid homeostasis.^[1]^[24] This drainage pattern holds significant clinical relevance in breast cancer staging, particularly for tumors arising in or near the intermammary cleft, as medial lesions exhibit a propensity for internal mammary node involvement, influencing prognostic assessment and therapeutic decisions. Sentinel lymph node biopsy techniques targeting the internal mammary chain are employed to detect micrometastases in these medial-specific pathways, often altering staging from N0 to N2 and guiding adjuvant therapies such as radiation or systemic treatment. The identification of sentinel nodes in the parasternal region for medial breast cancers underscores the need for comprehensive nodal evaluation to mitigate risks of occult metastasis.^[25]^[1]

Innervation

The skin and subcutaneous tissues of the intermammary cleft receive sensory innervation primarily from the anterior cutaneous branches of the intercostal nerves originating from thoracic spinal levels T2 through T6. These branches emerge near the sternum, providing dermatomal sensation including touch, pain, and temperature to the midline anterior chest wall.^[1] Supraclavicular nerves from the cervical plexus may contribute minor sensory input to the upper aspects of this region.^[1] Autonomic innervation to the intermammary cleft is supplied by sympathetic fibers traveling within the intercostal nerves, derived from the thoracic sympathetic chain (levels T1-T5), which regulate vasomotor tone in the cutaneous blood vessels and piloerector muscles.^[26] These postganglionic fibers facilitate responses such as vasoconstriction or vasodilation in response to environmental or physiological stimuli.^[27] Intercostal nerves also mediate referred pain to the intermammary cleft from thoracic spinal pathologies, such as disc herniation or facet joint dysfunction, due to their segmental origin from the spinal cord.^[28] This can manifest as neuropathic pain along the anterior chest without direct local injury.

Development and Variations

Embryological Development

The intermammary cleft originates from the ventral midline established during the folding of the embryonic thoracic wall in weeks 4 to 7 of gestation. As the embryo undergoes cephalocaudal and lateral folding, the lateral body wall folds ventrally, incorporating the yolk sac and forming the ventral body wall, with the midline defined by the fusion of lateral plate mesoderm-derived sternal primordia and somitic mesoderm-derived rib precursors.^[29] Somites, arising from paraxial mesoderm, contribute myotomal cells that migrate ventrally to form intercostal and pectoral muscles, reinforcing the midline framework while maintaining the central cleft as a natural separation between bilateral thoracic elements.^[29] Concurrent with thoracic wall formation, the mammary ridges (milk lines) develop as paired ectodermal thickenings along the ventral surface from the axilla to the groin during weeks 4 to 6. These ridges represent the primordia for mammary glands in mammals, but in humans, they largely regress by the end of week 6, persisting only as solid epithelial buds in the pectoral region at the level of the fourth intercostal space.^[30] This selective regression of the mammary ridge caudal and cranial to the thoracic buds leaves the central portion of the ventral midline intact, defining the intermammary cleft as the unobstructed space between the developing bilateral mammary primordia without ectodermal fusion across the midline.^[31] Early mammary bud formation (weeks 4 to 8) occurs independently of sex-specific hormones and shows no overt sexual dimorphism.^[30]

Postnatal Changes and Normal Variations

During puberty, the intermammary cleft undergoes notable changes primarily in females due to hormonal influences that drive breast development. Estrogen and progesterone stimulate ductal elongation, branching morphogenesis, and fat deposition, leading to bilateral breast enlargement that widens the cleft as the mammary glands expand laterally and medially.^[32] In males, pubertal changes are minimal, with limited breast tissue development, resulting in a relatively unchanged, narrower cleft.^[32] Aging contributes to alterations in breast structure through progressive skin laxity, loss of elastic tissue, and breast ptosis, where gravitational forces cause downward displacement of breast tissue. Fat redistribution and glandular involution reduce firmness and may affect the visible separation between the breasts.^[1] Normal variations in cleft depth and width are influenced by multiple factors, including body habitus, where individuals with lower body fat may exhibit a more pronounced cleft due to less subcutaneous padding, while those with higher adiposity show a shallower appearance. Higher body mass index can further reduce cleft visibility due to increased central adipose tissue. Genetics play a key role in determining breast size and shape, thereby affecting baseline cleft dimensions, with typical intermammary distances ranging from 18 to 22 cm in adults.^[33] Parity also impacts breast contour, as repeated pregnancies induce cumulative hypertrophy and subsequent ptosis.^[1] Hormonal fluctuations during pregnancy temporarily widen the intermammary cleft through estrogen- and progesterone-mediated breast enlargement, increasing glandular and adipose tissue volume for lactation preparation. In menopause, declining estrogen levels promote glandular atrophy and increased fatty replacement, resulting in a softer breast contour due to reduced tissue support.^[1]

Clinical Conditions

Dermatological Disorders

The intermammary cleft, as a region prone to friction, moisture retention, and variable sun exposure, is susceptible to several non-infectious dermatological disorders that manifest as chronic skin changes. These conditions often arise from environmental factors, autoimmune processes, or hormonal imbalances, leading to alterations in pigmentation, texture, or hair growth without microbial involvement. Common presentations include erythematous patches, plaques, or hypertrichosis, which can cause cosmetic concerns or discomfort due to the area's visibility and sensitivity. Poikiloderma of Civatte is a benign, chronic pigmentary disorder characterized by reticulate erythema, telangiectasias, and mottled hyper- and hypopigmentation, frequently affecting the upper chest and décolletage in addition to the neck. It primarily results from cumulative ultraviolet radiation exposure, which damages dermal collagen and elastin while inducing vascular dilation and melanin dysregulation, particularly in fair-skinned individuals (Fitzpatrick skin types I-II). Hormonal influences, such as those during menopause, may exacerbate the condition by altering skin sensitivity to photoaging. The presentation typically spares the submental area due to clothing protection, creating a characteristic V-shaped distribution on the décolletage.^[34]^[35] Psoriasis, particularly the inverse subtype, can involve the intermammary cleft as a flexural site, presenting as well-demarcated, erythematous, and glossy plaques without the thick scaling seen in plaque psoriasis due to moisture occlusion. This autoimmune-mediated disorder stems from T-cell driven inflammation and epidermal hyperproliferation, triggered by genetic predisposition (e.g., HLA-Cw6 allele) and environmental factors like mechanical friction from breast movement or tight clothing. In the intermammary region, the warm, occluded environment worsens irritation, leading to fissuring or maceration that heightens discomfort during physical activity. Unlike classic psoriasis, inverse lesions may mimic other intertriginous dermatoses, necessitating biopsy for confirmation in ambiguous cases.^[36]^[37] Hirsutism manifests in the intermammary cleft as excessive terminal hair growth along the midline chest, often coarser and darker than typical vellus hair, reflecting androgen excess in women. The primary cause is polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), affecting up to 70% of hirsute females, where elevated androgens like testosterone stimulate pilosebaceal units in androgen-sensitive areas including the chest. Other etiologies include idiopathic hyperandrogenism or adrenal disorders, with progression linked to prolonged exposure (e.g., over 6-12 months). This can lead to psychosocial distress, as the visible location amplifies self-consciousness, though it remains a cosmetic rather than pathological issue in the cleft itself.^[38]^[39] Intertrigo represents a moisture-related irritant dermatitis in the intermammary cleft, arising from prolonged skin-to-skin contact in the fold, which traps sweat and promotes maceration. Caused by mechanical friction compounded by heat and humidity—especially in larger-breasted individuals or during warm climates—it presents as symmetric, weeping erythema with possible satellite lesions from secondary irritation, though non-infectious forms avoid pustules or odor. Risk factors include obesity and diabetes, which impair barrier function, but the core mechanism is occlusive dermatitis without microbial overgrowth. Early intervention focuses on drying agents to prevent escalation.^[40]^[41]

Infectious and Inflammatory Conditions

The intermammary cleft, as a moist intertriginous region, predisposes individuals to microbial infections and acute inflammatory responses due to friction, occlusion, and bacterial or fungal colonization. Common pathogens exploit minor skin disruptions, leading to localized abscesses, erythema, and potential systemic spread if untreated. Hidradenitis suppurativa (HS) represents a chronic autoinflammatory condition originating from follicular occlusion in apocrine gland-rich areas, including the intermammary folds, where it manifests as recurrent painful nodules progressing to abscesses, draining sinuses, and scarring.^[42] Environmental triggers such as obesity and smoking exacerbate disease severity by promoting inflammation and bacterial superinfection in the occluded cleft.^[43] Diagnosis relies on clinical Hurley staging, with severe cases in the intermammary region potentially requiring wide excision to prevent chronic fistulization.^[43] Tinea versicolor, resulting from overgrowth of Malassezia yeast species in lipid-rich environments, occasionally involves intertriginous sites like the intermammary cleft, presenting as asymptomatic hypopigmented or hyperpigmented scaly patches that may coalesce under occlusion.^[44] This superficial dermatophytosis thrives in warm, humid conditions, with lesions confirmed via potassium hydroxide microscopy showing characteristic "spaghetti-and-meatball" hyphae and spores.^[45] Topical antifungals such as selenium sulfide effectively resolve intermammary involvement, though recurrence is common in susceptible individuals.^[45] Intermammary pilonidal sinus is a rare acquired infection where loose hairs penetrate the thin midline skin of the cleft, inciting foreign-body granulomatous inflammation, abscess formation, and chronic sinus tracts akin to sacral pilonidal disease.^[46] It primarily affects young, obese, hirsute women with pendulous breasts, where mechanical trauma and poor hygiene facilitate hair embedding and secondary bacterial infection.^[47] Management involves incision and drainage followed by excision of the sinus tract, with histopathological confirmation of hair fragments essential to differentiate from other midline infections.^[46] Cellulitis in the intermammary cleft typically emerges as a bacterial superinfection of intertrigo, with pathogens like Staphylococcus aureus or Streptococcus pyogenes entering via microabrasions in the moist fold, causing acute erythema, warmth, and swelling.^[41] Obesity heightens risk by deepening skin folds, trapping moisture, and impairing barrier function, often necessitating oral antibiotics such as cephalexin for resolution.^[48] Untreated cases may lead to lymphatic involvement, underscoring the need for prompt intervention to avert deeper extension.^[41]

Structural Anomalies

Symmastia, also known as congenital symmastia, is a rare congenital anomaly characterized by the medial confluence or fusion of the breasts due to aberrant development of mammary tissue in the intermammary region.^[49] This condition results in the obliteration of the intermammary cleft, with excess soft tissue forming a web-like structure across the sternum, leading to an absence of normal cleavage and an eight-shaped breast appearance.^[49] Anatomically, it involves a loss of skin adherence to the underlying periosteum in the presternal area, causing the medial breast borders to merge without a defined separation.^[49] Poland syndrome presents as a congenital disorder featuring unilateral hypoplasia or aplasia of the pectoralis major muscle, which often extends to the breast tissue on the affected side, resulting in significant asymmetry of the intermammary cleft.^[50] The hypoplasia disrupts normal breast positioning due to associated chest wall deformities, such as rib and sternal anomalies, shifting the underdeveloped breast laterally or superiorly and widening or distorting the cleft on the contralateral side.^[50] This condition arises from vascular compromise during early fetal development, typically affecting the right side more frequently, and can range in severity from mild pectoral muscle absence to complete breast aplasia.^[50] Keloid scarring represents an acquired hypertrophic response to trauma or injury, characterized by excessive collagen deposition that extends beyond the original wound boundaries, forming firm, raised lesions.^[51] In the chest region, including the intermammary cleft, keloids commonly develop following surgical incisions, piercings, or frictional trauma, altering the smooth contour of the cleft by creating irregular, protruding scar tissue.^[51] This fibroproliferative process is driven by dysregulated growth factors like TGF-β and genetic susceptibility, leading to persistent inflammation and cosmetic distortion without spontaneous regression.^[52] Accessory breast tissue, or polymastia, consists of ectopic mammary remnants that persist along the embryonic milk line due to incomplete involution during development.^[53] These remnants can manifest along the embryonic milk line in the thoracic region as supernumerary glandular tissue or nodules, potentially causing asymmetry in the mammary area.^[53] Occurring in approximately 2-6% of females, this condition often becomes apparent at puberty with hormonal stimulation and carries a risk of developing breast pathologies similar to the primary breast.^[53]

Surgical and Aesthetic Aspects

Cosmetic Procedures

Cosmetic procedures for the intermammary cleft primarily aim to enhance its definition, symmetry, and overall aesthetic appeal through elective interventions that address volume, contour, and skin quality in the cleavage area. These treatments are typically sought by individuals desiring improved breast projection and medial fullness without addressing underlying medical conditions. Breast augmentation using silicone or saline implants is a common surgical approach to define the depth and prominence of the intermammary cleft. By placing implants in submuscular or subglandular positions, surgeons can adjust the medial breast borders to reduce the intermammary distance and create enhanced cleavage, with round implants often preferred for their fuller upper pole projection that supports closer spacing. Factors such as implant width, profile, and pocket dissection influence outcomes, allowing for customized cleavage based on the patient's native chest wall anatomy and tissue characteristics. The procedure typically results in a more pronounced central furrow, with recovery involving 1-2 weeks of swelling and restrictions on upper body activity.^[54] Autologous fat grafting offers a less invasive surgical option for contouring the intermammary cleft, particularly in cases of asymmetry or wide spacing. Harvested from donor sites like the abdomen or thighs, purified fat is injected into the medial breast quadrants to add volume and narrow the intermammary distance, optimizing symmetry during concurrent procedures such as augmentation or mastopexy. In a study of 86 patients, this technique reduced the mean intermammary distance from 3 cm to 1.7 cm at 12 months postoperatively, with high satisfaction rates and minimal complications like minor oil cysts. The procedure preserves natural tissue feel and allows for progressive enhancement over multiple sessions, though fat resorption rates of 30-50% may necessitate touch-ups.^[55] Laser treatments provide non-ablative or fractional options for skin tightening and pigmentation correction in the intermammary cleft region, targeting age-related laxity or sun-induced discoloration in the décolletage. Erbium or fractional CO2 lasers stimulate collagen production by heating dermal layers, improving skin elasticity and smoothing fine lines without significant downtime. These modalities even out hyperpigmentation by promoting uniform melanin distribution, with sessions lasting 30-60 minutes and visible tightening emerging over 3-6 months. Applicable to the chest area, such treatments enhance the cleft's visual smoothness, though multiple applications (2-4) are often required for optimal results in fair to medium skin tones.^[56] Non-surgical fillers, such as hyaluronic acid-based injectables, enable mild enhancements to the intermammary cleft by adding subtle volume to the medial breasts. Injected via ultrasound-guided dual-plane techniques, fillers like those used in volumes of 250-350 cc per breast create natural projection and contour, suitable for patients seeking temporary augmentation without incisions. Results last 12-18 months, with rapid recovery and low risk of complications when vascular safety is prioritized, offering a reversible alternative for fine-tuning cleft definition.^[57]

Reconstructive Surgery

Reconstructive surgery for the intermammary cleft aims to restore anatomical separation, function, and aesthetics in cases of congenital or acquired deformities, prioritizing medical necessity over elective enhancement. Techniques focus on precise tissue manipulation to address structural disruptions while minimizing complications such as recurrence or infection. Common indications include congenital anomalies, post-oncologic defects, traumatic scarring, and rare infectious sinuses, with procedures tailored to the underlying pathology. Symmastia, characterized by medial confluence of breast tissue obliterating the intermammary cleft, is corrected through medial capsulorrhaphy involving plication of the implant capsule to reinforce the medial border. This often includes implant removal, crescent-shaped capsulectomy, and suture plication using non-absorbable materials like polydioxanone, followed by downsizing or repositioning the implant to achieve proper cleavage definition. In a series of 10 patients with iatrogenic symmastia, this approach yielded no recurrences at 24-month follow-up, with minor complications limited to one hematoma and one seroma, demonstrating reliable restoration of the cleft without parasternal scarring.^[58] Post-mastectomy breast reconstruction frequently employs deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) flaps to recreate the natural breast mound and intermammary cleft, particularly when implants are contraindicated. The flap, harvested from abdominal tissue, is rotated 180 degrees and chamfered medially to form a smooth cleavage contour, with the thicker umbilical portion shaped for the lower pole. In a review of 159 DIEP flaps, this technique achieved superb cosmetic outcomes in shape and symmetry, with no total flap losses and partial losses in 9% managed by post-transfer adjustments, emphasizing the role of vascular integrity in flap survival.^[59] Scar contractures in the intermammary cleft, often resulting from burns or trauma, are addressed by complete release of the constricting scar tissue to the deep fascia, followed by coverage to prevent re-contracture and allow tissue expansion. Z-plasty or local flaps are utilized to elongate the scar and redistribute tension, particularly in the intermammary region, with full-thickness skin grafts preferred over split-thickness for reduced contracture rates. A systematic review of breast burn reconstructions highlighted successful intermammary releases post-puberty using these methods, though long-term aesthetic data remain limited, underscoring the need for individualized timing to accommodate breast development.^[60] Intermammary pilonidal sinus, a rare acquired condition in the cleft, is managed by wide local excision of the sinus tract under general anesthesia, with Z-plasty closure to redirect tension and minimize recurrence while preserving cleavage aesthetics. This approach alters local tissue orientation to promote healing and reduce dead space, commonly applied in flexural areas like the intermammary region due to similar principles as sacrococcygeal disease. In reported cases, excision with primary closure or secondary healing achieved cure rates of 75% within 40 days, with recurrences in 25% managed by repeat procedures, and Z-plasty variants showing efficacy in preventing linear scarring.^[61]^[62]

In Fashion and Media

The intermammary cleft, commonly referred to as cleavage, has been prominently featured in fashion through low-neckline garments since the Renaissance period, where décolleté styles exposed the upper chest and shoulders among European nobility, often paired with voluminous skirts and long sleeves to balance modesty with allure.^[63] This trend continued into the 18th century with off-the-shoulder designs in courtly attire, emphasizing the cleft as a symbol of elegance and status. By the Victorian era, while daytime fashion favored high necklines for propriety, evening gowns adopted plunging décolletage to highlight jewelry and the upper bust, creating a contrast between public restraint and private display.^[63] In the 20th century, this evolved into modern décolletage seen in red carpet gowns with deep V-necks that directly accentuate the intermammary cleft, reflecting greater emphasis on individual expression and body positivity in contemporary fashion.^[63] In media, the intermammary cleft has played a significant role in enhancing visual allure across film, photography, and advertising, particularly during the 20th-century pin-up culture that emerged prominently in the 1940s. Pin-up models and Hollywood actresses, such as Betty Grable and Rita Hayworth, posed in photographs and posters that deliberately emphasized cleavage to provide escapism and morale boosts for soldiers during World War II, with images reproduced on military vehicles, recruitment posters, and magazines like Esquire, of which over 9 million copies were distributed free to American soldiers between 1942 and 1956.^[64] These depictions extended to film, where stars like Carole Landis, nicknamed "The Chest," leveraged low-cut costumes to embody sensuality, influencing advertising campaigns that used similar imagery to promote products and ideals of feminine glamour.^[64] By the mid-20th century, this media emphasis solidified the cleft's association with erotic appeal in popular culture. Fashion trends accentuating the intermammary cleft gained momentum in the 1950s with the popularization of push-up bras, which lifted and enhanced the bust to create deeper cleavage, aligning with the era's Hollywood-inspired hourglass silhouettes exemplified by icons like Marilyn Monroe. Invented in 1947 by Frederick Mellinger and further developed through padded designs, these bras became staples in lingerie wardrobes, boosting sales in the burgeoning undergarment industry and influencing ready-to-wear clothing with sweetheart necklines that showcased the effect. This trend persisted into later decades, with push-up styles symbolizing sensuality and confidence in both everyday and evening fashion. In conservative societies, legal and cultural restrictions have imposed bans on exposing the intermammary cleft, viewing it as indecent. Uganda's 2014 Anti-Pornography Act (annulled in part in 2021), for instance, formerly prohibited women from revealing their breasts, thighs, or buttocks through clothing deemed provocative, leading to public harassment and protests against enforced modesty.^[65] Similarly, in Saudi Arabia, strict dress codes under Islamic law require women to cover the chest area fully, with abayas and hijabs mandatory in public to prevent any exposure of the cleft, enforced through religious police until recent reforms.^[66] These measures reflect broader efforts in such regions to uphold traditional values, often resulting in fines, arrests, or social ostracism for violations.^[65]

Societal Perceptions

The intermammary cleft has long been imbued with symbolic meaning related to femininity, fertility, and sexuality across various cultures. In many societies, the visibility or prominence of the cleft is associated with ideals of female reproductive potential and allure, serving as a visual cue for health and nurturing capacity. For instance, in ancient civilizations such as those of Greece and Rome, exposed breasts and defined cleavage symbolized fertility and maternal abundance, often depicted in art to emphasize women's roles in procreation and sustenance.^[67] In contemporary Western beauty standards, enhancement of the intermammary cleft through clothing or procedures reinforces its role as a marker of femininity and sexual desirability. Evolutionary psychology research highlights how perceptions of the intermammary cleft influence judgments of attractiveness. Studies indicate that a narrower cleft is consistently rated higher in attractiveness, perceived youth, health, and fertility compared to a wider one, suggesting it signals lower parity and higher residual reproductive value. For example, a 2020 study using manipulated images found that smaller intermammary distances correlated positively with these attributes across male and female raters, independent of breast size or ptosis, supporting the idea that such morphology cues evolutionary mate preferences.^[68] These findings underscore the cleft's role in intrasexual competition and mate selection, where narrower spacing evokes associations with vitality and genetic quality.^[69] Societal pressures, particularly from media, contribute to body image concerns surrounding the intermammary cleft, often fostering desires for enhancement. Exposure to idealized images on platforms like Instagram has been linked to increased interest in breast augmentation, with active users showing a 1.52 times higher odds of desiring surgery due to comparisons with filtered depictions of prominent cleavage.^[70] Similarly, frequent consumption of social media and pornography alters preferences toward exaggerated cleft visibility, heightening dissatisfaction and dysmorphia among women, though it does not always reduce personal satisfaction with one's own body.^[71] This media-driven emphasis can exacerbate psychological distress, prompting pursuits of aesthetic modifications to align with perceived norms of desirability. Cross-cultural variations reveal diverse attitudes toward the intermammary cleft, ranging from celebration to taboo. In Western and Brazilian contexts, visible cleavage is often embraced as a symbol of confidence and sensuality, reflected in fashion and beach culture that normalizes exposure.^[67] Conversely, in Islamic societies such as Saudi Arabia, strict modesty norms mandate full coverage, viewing any display of the cleft as immodest and tied to sexual prohibition.^[67] Preferences also differ in breast morphology ratings; for instance, men in Cameroon favor larger sizes potentially implying broader clefts, while those in the Czech Republic and Brazil prefer medium sizes with firmness, indicating subtler cultural influences on perceived ideal spacing.^[72] In recent years, movements such as #FreeTheNipple and body positivity campaigns have challenged traditional sexualization of the intermammary cleft, advocating for reduced emphasis on enhancement and greater acceptance of natural body variations in media and fashion, particularly in Western societies as of 2025.^[73]

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The width of the inter-mammary cleft is defined by the distance between the points of attachment of the breast tissue to the periosteal tissue.<|control11|><|separator|>
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the cleft between the mature female breasts. Synonym(s): sulcus intermammarius [TA], cleavage (1). Farlex Partner Medical Dictionary © Farlex 2012.
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Intermammary sulcus (also called intermammary cleft): This is the vertical groove between the two breasts, running over the sternum. It represents the ...
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Thoracic wall and breast: normal anatomy | e-Anatomy
### Summary of Intermammary Cleft/Sulcus from https://www.imaios.com/en/e-anatomy/thorax/thoracic-wall-breast
[7]
Mammary - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
Origin and history of mammary "of or pertaining to a breast," 1680s, from French mammaire (18c.) or Medieval Latin mammarius, from Latin mamma "breast" (see ...
[8]
Cleft - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
Originating from Middle English clift and Old English geclyft, cleft means "split, cloven," derived from Proto-Germanic *kluftis and PIE *gleubh- "to tear ...
[9]
Sulcus - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
Originating from Latin sulcus meaning "furrow" and PIE *selk- "to pull," sulcus refers to a groove or brain fissure between convolutions.Missing: intermammarius | Show results with:intermammarius
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Cleavage - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
Originating in 1805 from cleave + -age, cleavage in geology means rocks breaking along natural fissures; generally, it denotes the action or state of being ...
[11]
Sebaceous Gland - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Humans have more sebaceous glands than any other mammal. The density ranges from 400 to 900 glands per square centimeter of skin surface and is greatest on the ...
[12]
Physiology of sweat gland function: The roles of ... - PubMed Central
The highest gland densities are on the palms and soles (~250–550 glands/cm2) [16] and respond to emotional as well as thermal stimuli. The density of eccrine ...
[13]
Secondary Sex Characteristic - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
For males, secondary characteristics include facial and chest hair, increased body hair, pelvic build (lack of rounded hips), upper body muscular build, and the ...
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Anatomy, Skin (Integument) - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Oct 17, 2022 · This article will discuss the anatomy of the skin, including its structure, function, embryology, blood, lymphatic, and nerve supply, surgical, and clinical ...
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Body Composition - Principles of Nutritional Assessment
Moreover, variations in the distribution of subcutaneous fat occur with sex ... All assume the density of fat and the fat-free mass are constant by age and sex.
[16]
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May 16, 2011 · The function of sternalis muscle is still unknown. It may participate in the shoulder joint movement or have an accessory role in the lower ...
[17]
Anatomy of the Superficial Fascia System of the Breast - NIH
Oct 25, 2018 · In 1840, Sir Astley Cooper published his book, On the Anatomy of the Breast. ... inframammary fold portion of the circummammary ligament ...
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Medial mammary branches usually originate from the second to fourth perforating branches after piercing the intercostal muscles and supply the tissue of the ...Origin And Course · Relations · Branches And Supply
[19]
The Breasts - Structure - Vasculature - TeachMeAnatomy
### Summary of Breast Anatomy Related to Pectoralis Major and Minor, Intermammary Cleft, and Supporting Structures
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The anatomy and variations of the internal thoracic ... - PubMed
Oct 11, 2011 · There were large IT perforators from the first and second intercostal spaces in 87 and 91% of cases, respectively, with the incidence of such ...
[21]
Lymphatic drainage of the breast | Radiology Reference Article
Apr 11, 2023 · Lymphatic drainage of breast originates from breast lobules and flows through intramammary nodes and channels into a subareolar plexus, called Sappey's plexus.
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The Lymphatic Anatomy of the Breast and its Implications for ... - NIH
This study addresses the lymphatic anatomy of the breast and anterior upper torso. Our findings may explain the clinical experience in lymphatic mapping and ...
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Sentinel lymph node biopsy of the internal mammary chain in breast ...
The aim of this study was to determine the impact of routinely performed IMC sentinel node biopsy on the systemic and locoregional treatments plan.
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Breast Anatomy - Radiology | UCLA Health
Horizontally, the breast extends from the side of the sternum to the midaxillary line, where the tail segment of breast tissue called the axillary tail of ...Stroma · Nervous Supply · Lymphatic Drainage<|control11|><|separator|>
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The breast is innervated primarily by sensory nerves from C3-C4 and T3-T6, and secondarily by sympathetic nerves from T1-T5, which cover the ducts.
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Intercostal Neuralgia - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Intercostal neuralgia is characterized by neuropathic pain in the distribution of affected intercostal nerve(s) (along the ribs, chest, or abdomen)
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Estrogens influence female itch sensitivity via the spinal gastrin ...
Jul 26, 2021 · Circulating estrogens appear to have a pronociceptive effect that explains why females are reported to be more sensitive to pain than males.
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The purpose of this study was to determine possible sex differences in the contribution of sensory nerves in response to a local heat stimulus.
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Development of the ventral body wall in the human embryo - NIH
Our data, therefore, show that the ventral body wall is formed by differential dorsoventral growth in the dorsal part of the body.
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Development of the Human Breast - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
The human breast houses the mammary gland that produces and delivers milk through development of an extensive tree-like network of branched ducts.
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The Mammary Gland: Basic Structure and Molecular Signaling ...
By the end of week six, the mammary ridges become regressed to two areas in the thoracic region (2nd–6th rib).
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The Neural Crest - Developmental Biology - NCBI Bookshelf
Thus, the thoracic neural crest cells are capable of developing into cholinergic neurons when they are placed into the neck, and the vagal neural crest cells ...
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Mammary Gland Development - PMC - PubMed Central
In humans, sexual dimorphism is accomplished via a different mechanism and the bud is not severed during embryogenesis.
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Effects of Breast Size, Intermammary Cleft Distance (Cleavage) and ...
Feb 28, 2020 · In the current study, we investigate the perceived attractiveness, health, fertility, and age of a woman's breasts varying in size, ptosis, and ...Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
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Anatomy for plastic surgery of the breast
The distance from nipple to the inframammary fold is 5–7 cm (Fig. 1.1). The distance from the nipple to the midline is 9–11 cm. These measurements offer ...
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Effects of Breast Size, Intermammary Cleft Distance (Cleavage) and ...
Aug 10, 2025 · Results showed that the perception of attractiveness, fertility, health, and age were influenced by size, cleft distance, ptosis, and hostile sexism.
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Poikiloderma of Civatte is a benign, common and chronic condition, which belongs to the group of melanodermas (pigmented skin disorders).
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Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis of Poikiloderma of Civatte
The most common localization was the V-shaped area of the chest. Less than one-third of the patients complained of accompanying symptoms (burning, flushing and ...
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Flexural psoriasis. Psoriasis in skin folds and genitals - DermNet
Flexural psoriasis is sometimes called inverse psoriasis and describes psoriasis localised to the skin folds and genitals.Missing: intermammary | Show results with:intermammary
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Inverse Psoriasis: From Diagnosis to Current Treatment Options - NIH
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Hirsutism - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
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Intertrigo describes a rash in the flexures, such as behind the ears, under the arms, and in the groin. It is a sign of inflammation or infection.Missing: sebaceous glands
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Intertrigo - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Oct 28, 2024 · This condition is often triggered or aggravated by warm temperatures, friction, moisture, maceration, and poor ventilation.Missing: sebaceous glands thermoregulation
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Hidradenitis Suppurativa - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
May 6, 2024 · Hidradenitis suppurativa is a chronic inflammatory skin condition characterized by painful lesions such as deep-seated nodules, abscesses, skin tunnels, and ...Missing: intermammary cleft
[46]
Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Hidradenitis Suppurativa - NIH
Typical areas: armpits, inframammary region, intermammary folds, groin, perineum, or buttocks ... cleft (arrowheads). Thickening of dermal plane and subcutaneous ...
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Intertriginous lesions in pityriasis versicolor - PubMed
Background: The well-recognized sites of involvement in pityriasis versicolor are the upper part of the trunk, the neck and the upper arms.
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Tinea Versicolor - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Feb 12, 2024 · Pityriasis versicolor, or tinea versicolor, is a common, benign, superficial fungal skin infection. The causative organism, yeast from the genus ...Missing: intertriginous | Show results with:intertriginous
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Intermammary pilonidal sinus in women. Diagnosis and treatment
The inter-mammary sulcus is a rare location for pilonidal sinus abscesses. Our study examined the causes of inter-mammary PSD (IMPSD), which is rarely seen in ...
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Intermammary Pilonidal Sinus - PMC - NIH
It is observed most commonly in people aged 15 to 30 years, occurring after puberty when sex hormones are known to affect the pilosebaceous gland and change ...
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Intertrigo in Severe Obesity: Clinical Insights and Outcomes ... - NIH
Apr 30, 2025 · Obesity is a known risk factor for intertrigo due to increased sweating, pronounced skin folds, impaired skin barrier function, and challenges ...
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Congenital Symmastia: A Four-Step, Minimally Invasive Approach
Apr 14, 2020 · Symmastia is a rare condition in which breasts are unified medially due to aberrant development of mammary tissue in the intermammary region, ...Case Report · Fig. 1 · Fig. 2Missing: fusion | Show results with:fusion
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Keloid disease is a fibroproliferative dermal tumor with an unknown etiology that occurs after a skin injury in genetically susceptible individuals.
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Sep 25, 2018 · Here are some key points to think about and ask your plastic surgeon about when it comes to cleavage after your breast augmentation.
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Breast Cleavage Remodeling with Fat Grafting: A Safe Way to ...
Breast Cleavage Remodeling with Fat Grafting: A Safe Way to Optimize Symmetry and to Reduce Intermammary Distance.
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Laser resurfacing uses lasers to reduce the appearance of wrinkles and scars, to even out skin coloring (pigmentation), to tighten skin and to remove lesions.
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Anatomical Considerations for Hyaluronic Acid Filler Injection ... - NIH
Apr 8, 2025 · Breast augmentation using HA filler is best suited for patients seeking modest breast enhancement and those who prefer non-surgical treatment.
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Mar 29, 2018 · Capsulorrhaphy appears to be a safe and reliable method for repairing breast implant malposition, improving the results of preoperative breast ...
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Breast reconstruction with deep inferior epigastric perforator flaps
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) flap ... cleavage and using the thicker umbilical portion to ...
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Breast Burns Scar Reconstruction: A Systematic Review of Management Considerations and Recommendations. Reconstruction mammaire après brûlure : revue de la ...
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The aim of this study is to report and discuss the presentation and management of twelve cases of pilonidal sinus occurring in intermammary area.Missing: terminology | Show results with:terminology
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(PDF) Z-Plasty A Rational and Effective Technique for Treatment of ...
Aug 6, 2025 · With Z-plasty, primary closure ensures faster healing while the alteration of local anatomy reduces recurrence. Methods Twenty patients ...
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Tracing the Evolution of Necklines: A Fashion Journey Through the Ages
### Summary of Décolletage and Low-Neckline Garments (Renaissance to Modern Times)
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Beauty, Glamour, and the Pin-Up Girls of the 1940s
### Summary of Cleavage/Intermammary Cleft in 1940s Pin-Up Culture
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Uganda miniskirt ban: Police stop protest march - BBC News
Feb 26, 2014 · The anti-pornography act does not mention the word miniskirt but bans women from revealing their thighs, breasts and buttocks and from dressing ...Missing: exposing | Show results with:exposing
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Cultural Restrictions - Dress codes around the world
Apr 24, 2024 · Since the introduction of the 'Miniskirt ban' as dubbed by the media, it is against the law for women to reveal their thighs, breasts and ...
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The Social Area of the Breast: An Evolution Through Cultures ... - NIH
Some Greek philosophers theorized that women should be topless to promote sexual equality. Some advocated that breasts are not private or sexual parts at all.Missing: intermammary cleft
[71]
Large breasts and narrow waists indicate high reproductive potential ...
Jun 22, 2004 · We document that women with higher breast–to–underbreast ratio (large breasts) and women with relatively low WHR (narrow waists) have higher fecundity.
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https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1090513816302847
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Intrasexual Competition in Women's Likelihood of Self ... - MDPI
Jan 29, 2023 · Effects of breast size, intermammary cleft distance (cleavage) and ptosis on perceived attractiveness, health, fertility, and age: Do life ...
[74]
Association between the Desire for Breast Augmentation and ... - NIH
Sep 30, 2021 · The impact of social media on the eagerness to undergo aesthetic breast surgery is unknown. We aimed to evaluate the association between ...
[75]
Digital Media Play a Key Role in Influencing Female Breast Perception
Dec 9, 2022 · The study was able to identify the frequency of pornographic and social media consumption as the most influencing factor for altered breast preferences.Missing: pressure intermammary cleft enhancement
[76]
Men's preferences for women's breast size and shape in four cultures
### Summary of Cross-Cultural Differences in Men's Preferences for Breast Shape and Size
[77]
(PDF) Nudity Norms and Breast Arousal: A Cross-Generational ...
Our study thus provides preliminary evidence that men's sexualization of female breasts might have cross-cultural, evolutionary grounds.