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Mergui Archipelago

The Mergui Archipelago, also designated the Myeik Archipelago, encompasses over 800 islands scattered across the Andaman Sea off Myanmar's Tanintharyi Region in the country's extreme southeast.^[1]^[2]
These islands, ranging from small rocky outcrops to larger landmasses covered in tropical rainforest and fringed by mangrove forests, host diverse marine habitats including coral reefs that sustain abundant fish stocks and other biodiversity.^[3]^[4]
The archipelago remains sparsely inhabited, with a small indigenous population dominated by the Moken, a traditionally nomadic seafaring ethnic group practicing sustainable subsistence fishing and living in houseboats or stilt villages.^[5]^[6]
Long isolated due to geopolitical restrictions, the area opened to limited tourism in the late 1990s, revealing pristine ecosystems but also exposing vulnerabilities to overexploitation from small-scale fisheries targeting species like sharks.^[7]^[8]

Geography

Location and Extent

The Mergui Archipelago, also known as the Myeik Archipelago, is situated in the northeastern Andaman Sea, off the coast of Myanmar's Tanintharyi Region in the extreme south of the country, proximate to the Thai border.^[5] This offshore island group lies approximately 60 kilometers from the mainland, within Myanmar's territorial waters.^[9] Comprising around 800 islands of varying sizes—from diminutive islets to larger landmasses exceeding hundreds of square kilometers—the archipelago extends across a substantial maritime expanse estimated at 36,000 square kilometers.^[10] ^[9] The islands are arrayed in a roughly north-south orientation parallel to the Tanintharyi coastline, with central coordinates near 12° N latitude and 98° E longitude.^[11] Geologically, the formations predominantly consist of limestone and granite, contributing to diverse topographies including steep karst features and forested interiors, though the precise bounding coordinates of the archipelago's extent remain variably defined in surveys due to the scattered nature of the islands.^[9]

Major Islands and Topographical Features

The Mergui Archipelago comprises approximately 800 islands, predominantly formed from limestone and granite, resulting in a rugged topography characterized by sheer cliffs rising hundreds of meters from the sea, forested hills, and karst formations often pockmarked with caves and sinkholes.^[9]^[12] Lowland wet evergreen forests cover much of the interiors, interspersed with mangrove swamps, rivers, lagoons, and stretches of white-sand beaches fringed by rocky headlands.^[9]^[13] The surrounding waters feature extensive coral reef systems, contributing to the archipelago's dramatic underwater topography with vibrant hard and soft coral formations.^[5] Kadan Kyun, the largest and highest island, spans 450 square kilometers and reaches an elevation of 767 meters at French Bay Peak, lying across an inland channel from Myeik (Mergui).^[14] Its terrain includes dense mangrove forests along the coasts and hilly interiors supporting evergreen vegetation.^[15] Lampi Island, the largest in the southern portion, exhibits a distinctive horseshoe shape with protected bays, ancient mangrove forests, and diverse ecosystems designated as Myanmar's first marine national park in 1996.^[16]^[9] Other significant islands include Mali Kyun, the northernmost extent, and Christie Island, noted for their forested elevations and coastal features akin to the archipelago's general profile.^[15] The islands' isolation has preserved much of this topography from extensive human alteration, though selective logging and small-scale settlements occur on larger landmasses like Kadan Kyun.^[17]

Natural Environment

Biodiversity and Ecosystems

The Mergui Archipelago hosts diverse marine and terrestrial ecosystems, including fringing coral reefs, seagrass beds, mangrove forests, beach and dune habitats, and lowland wet evergreen forests covering its approximately 800 islands. These ecosystems support high levels of endemism and species richness, particularly in the Andaman Sea region, with Lampi Island Marine National Park encompassing key protected areas featuring coral reefs, seagrasses, mangroves, sand dunes, and tropical evergreen forests.^[9] Marine biodiversity is dominated by coral reef systems, where surveys conducted between 2013 and 2017 identified 288 species of scleractinian corals across 68 genera and 17 families, with an average hard coral cover of 48.9% (ranging from 0% to 92% across sites). Reef fish diversity includes 495 species from 62 families, such as dominant groups like Gobiidae, Labridae, and Pomacentridae, while invertebrate assemblages comprise 258 reef-associated species, including 55 gastropods, 103 decapods, and echinoderms with high densities of Diadema setosum urchins (average 52.01 per transect). Seagrass beds feature 7 species, with coverage ranging from 25.75% to 64.57%, providing essential habitats for crustaceans, molluscs, and juvenile fish. Mangrove ecosystems on inner islands sustain additional marine-terrestrial linkages, hosting 63 plant species and supporting wildlife corridors.^[18]^[9] Terrestrial ecosystems within the archipelago, particularly in protected zones like Lampi Marine National Park, include 195 species of evergreen plants and support 228 bird species, 19 mammals, 19 reptiles, and 10 amphibians. Notable fauna encompass threatened species such as the plain-pouched hornbill (Rhabdotorrhinus subruficollis, vulnerable), Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica, endangered), and marine vertebrates including dugongs (Dugong dugon), whale sharks (Rhincodon typus), manta rays, various sharks, and three sea turtle species. Overall, the park harbors around 50 globally threatened plants and animals, underscoring the archipelago's role as a biodiversity hotspot with over 1,000 documented animal and plant species across habitats.^[9]^[18]

Climate and Geological Influences

The Mergui Archipelago lies within a tropical monsoon climate regime, characterized by consistently high temperatures and pronounced seasonal rainfall patterns driven by the southwest monsoon. Average annual temperatures hover around 27°C, with monthly highs ranging from 24°C to 33°C and minimal diurnal variation due to the maritime influence of the Andaman Sea. Precipitation is substantial throughout much of the year, totaling 3,000 to 5,000 mm annually in coastal and hilly areas, with the wet season extending from May to October when monsoon winds deliver intense, frequent downpours that can exceed 400 mm in peak months like July and August. The dry season, from November to April, features reduced rainfall, clearer skies, and calmer seas, though humidity remains elevated year-round, often surpassing 80%, fostering lush vegetation but also contributing to occasional tropical storms.^[19]^[20]^[21] Geologically, the archipelago's formation stems from Cenozoic tectonic processes in the Andaman Sea backarc region, involving oblique rifting, strike-slip faulting, and extensional tectonics linked to the northward indentation of the Indian Plate. The northern Mergui Basin records Early Miocene dextral strike-slip faults with offsets up to 8 km along north-northwest-trending segments, accompanied by northeast-trending normal faults that created pull-apart basins and facilitated basin subsidence. Rock assemblages primarily belong to the Mergui Group, comprising folded greywackes, quartzites, pebbly mudstones, siltstones, and sandstones, intruded by acid and basic igneous bodies such as felsites and hornblende-rich rocks; volcanic manifestations include silicious lavas on islands like Elphinstone and Maingay, alongside basaltic flows and tuffs. These structures result in a topography of over 800 rugged, hilly islands rising from the shallow continental shelf, with strata exhibiting sharp folding and faulting from intense compressional and shear stresses.^[22]^[23]^[24] Climate and geology interact to shape the archipelago's environmental dynamics: monsoon-driven erosion and sediment transport from granitic and sedimentary terrains deposit nutrients into surrounding waters, enhancing marine productivity and supporting coral reef growth on stable shelf platforms, while seasonal flooding replenishes mangrove systems and influences soil leaching on steep slopes. Tectonic stability since the Middle Miocene has preserved diverse substrates for endemic flora, but ongoing Andaman Sea spreading subtly affects bathymetry, potentially amplifying tsunami vulnerability as evidenced by historical events. Igneous intrusions contribute mineral-rich soils that sustain evergreen forests, though heavy rains accelerate weathering, leading to localized landslides on fault-scarped hillsides. These factors underpin the region's biodiversity hotspots, with geological fragmentation promoting isolated ecosystems resilient to climatic variability.^[23]^[22]^[20]

History

Pre-Colonial and Early Trade Periods

The Mergui Archipelago, part of the broader Tenasserim coast, featured indigenous seafaring communities predating organized states, with the Moken people maintaining a semi-nomadic existence centered on marine resources for potentially over 4,000 years. Mitochondrial DNA analyses of Moken individuals from islands such as Dung, Lampi, Jadiak, and Pulao reveal genetic affinities linking them to ancient Austronesian migrations across Southeast Asia, underscoring their long-term adaptation to the Andaman Sea environment.^[25]^[26] From the 11th to 13th centuries CE, the region came under the sway of the Pagan Empire, with Myeik serving as a southern outpost; a Burmese inscription dated 1196 CE enumerates nearby Takwa (Takuapa) among Pagan's southern provinces, indicating administrative reach into coastal peripheries.^[27] Epigraphic evidence in Burmese from 1269 CE further attests to linguistic and cultural influence extending to Mergui proper during this era.^[28] The empire's collapse in 1287 CE following Mongol incursions shifted oversight to Siamese polities, including Sukhothai and later Ayutthaya, which administered Tenasserim-Mergui as a frontier zone through the 16th century, leveraging its ports for regional control.^[29] Early trade networks integrated the archipelago into maritime circuits from the first centuries CE, facilitating exchanges along routes connecting India, China, and the Malay Peninsula, though direct archaeological traces in Mergui remain scarce compared to mainland Tenasserim sites.^[30] Ports in the region thrived variably from antiquity, influenced by fluctuating international commerce and local political stability, with pre-14th century activity tied to overland and sea links across the Kra Isthmus.^[31]^[32]

Colonial Era and European Involvement

The Mergui Archipelago, part of the Tenasserim coast under Siamese suzerainty from the 16th century, saw initial European commercial interest through Portuguese, Dutch, and English traders operating via the port of Ayutthaya in Siam. Portuguese adventurers arrived in the region as early as the 1510s, establishing sporadic trade links with Burmese and Siamese ports for spices, teak, and tin, though their presence in Mergui itself was indirect and focused on mainland entrepôts like Pegu. Dutch East India Company factors followed in the early 1600s, competing for pepper and cloth exchanges, but Siamese policies restricted foreign settlements to prevent rivalry with local Muslim merchants dominant in Mergui-Tenasserim trade routes.^[33]^[34] By the late 17th century, English influence grew when Samuel White, an adventurer from the East India Company, gained favor with Siamese King Narai and assumed de facto control over Mergui's administration around 1683, facilitating tin exports and displacing entrenched Muslim trading networks. White's tenure marked a shift toward European-style governance, including the establishment of a small English factory, though it ended amid Siamese court intrigues by 1688. French missionaries, under the Paris Foreign Missions Society, maintained a modest presence in the 1660s–1680s, with figures like the Jesuit Pierre Poivre documenting Mergui as a frontier port for evangelization and botanical surveys, but their impact remained cultural rather than economic.^[1]^[34] British East India Company captain Thomas Forrest conducted the first detailed European survey of the archipelago in 1784 during a voyage from Calcutta, charting over 200 islands and assessing suitability for sugar plantations amid post-war Siamese instability, though no permanent settlements resulted due to piracy risks and logistical challenges. The First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826) led to British annexation of Tenasserim, including Mergui, via the Treaty of Yandabo on February 24, 1826, integrating the archipelago into British India's Lower Burma province.^[5]^[35]^[2] Under British colonial administration from 1826 to 1948, the islands were mapped hydrographically by the Indian Navy, with key surveys in the 1830s enabling tin mining concessions on larger isles like Great Coco, though exploitation was limited by dense forests and Moken nomadic presence. Mergui town served as a minor administrative outpost and holiday retreat for colonial officials, with steamship services from Moulmein facilitating brief excursions, but overall trade declined as regional commerce shifted to Rangoon and Penang, reducing the archipelago's strategic value. Post-1937 separation of Burma from India, governance persisted under direct British rule until Japanese occupation in 1942, with minimal infrastructure development beyond lighthouses and coastal patrols.^[10]^[36]^[37]

Post-Independence Developments

Following Myanmar's independence from Britain on January 4, 1948, the Mergui Archipelago was administered as part of the Tenasserim Division within the new Union of Burma, with Myeik serving as the principal port.^[38] The region saw minimal infrastructure investment amid nationwide instability, including ethnic insurgencies by Karen armed groups that extended into southern border areas from the late 1940s onward, disrupting local trade and settlement patterns.^[39] Economic activity remained centered on subsistence fishing and small-scale marine resource extraction, such as pearls from native oysters, with little diversification due to the government's inward-focused policies.^[5] The 1962 military coup by General Ne Win initiated socialist nationalization that curtailed private enterprise across the country, further isolating the archipelago economically, while subsequent regimes after the 1988 suppression of pro-democracy protests imposed strict travel controls, rendering the islands largely off-limits to outsiders for decades.^[10] This seclusion extended to using remote islands, like Christie Island, for exiling political prisoners during periods of junta rule.^[40] Foreign access was prohibited until 1997, when limited permissions for tourism were granted, primarily for diving operations targeting coral reefs, though enforcement remained inconsistent and bureaucratic.^[41] The December 26, 2004, Indian Ocean tsunami struck the archipelago's coastal communities, destroying Moken boats and villages but causing relatively few deaths due to indigenous knowledge of natural warning signs, such as receding waters and animal behavior, prompting evacuations to higher ground.^[42] The military government underreported impacts in the region, denying significant damage to maintain control over information flow.^[43] Post-2011 political reforms under a quasi-civilian government eased some restrictions, enabling expanded eco-tourism and foreign investment proposals for resorts, yet persistent ethnic tensions and the February 2021 military coup reinstated travel bans and heightened military presence, stalling broader development.^[7]

Population and Indigenous Groups

Demographics and Settlement Patterns

The Mergui Archipelago exhibits sparse demographics, with the majority of its approximately 800 islands remaining uninhabited due to challenging terrain and historical isolation. Population estimates for the inhabited islands are limited, but communities are concentrated in small coastal fishing villages on larger landmasses, such as those near Zadetkala and Lampi islands, where households rely on marine resources for sustenance.^[44]^[10] Indigenous inhabitants primarily comprise the Moken, an Austronesian ethnic group traditionally practicing sea nomadism, with boat-dwelling families seasonally migrating between islands for fishing and gathering. As of 2006, around 2,000 Moken resided in the Burmese sector of the archipelago, maintaining semi-nomadic patterns that limit permanent settlements.^[5] Sedentary populations include Bamar Burmese and smaller numbers of Mon and Karen settlers, who have formed fixed villages focused on fishing and limited agriculture since colonial times, reflecting adaptive responses to the region's resource distribution and navigational demands.^[13]^[45] Settlement patterns emphasize coastal proximity to reefs and mangroves, enabling access to fish stocks and avoiding interior jungles prone to malaria and wildlife. Villages typically feature stilt houses over water or on beaches, with no road infrastructure, fostering dependence on sea travel and reinforcing ethnic enclaves amid low overall density.^[44] Recent influxes of Burmese migrants for resource extraction have begun altering traditional distributions, though enforcement of restricted access preserves relative isolation.^[10]

The Moken Sea Nomads

The Moken, also known as Sea Gypsies or Salon in Myanmar, are an indigenous Austronesian ethnic group inhabiting the Mergui Archipelago in the Andaman Sea, primarily within Myanmar's territorial waters, though their nomadic range extends to adjacent Thai islands.^[46] They have maintained a maritime hunter-gatherer lifestyle for at least several centuries, traditionally residing on kabang boats or temporary stilt houses on remote islands, relying on the sea for sustenance through free-diving for seafood, shellfish collection, and trading marine products.^[47] This seafaring existence, documented since the 18th century, involves seasonal migrations across approximately 800 islands, adapting to tidal rhythms and avoiding permanent land settlement.^[47] Moken culture emphasizes oral traditions, animistic beliefs tied to the ocean, and exceptional marine adaptations honed by generations of submersion. Children learn to swim before walking and develop proficiency in spearfishing and breath-hold diving from early ages, spending up to 50-60% of their time in water.^[48] A hallmark physiological trait is their superior underwater visual acuity, achieved through voluntary pupil constriction to 1.96 mm (compared to 2.50 mm in European children) and maximal accommodation, enabling resolution twice that of untrained peers—equivalent to reading text at 2.3 times greater distance underwater.^[49] This ability, studied among Moken children in the Andaman region since 2003, stems from behavioral training rather than genetic divergence, as European children can partially replicate it through practice, underscoring environmental causation over innate endowment.^[49]^[50] Population estimates for Moken in Myanmar's Mergui Archipelago hover around several hundred, though exact figures are elusive due to their mobility and lack of formal census integration; overall Andaman Moken numbers total roughly 2,000-3,000, with declining trends from assimilation pressures.^[51] Statelessness persists as a core challenge, with many lacking citizenship documents from either Myanmar or Thailand, restricting access to education, healthcare, and legal protections amid territorial disputes and modernization encroachments like tourism and overfishing.^[47] Post-2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, Moken survival instincts—evacuating to higher ground based on observed environmental cues—highlighted their empirical attunement to natural hazards, yet subsequent aid and government interventions have accelerated shifts toward sedentary villages, eroding traditional nomadism.^[51] Conservation efforts, including those by NGOs, aim to preserve their knowledge of sustainable marine practices, though enforcement remains inconsistent in Myanmar's unstable governance context.^[48]

Integration and Modern Challenges

The Moken in Myanmar have increasingly transitioned from traditional nomadic seafaring to semi-settled communities on islands within the Mergui Archipelago, driven by government policies and external pressures. By 2017, most had abandoned boat-dwelling for land-based settlements, with many losing skills such as canoe construction essential to their heritage.^[52] Efforts to integrate them include the establishment of basic education schools and a boarding school for Moken children since 2016, alongside funding for cultural festivals and rice provisions by the Tanintharyi regional government.^[52] A proposed special committee involving anthropologists aims to preserve their way of life while addressing decline, though assimilation into broader Burmese society remains limited due to cultural resistance and structural barriers.^[52] ^[47] Statelessness severely hampers integration, as most Moken remain unregistered under Myanmar's 1982 Citizenship Law, which disadvantages nomadic groups, granting only sporadic ID cards to community leaders for travel permits.^[47] This excludes them from national healthcare, education, and welfare systems, with only 100-150 children accessing informal schooling and reliance on low-wage informal labor.^[47] Discrimination and exploitation persist, including extortion and arbitrary arrests by the Burmese navy, exacerbating poverty and marginalization.^[47] Modern challenges compound these issues, with the full-blooded Moken population falling below 1,000 by 2017 from an estimated 17,000 in 1980, partly due to drug trafficking that has claimed many adult males over the past decade.^[52] ^[53] Environmental and economic threats include a government-backed pearl farming expansion by Myanmar Pearls Enterprise and Japan's Tasaki, targeting 30,000 acres in the Myeik Archipelago—including La Ngan islands home to over 230 Moken—disrupting traditional fishing and camping sites.^[53] These operations, linked to the military junta post-2021 coup, involve forcible habitat occupation, risking further cultural erosion and potential migration to Thailand.^[54] Regional instability in Tanintharyi, intensified by the coup, adds layers of insecurity through armed conflicts and resource exploitation, underscoring calls to protect Moken rights without forced assimilation.^[47]^[54]

Economy

Fishing and Marine Resource Utilization

The fisheries of the Mergui Archipelago, also known as the Myeik Archipelago, predominantly consist of small-scale, artisanal operations that target reef fish, crustaceans, and pelagic species, providing essential livelihoods for coastal communities and indigenous groups such as the Moken sea nomads.^[18] These activities integrate traditional knowledge with basic gear like handlines and traps, reflecting a historical reliance on nearshore resources within the archipelago's 800 islands.^[55] Commercial utilization includes processing and export of wild-caught fish, supported by facilities in nearby Myeik, where the town produces ice, boats, and other essentials for the industry; nationally, Myanmar operates 123 fish processing plants, with 20 approved for exporting wild marine catches. Key species encompass mud crabs, shrimp, and rays such as mobulids, with documented bycatch and trade monitored through digital systems in southern Myanmar's inshore fisheries.^[56] Interactions with cetaceans and sharks highlight incidental captures, including non-compliant finning practices in the region.^[8]^[57] Destructive practices like dynamite fishing persist, devastating coral reefs and sterilizing seabed areas for at least three years by annihilating fish populations and habitats, despite enforcement challenges in remote waters.^[58] Overexploitation has strained resources across Myanmar's 486,000 km² exclusive economic zone, which encompasses the archipelago, contributing to national marine capture production of 2.1 million tonnes in 2017.^[59]^[60] To mitigate pressures, initiatives promote aquaculture diversification, such as saltwater shrimp farming, which by March 2024 demonstrated viability and encouraged shifts from capture fishing to farming for resource preservation.^[61] Three locally managed marine areas (LMMAs) were established in 2017 to foster sustainable practices, restricting no-take zones and enhancing community-based governance amid biodiversity hotspots.^[55] Abandoned gear like ghost nets poses additional threats, prompting surveys to identify hotspots for removal.^[62]

Tourism and Accessibility

The Mergui Archipelago, also known as the Myeik Archipelago, remains one of the least accessible destinations in Myanmar due to its remote location in the Andaman Sea and regulatory requirements for foreign visitors. Access is primarily via boat from Kawthaung, the southernmost town in Myanmar adjacent to Thailand's Ranong, or from Myeik, with Kawthaung serving as the main embarkation point for tours.^[63]^[6] Flights from Yangon to Kawthaung facilitate initial travel, though liveaboard diving trips often start from Ranong, Thailand, with border crossings.^[64] Foreign tourists require permits to enter the archipelago, typically obtained through licensed local tour operators who coordinate with authorities, as independent travel is restricted.^[65] These permits are mandatory for overnight stays and exploration beyond designated areas, reflecting ongoing security concerns in Tanintharyi Region amid Myanmar's internal conflicts.^[66] The archipelago was closed to outsiders until 1997, limiting development and preserving its isolation.^[7] Tourism focuses on low-impact activities such as snorkeling, diving, and kayaking among the 800 islands, with attractions including pristine coral reefs and interactions with Moken sea nomad communities.^[67] Visitor numbers remain minimal, with fewer than 2,000 foreigners annually recorded in recent years, and only 1,158 total arrivals in 2012, underscoring its status as an undervisited destination compared to mainland Myanmar sites.^[68]^[69] High costs, remoteness, and seasonal accessibility from November to May constrain growth, while the tourism sector faces challenges from rising operational expenses as of 2024.^[70]^[71] Day trips and multi-day yacht charters from Kawthaung provide structured access to islands like Myauk Ni (Red Monkey Island), emphasizing marine biodiversity over mass tourism.^[72]^[73] Political instability, including military control and ethnic insurgencies, further deters visitors, prioritizing security over expansion despite potential for ecotourism.^[74]

Resource Management Policies

In the Mergui Archipelago, resource management policies emphasize sustainable utilization of marine fisheries, which constitute the primary economic activity, through a combination of national regulations and localized co-management initiatives. The Myanmar Department of Fisheries (DoF), under the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation, oversees national policies prioritizing conservation of fishery resources via biological assessments, stock monitoring, and restrictions on destructive practices, without species-specific legislation.^[38] ^[59] A nationwide ban on shark finning was implemented in 2015 to curb overexploitation, though enforcement in remote archipelagic waters remains inconsistent due to limited monitoring capacity.^[8] Decentralized approaches have been introduced in the Myeik Archipelago to address small-scale fisheries depletion, with three locally managed marine areas (LMMAs) established in 2017 as the country's first co-managed protected zones for marine fisheries.^[55] ^[75] These LMMAs grant long-term community management rights, incorporating no-take zones, gear restrictions, and seasonal closures to rebuild fish stocks and protect biodiversity hotspots, with initial surveys documenting over 400 marine species.^[76] Efforts to scale up include inshore co-management areas and a proposed network of LMMAs across the archipelago, supported by international partners to integrate local knowledge with scientific data.^[77] ^[78] Broader national frameworks, such as the 1994 Myanmar National Environmental Policy, inform regional strategies by promoting integrated coastal zone management, though implementation in Tanintharyi Region faces challenges from illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing by both domestic and foreign vessels.^[79] In 2021, Myanmar designated a 18,145.9-square-kilometer Marine Protected Area in the adjacent Kawthaung District of Tanintharyi, establishing baseline restrictions on extraction to safeguard shared ecosystems influencing Mergui's fisheries.^[80] Recent policy development includes a August 2025 DoF workshop focused on marine resource conservation measures to enhance sustainability and legal enforcement in southern coastal zones.^[81] These policies aim to balance livelihood needs of local fishers, including Moken communities, with stock recovery, but persistent non-compliance underscores gaps in governance amid Myanmar's political instability.^[8]

Conflicts and Governance

Historical Instability

The Mergui Archipelago and its mainland district endured centuries of territorial contestation and violence stemming from rivalries between the Burmese and Siamese kingdoms, rendering the region a frontier of intermittent warfare and depopulation. As a Siamese province with ancient trade significance—evidenced by references in Chinese annals from 502–506 CE—Mergui frequently changed hands amid Burmese incursions, such as Bayinnaung's 16th-century campaigns that sacked Ayutthaya and placed Tenasserim under Pegu's control. By the mid-18th century, Alaungpaya's 1759 invasion occupied Mergui, followed by Sinbyushin's destruction of Ayutthaya in 1775, yet Siamese counteroffensives persisted, fueling guerrilla conflicts that from 1759 to 1826 nearly extirpated local populations through sustained raiding and instability.^[82] European commercial ambitions introduced further disruptions, exemplified by the 1687 massacre of English East India Company traders in Mergui, which halted British factory operations there. A subsequent Siamese palace revolution in 1688 expelled French interests, ushering in seven decades of internal civil strife that crippled trade and enabled widespread piracy across the archipelago's remote islands, where Malay seafaring raiders established a longstanding presence as early as the waning Srivijaya era. These conditions transformed the waters into a haven for non-state actors, including slavers and pirates preying on shipping lanes in the Andaman Sea.^[82] The First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826) culminated this era of flux, with British forces seizing the Mergui fort in October 1824 en route to annexing the Tenasserim coast, including the archipelago, via the Treaty of Yandabo in February 1826. Siamese reprisal raids ravaged the area as late as 1825, highlighting unresolved border frictions later addressed by the 1826 Burney Treaty, which delineated British-Siamese boundaries and affirmed control over the islands. While colonial governance mitigated large-scale interstate conflict, residual piracy and lawlessness endured, rooted in the region's isolation and ethnic nomadic groups like the Moken, who evaded centralized authority.^[82]^[83]^[29]

Contemporary Security Dynamics

Following the 2021 military coup, the Mergui Archipelago and surrounding Tanintharyi Region have experienced heightened security tensions as part of Myanmar's broader civil war, with local People's Defense Forces (PDFs)—including the Myeik District PDF and its successor, the Tanintharyi Defense Force—conducting ambushes on junta supply convoys and capturing military outposts. In November 2023, resistance forces intercepted a military supply column near Myeik, seizing ammunition in Tanintharyi Township. By September 2024, PDFs overran a junta base in Theinnaw Village, Tanintharyi Township, where approximately 150 troops fled after abandoning the position. These actions reflect growing insurgent capabilities, bolstered by defections; in October 2025, six junta conscripts in Tanintharyi defected to Karen National Union-linked resistance groups.^[84]^[85]^[86] The junta has retaliated with airstrikes and artillery, exacerbating civilian risks and displacement. A July 2025 drone strike in Tanintharyi killed 10 civilians, followed by artillery targeting rescuers, resulting in nine more deaths and three injuries, according to the Myeik PDF. Airstrikes surged threefold in July 2025 compared to prior months, displacing thousands in the region. Resistance groups have issued warnings to avoid certain roads in Myeik District due to ongoing clashes, indicating fragmented control with junta holding urban centers like Myeik town while losing rural and island peripheries.^[87]^[88]^[89] Maritime security remains precarious due to persistent piracy and extortion by ethnic armed groups, splinter factions, and criminal gangs, primarily targeting Thai fishing vessels for "taxes" in the archipelago's waters. These activities, linked to groups like the Karen National Union (under ceasefire but with active splinters) and Mon militants, contribute to banditry onshore and disrupt legal fishing operations. The Myanmar Navy maintains bases across the islands to counter such threats and enforce territorial control, though enforcement is challenged by the remote terrain and post-coup resource strains on the junta.^[90]^[90]

Military Role and Territorial Control

The Myanmar Navy's Tanintharyi Naval Region Command maintains its headquarters in Mergui (Myeik), serving as a key hub for maritime operations across the archipelago, including patrols of territorial waters and support for army-led counterinsurgency activities.^[91]^[92] Mergui ranks among the principal naval bases, complemented by smaller anchorages and facilities on islands such as Zadetkyi Island, which hosts a dedicated naval outpost on its northern shore.^[92] The navy's primary functions in the region encompass defending against incursions, enforcing fisheries regulations through vessel monitoring systems centered in Myeik, and addressing piracy and smuggling threats that exploit the archipelago's remote islands.^[93]^[94] Territorial authority over the Mergui Archipelago falls under the Myanmar military's State Administration Council (SAC), with all naval and civilian activities requiring approval from the Tanintharyi Divisional Commander.^[95] The Tatmadaw deploys bases across islands to secure sea lanes and deter unauthorized access, a measure reinforced since the archipelago's partial opening to tourism post-2011 reforms.^[96] However, control remains fragmented due to persistent insurgencies; ethnic armed groups, including Karen National Union (KNU) factions, dominate certain islands, rendering them inaccessible to junta forces and enabling operations such as taxing fishing vessels or ambushes.^[29]^[90] In Tanintharyi Region encompassing the archipelago, intensified clashes since the 2021 coup have seen resistance forces seize over 60% of National Highway 8 by March 2024, disrupting junta supply lines, though SAC counteroffensives in mid-2024 reclaimed segments and held urban strongholds like Myeik.^[97] As of late 2024, the military governs coastal towns and key ports but yields rural and offshore peripheries to ethnic militias, fostering hybrid zones of influence amid broader civil war dynamics.^[98]^[99] These contests, driven by longstanding ethnic grievances and resource rivalries, underscore the archipelago's role as a strategic maritime frontier where naval assets bolster but do not fully consolidate central authority.^[100]

Conservation and Sustainability

Environmental Protection Initiatives

Lampi Island Marine National Park, established in 1996, represents Myanmar's inaugural marine national park within the Mergui Archipelago, encompassing Lanbi Island and surrounding islets to safeguard coral reefs, seagrass beds, mangroves, and associated biodiversity. Designated as an ASEAN Heritage Park, it spans approximately 200 square kilometers and focuses on preserving coastal ecosystems amid growing threats from overfishing and habitat degradation.^[9]^[101] Government-led patrols and zoning regulations within the park restrict destructive fishing practices, though enforcement has been hampered by Myanmar's political instability since 2021.^[9] Non-governmental organizations have supplemented state efforts through targeted projects. The Myanmar Ocean Project, Myanmar's first registered marine conservation nonprofit founded in 2018, has removed nearly two tons of abandoned, lost, or discarded fishing gear (ALDFG), or "ghost gear," from archipelago waters by 2024, mitigating entanglement risks to marine species like turtles and sharks.^[102] In 2019, divers at Awei Pila Resort retrieved over 300 kilograms of such gear during depths up to 30 meters, demonstrating resort-led contributions to reef rehabilitation.^[103] Similarly, Ocean Quest Global has restored 2.5 acres of coral reef since 2021 via nurseries and local education programs, emphasizing community involvement to curb destructive practices.^[104] Collaborative initiatives aim to expand protection networks. The Fondation Ensemble supports Locally Managed Marine Areas (LMMAs) across the archipelago, promoting sustainable fisheries and biodiversity hotspots through stakeholder training and monitoring since the early 2020s.^[78] Wa Ale Island Resort facilitates sea turtle nesting protection on its beaches, including year-round monitoring and habitat restoration, while encouraging guest participation in clean-ups and tree planting.^[105] In October 2025, joint government-NGO efforts at Lampi intensified ecosystem enrichment and species conservation, building on UNESCO-recognized shark and crab sanctuaries totaling over 120 hectares.^[106]^[9] These programs prioritize empirical monitoring of fish stocks and habitat health, though data gaps persist due to limited access in remote areas.^[78]

Threats and Human Impacts

The Mergui Archipelago faces significant threats from overfishing and destructive fishing practices, which have depleted fish stocks and damaged coral reefs essential to its marine biodiversity. Illegal methods such as dynamite fishing, light lures, and bottom trawling by both local and foreign vessels have intensified since the archipelago's partial opening to outsiders in the 2010s, leading to overharvesting of key species like sharks despite national bans on finning. These activities, often driven by poverty among local fishers and incursions from neighboring countries, have reduced catches and disrupted ecosystems, with reports indicating widespread non-compliance in small-scale fisheries. Abandoned, lost, or discarded fishing gear exacerbates the issue, entangling marine life and contributing to ghost fishing in remote areas.^[44]^[107]^[8]^[108] Deforestation and mangrove clearance pose another major risk, primarily from illegal logging and conversion for aquaculture, including shrimp farms. From 2001 to 2024, the Mergui region lost approximately 254,000 hectares of tree cover, equivalent to 15% of its 2000 extent, releasing 152 million tons of CO₂ equivalent emissions and eroding coastal protection against storms. Mangroves, critical for fish nurseries and shoreline stability, have been cleared at Southeast Asia's highest rate in Myanmar, often illegally for charcoal, firewood, or rice paddies, heightening vulnerability to erosion and biodiversity loss. Poorly regulated operations in the archipelago's hinterlands amplify these impacts, with enforcement hampered by governance instability.^[109]^[110]^[111]^[112] Pollution from human activities, including plastics, microdebris, and pathogens, contaminates seafood and water quality, signaling broader environmental degradation. Studies of oysters and fish from nine coral reefs in the archipelago detected high levels of human-associated contaminants, such as fecal indicators and plastic particles, linked to coastal runoff and waste mismanagement, posing risks to food security and human health through consumption. Nutrient excess from waste has elevated eutrophication threats to aquatic ecosystems, while plastic pollution persists due to remoteness and limited waste infrastructure.^[113]^[114]^[115] Emerging tourism development introduces further pressures, with hotel expansions and unregulated visits risking habitat disruption in previously isolated areas. By 2014, the archipelago had about 196 hotel rooms, but rapid growth post-liberalization has raised concerns over coral damage from anchors, waste discharge, and increased boat traffic, potentially mirroring degradation seen elsewhere in Southeast Asia.^[116]^[117] These threats disproportionately affect the indigenous Moken sea nomads, whose semi-nomadic, sea-dependent lifestyle relies on healthy reefs and fisheries now undermined by resource depletion and resettlement policies. Overfishing and blast fishing have devastated reefs sustaining Moken sustenance, while lack of citizenship in Myanmar and Thailand exposes them to exploitation, forced evictions, and cultural erosion from mainland integration efforts. Population pressures and habitat loss near settlements compound vulnerabilities for this group, estimated at a few thousand in the archipelago.^[45]^[118]^[119]^[120]

Debates on Development and Preservation

The Mergui Archipelago, encompassing over 800 islands with rich coral reefs, mangroves, and seagrass beds, faces competing pressures from economic development through tourism and fisheries expansion versus efforts to preserve its marine biodiversity and indigenous Moken communities' traditional livelihoods. Proponents of development argue that regulated tourism could generate revenue for local economies, as seen in nascent eco-tourism projects emphasizing low-impact visits to remote islands, potentially funding conservation if paired with strict guidelines.^[116] ^[121] However, environmental advocates highlight that unregulated tourism risks exacerbating habitat degradation, including beach pollution from visitor infrastructure and disturbance to sensitive ecosystems, mirroring patterns observed in other Southeast Asian archipelagos where rapid development outpaced protective measures.^[9] Fisheries represent another flashpoint, with small-scale operations providing essential income for coastal communities but contributing to overfishing and destructive practices like dynamite blasting and illegal trawling, which have depleted shark populations and damaged reefs since at least the early 2010s.^[8] ^[44] Reports indicate abandoned fishing gear, or "ghost nets," entangles marine life across hundreds of sites, with recovery efforts in 2024 removing nearly 2 tons from the archipelago, underscoring the tension between short-term economic gains for fishers—who often evade regulations due to weak enforcement—and long-term sustainability.^[102] ^[108] Conservationists advocate for marine protected areas, as discussed in 2014 government-environmentalist forums, to restrict such activities and protect biodiversity hotspots like Lampi Island, but implementation lags amid Myanmar's political instability, which hampers monitoring and compliance.^[122] ^[18] Indigenous Moken sea nomads, historically reliant on sustainable foraging and fishing, embody preservation debates, as development encroaches on their stateless communities through settler influx and resource competition.^[123] Efforts like community-based language training and heritagization initiatives seek to integrate Moken knowledge into conservation, yet critics argue that portraying the archipelago as an "untouched" frontier fosters unsustainable imaginaries that prioritize outsider tourism over local agency, potentially displacing traditional practices without equitable benefits.^[124] ^[125] In Myanmar's context, where centralized governance struggles with regional autonomy and conflict, these debates often prioritize empirical evidence of ecological decline—such as biodiversity surveys revealing threatened seagrass and mangrove habitats—over optimistic development narratives, calling for evidence-based policies that enforce zoning and revenue-sharing to reconcile growth with causal preservation needs.^[112]^[126]

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Nov 13, 2024 · In 2018, Thanda Ko Gyi launched the nonprofit Myanmar Ocean Project, Myanmar's first registered marine conservation organization.<|separator|>
[103]
Awei Pila Resort Hosts Conservation Initiative: 'Ghost Net Retrieval'
The 'Ghost Net Retrieval' initiative involved divers retrieving lost fishing nets, which harm marine life, and recovered 300kg of gear. Divers dove to 30m, and ...
[104]
Strengthened Conservation Efforts in the Mergui Archipelago
Jan 9, 2021 · Aptly called 'the forests of the sea,' coral-reef ecosystems feature the most biodiversity on the planet. They provide a home for over 25 ...
[105]
Luxury Island & Marine Conservation – Wa Ale Resort
One of the most critical conservation projects at Wa Ale is its sea turtle nesting and protection initiative. The beaches of Wa Ale serve as important nesting ...
[106]
Joint efforts for marine conservation at Lampi Marine National Park
Oct 11, 2025 · “In the Lampi Marine National Park area, we are making collaborative efforts to conserve the coastal ecosystems, marine species and enrich ...
[107]
Illegal fishing threatens rich marine diversity of Myanmar's Myeik ...
Sustainable fishing is being threatened because poverty has forced many fishermen to resort to illegal practices, such as using dynamite and overfishing, said ...
[108]
[PDF] Abandoned, Lost or otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear (ALDFG) in ...
The presence of multiple resort islands close to Lampi also means there is a higher likelihood of illegal fishing being observed and more incentives to regulate ...Missing: Mergui | Show results with:Mergui
[109]
Mergui, Myanmar, Tanintharyi Deforestation Rates & Statistics | GFW
From 2001 to 2024, Mergui lost 254 kha of tree cover, equivalent to a 15% of the 2000 tree cover area, and 152 Mt of CO₂e emissions. This does not account for ...
[110]
Controversial aquaculture projects threaten Myanmar's remaining ...
May 1, 2019 · In addition to the illegal harvesting of mangrove wood for charcoal and firewood, and clearing of mangrove forests for rice paddy fields ...
[111]
Myanmar: Shrimp farms threaten Myanmar's remaining mangroves
In Myanmar, mangroves have disappeared at an unprecedented clip. The rate of deforestation in the country is the highest in Southeast Asia, according to.
[112]
[PDF] SAVE BIODIVERSITY IN MYANMAR - Digital Agency Bangkok
The Mergui Archipelago Biodiversity Research Programme (MABR) was launched in 1997 by ECoSwiss to investigate the biodiversity, environmental health and socio- ...
[113]
Plastics, Pathogens and Baby Formula: What's in Your Seafood? | EDF
Aug 4, 2020 · The contaminants found in this study indicate that even the Mergui Archipelago ... human consumption of seafood and can be an emerging risk to ...
[114]
Contaminants found in oysters could portend larger environmental ...
Aug 10, 2020 · ... risks to human health. The scientists focused their research efforts on nine coral reefs off Myanmar's Mergui Archipelago, which is located ...
[115]
The thick of it: Delving into the neglected global impacts of human ...
Jan 11, 2022 · On our coasts, this excess of nutrients increases eutrophication risk, posing a threat to a range of aquatic ecosystems by causing toxic algae ...
[116]
Tourism developers in Myanmar look to the Mergui Archipelago
“We expect 60% of our tourists to be domestic and 40% international. Myanmar has a huge population of 51m and, in time to come, the middle class will increase ...Missing: statistics | Show results with:statistics
[117]
Environmentalists concerned about development of Mergui
Mergui's collection of islands, almost untouched by tourism, had five hotels and motels with a total of 196 rooms by the end of 2014, according to data from the ...
[118]
Tourism threatens Moken people of Myanmar's Mergui archipelago
Mar 23, 2014 · The Moken people of Myanmar's Mergui islands have lived in peace and isolation - now their lifestyle is under threat from tourism.
[119]
The Moken People and Poverty - BORGEN Magazine
Apr 4, 2014 · In Myanmar, the Moken culture is also being threatened by the government's forced resettlement and environmental degradation caused by over- ...
[120]
Thailand/Burma: Sea Nomads Vulnerable to Abuse
Jun 25, 2015 · “By effectively denying them citizenship, the Thai and Burmese governments make the Moken easy targets for exploitation and other threats to ...
[121]
New conservation-led ecotourism project showcases sustainability ...
Jul 26, 2018 · A conservation-led ecotourism project in the remote Mergui archipelago aims to show that habitat protection and small-scale sensitive tourism ...
[122]
Govt, Environmentalists Discuss Marine Protection Area for Mergui ...
Nov 10, 2014 · The two-day workshop, “discussed the biodiversity values of the Myeik [Mergui] Archipelago for Myanmar and the Andaman Sea, new research data ...
[123]
Statelessness and Heritagization in Southeast Asia (Chapter 9)
Dec 19, 2024 · A recent socio-economic assessment conducted by the Tanintharyi Conservation Programme in the northern Mergui (Myeik) archipelagoFootnote ...
[124]
Experience form community training in the Moken language ...
This paper describes about how the community-training program is maneuvered. This contributes to collaborative language documentation and preservation project.Missing: debates | Show results with:debates
[125]
The “untouched” frontier: an unsustainable imaginary in the ...
The experience and consumption of regions being newly developed for tourism are often shaped by entrenched imaginaries of “untouched” nature.
[126]
A Close-Up Look at Mergui Archipelago's Nascent Eco-Tourism ...
Jan 11, 2019 · The marine life of the Mergui Archipelago region has long been under threat due to overfishing and blast fishing. These days, another challenge ...Missing: debates | Show results with:debates<|separator|>