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PM

A prime minister is the head of government in parliamentary and some semipresidential systems, usually the leader of the majority party or coalition in the legislature, responsible for directing government policy and administration while answerable to parliament.^[1]^[2] The office distinguishes itself from presidential systems by deriving authority from legislative confidence rather than direct election, enabling removal via votes of no confidence, which enforces coalition discipline and policy alignment with parliamentary majorities.^[3] The role emerged in Britain during the early 18th century as the monarch's chief adviser evolved into a de facto leader of the cabinet, with the term "prime minister" first appearing in the mid-17th century but gaining formal connotation later amid the shift from royal prerogative to parliamentary sovereignty.^[4] Unlike earlier continental precedents, such as France's principal ministre under Cardinal Richelieu, the British variant formalized through convention rather than statute, spreading to dominions and former colonies via Westminster-model constitutions.^[5] This evolutionary path underscores causal dynamics of power delegation: monarchs sought efficient coordination of parliamentary factions, fostering a position blending executive initiative with legislative restraint. Prime ministers wield significant influence in appointing ministers, shaping budgets, and steering foreign policy, yet their efficacy hinges on maintaining legislative support, leading to notable variations—stronger in majority governments like the UK's, more constrained in multiparty coalitions elsewhere.^[6] Defining characteristics include direct accountability for collective cabinet responsibility, as seen in practices where resignation follows parliamentary defeats, a mechanism promoting responsiveness but inviting short-termism or instability in fragmented assemblies. Controversies often center on perceived overreach, such as bypassing parliament through prerogative powers or centralizing decision-making in the prime minister's office, which expanded notably in the 20th century to handle modern governance complexities.^[7]

Timekeeping and chronology

Post meridiem

"Post meridiem" is a Latin phrase meaning "after midday," abbreviated as p.m. or PM, which designates the portion of the day following noon in the 12-hour clock system.^[8]^[9] This period spans from 12:00 p.m. (noon) to 11:59 p.m. (immediately preceding midnight), using hour numbers 1 through 12 to differentiate it from the preceding ante meridiem (a.m.) hours.^[10] The term derives from "post" (after) and "meridies" (midday), reflecting the Roman division of the day based on the sun's position relative to its zenith. The notation's earliest recorded use in English appears in 1647, with the abbreviation p.m. attested by the 1660s, emerging amid the adoption of mechanical clocks that required precise diurnal distinctions beyond solar observation.^[11]^[8] Rooted in ancient Egyptian practices of dividing daylight into 12 hours via sundials—later formalized under Roman influence—the AM/PM system empirically anchors time to solar noon as the pivot, avoiding ambiguity in pre-24-hour formats.^[12] By the 18th century, it standardized in schedules, logs, and civil timekeeping for clarity, particularly in English-speaking regions where the 12-hour clock persists in everyday use despite the global prevalence of 24-hour military and scientific notations.^[13] PM contrasts with AM by marking post-noon hours, facilitating unambiguous communication in contexts like transportation timetables and personal diaries, where conflating cycles could lead to errors; for instance, 2:00 p.m. unequivocally means 14:00 in 24-hour terms.^[10] While conventions hold noon as 12:00 p.m. and midnight as 12:00 a.m., occasional disputes arise from logical interpretations of numbering sequences, underscoring the notation's reliance on established solar and cultural precedents over strict arithmetic.^[10] This system remains integral to non-technical time expression worldwide, prioritizing human-readable solar alignment over metric uniformity.^[9]

Measurement and units

Picometre

The picometre (international symbol pm) is a unit of length in the metric system, defined as one trillionth (10^{-12}) of a metre.^[14] This prefix "pico-" was formally adopted in the International System of Units (SI) to denote factors of 10^{-12}, enabling precise quantification of subnanoscale distances where classical approximations break down and quantum effects dominate causal interactions between particles.^[14] Empirical verification of picometre-scale measurements relies on techniques such as X-ray crystallography and electron diffraction, which resolve interatomic spacings through interference patterns of scattered waves.^[15] In atomic physics, the picometre quantifies fundamental scales, such as electron orbitals and nuclear radii, distinguishing it from the nanometre (10^{-9} m), which applies to larger aggregates like molecular clusters. For instance, the Bohr radius of the hydrogen atom—theoretical distance from the nucleus to the electron's most probable position in its ground state—measures approximately 53 pm, derived from spectroscopic data and quantum mechanical calculations.^[16] This scale captures causal phenomena like electron-proton electrostatic binding, where deviations of even a few picometres alter energy levels predictably per first-principles quantum models. Picometre precision has advanced instrumentation, including aberration-corrected transmission electron microscopy, achieving atomic position tracking to within 1-10 pm for defect analysis in crystalline materials.^[17] Unlike nanometre resolutions suited to surface phenomena or mesoscale structures, picometre measurements probe intrinsic atomic interactions, as in lattice constant determinations via neutron scattering, yielding values like silicon's 192 pm interatomic distance under standard conditions.^[15] Such granularity underpins quantum mechanics validations, where empirical bond lengths (e.g., H-H at 74 pm) align with potential energy surfaces computed from ab initio methods, confirming the unit's necessity for scales below 0.1 nm.^[18]

Promethium

Promethium is a chemical element with atomic number 61 and symbol Pm. It belongs to the lanthanide series of rare-earth metals and exists as a soft, silvery-white radioactive substance that tarnishes slowly in air.^[19] Unlike its stable neighboring lanthanides such as neodymium and samarium, promethium has no stable isotopes, with all 38 known variants undergoing radioactive decay; the longest-lived, promethium-145, has a half-life of 17.7 years.^[20] This nuclear instability arises from the odd proton count (61) disrupting pairing in the nucleus, leading to rapid beta decay and preventing accumulation in stellar nucleosynthesis or Earth's crust beyond trace levels.^[21] Promethium was first isolated in 1945 at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (then Clinton Laboratories) by chemists Jacob A. Marinsky, Lawrence E. Glendenin, and Charles D. Coryell through separation from uranium-235 fission products in a nuclear reactor.^[22] Prior predictions of its existence dated to 1902, but empirical confirmation required synthetic production due to its absence in nature; minute quantities occur via spontaneous fission of uranium-238, estimated at less than 1 gram total in Earth's upper crust.^[19] Production today involves neutron irradiation of neodymium or praseodymium targets in reactors, yielding primarily promethium-147 (half-life 2.62 years) via successive beta decays, followed by purification through ion-exchange chromatography.^[23] Spectroscopic studies confirm its trivalent ionic radius aligns with lanthanide contraction trends, though direct metallic properties remain challenging to measure owing to self-irradiation damage.^[24] The element's primary isotope, promethium-147, finds niche applications leveraging its beta emission for long-term energy conversion. It powers atomic (nuclear voltaic) batteries in remote sensors, pacemakers, and spacecraft, where Pm-147 oxide or chloride sustains output for years without recharge.^[25] Compounds are also incorporated into self-luminous paints for instrument dials and emergency signage, emitting light via beta-excited phosphors without external power.^[26] These uses stem from its scarcity and radioactivity, contrasting abundant stable rare earths; annual global production is under 1 kilogram, mostly for research into nuclear waste management and medical tracers, though biological uptake risks limit broader adoption.^[27]

Government and politics

Prime minister

The prime minister (PM) is the head of government in parliamentary systems, typically the leader of the party or coalition holding a majority in the legislature's lower house, who is appointed by the head of state to form and lead the executive. This role concentrates causal executive authority in policy formulation, cabinet selection, and administrative direction, enabling unified action when parliamentary support aligns, in contrast to the separation of powers in presidential systems where executives face inherent checks from independent legislatures. The position emerged in Britain, with Robert Walpole serving as the de facto first prime minister from 1721 to 1742 as First Lord of the Treasury and dominant ministerial figure.^[28]^[29] Prime ministers exercise core functions including appointing and dismissing cabinet ministers, advising the head of state on parliamentary sessions and dissolutions, and steering legislative priorities through party discipline. They bear ultimate responsibility for government decisions, crisis management, and policy implementation, with powers derived from constitutional conventions rather than codified statutes in Westminster-derived systems. Empirical comparisons show that PM-led governments achieve higher legislative success rates and faster policy enactment in cohesive majorities, avoiding the deadlock prevalent in divided presidential regimes where executives and assemblies pursue divergent agendas.^[30]^[31]^[32] In variants like Canada, the PM heads the federal executive, chairs cabinet, and directs daily governance, including resource allocation and international representation, with authority reinforced by confidence of the House of Commons. India's PM similarly allocates portfolios, advises the president on executive matters, and channels cabinet decisions, wielding influence over economic steering amid federal dynamics. Data from parliamentary systems correlate with sustained growth advantages, as PMs in unified control have implemented reforms yielding higher GDP trajectories than fragmented presidential alternatives, underscoring the causal edge of fused executive-legislative alignment.^[33]^[34]^[35]

Police magistrate

A police magistrate was a paid, professional judicial officer in the British legal system, appointed to preside over metropolitan police courts and exercise summary jurisdiction over minor criminal offenses. These officers, often qualified barristers with at least seven years' experience, handled cases involving petty crimes such as public drunkenness, vagrancy, assault, and minor thefts, typically resolving them without a jury through expedited hearings that emphasized swift enforcement to maintain public order.^[36]^[37] By the mid-19th century, London operated 13 police courts served by 23 such magistrates, processing thousands of cases annually to alleviate pressure on higher courts.^[36] The role emerged in the 18th century as a response to corruption among unpaid justices of the peace, with Henry Fielding appointed as a pioneering stipendiary magistrate at Bow Street in 1748, where he established early mechanisms for coordinated law enforcement.^[38] Formalized under the Metropolitan Police Act of 1829, which created the London police force, police magistrates gained oversight of constables and authority to issue warrants, integrating judicial and policing functions for efficient local control.^[39] Subsequent 19th-century reforms, including the Summary Jurisdiction Act of 1848, expanded their powers to adjudicate a broader range of indictable offenses summarily if the defendant consented, enabling penalties up to two years' imprisonment without trial by jury.^[40] In British Commonwealth territories, analogous positions were established during colonial expansion; for instance, in Australia from the early 19th century, police magistrates administered frontier justice over similar petty matters, adapting British procedures to local conditions with records indicating high caseloads—such as over 1,000 convictions yearly in some outposts by the 1850s—to deter recidivism through immediate sanctions rather than prolonged due process.^[41] Empirical outcomes from these systems demonstrated reduced court delays, as summary trials processed the majority of offenses (over 90% of criminal cases by the late Victorian era), prioritizing certainty of punishment to achieve causal deterrence effects on low-level disorder, though modern analyses critique the limited evidentiary standards compared to adversarial trials.^[42]^[43]

Military and defense

Provost marshal

The provost marshal serves as the chief military police officer within an armed forces command, directing operations to enforce discipline, conduct criminal investigations, and manage prisoners of war or detainees. This authority extends to patrolling areas, securing rear echelons, and suppressing internal threats that could undermine combat readiness, with duties formalized in military doctrine to prioritize order over procedural leniency.^[44]^[45] Originating in medieval European armies, the provost role involved imposing martial law on troops to curb looting, desertion, and insubordination, thereby preserving force cohesion during extended campaigns where lapses in control historically led to operational collapse. The position evolved into a structured office in standing militaries; in the Continental Army, Congress confirmed General George Washington's appointment of Captain William Marony as the first Provost Marshal General on January 10, 1776, tasking him with apprehending deserters and maintaining camp security amid the Revolutionary War.^[46]^[47] In the U.S. Army today, the Provost Marshal General acts as the senior advisor to the Secretary of the Army and Chief of Staff on all policing functions, including criminal investigations by specialized units and oversight of detainee facilities, as demonstrated in operations from World War II onward where effective prisoner handling prevented escapes and resource drains. During conflicts like those in Iraq and Afghanistan, provost marshals coordinated force protection and law enforcement to sustain unit discipline, with empirical records showing reduced incidents of fratricide and sabotage through proactive enforcement rather than reactive rights-based interventions.^[48]^[44]^[45]

Firearms and ordnance

The Makarov PM (Пистолет Макарова), adopted by the Soviet military on December 20, 1951, is a semi-automatic pistol chambered in 9×18mm Makarov cartridge, featuring an 8-round single-stack magazine, a barrel length of 93.5 mm, and an unloaded weight of 730 grams.^[49] Designed to replace the TT-33 pistol, it prioritized simplicity, reliability in sub-zero temperatures down to -40°C, and corrosion resistance through parkerized finish and lapped barrel, enabling consistent function in muddy or dusty environments without jamming rates exceeding 1% in field tests.^[50] Its compact dimensions—160 mm length—and effective range of 50 meters made it suitable for close-quarters defensive use by officers and non-combat personnel.^[49] The Stechkin APS (Автоматический Пистолет Стечкина), developed from 1944 prototypes and adopted in 1951 alongside the PM, is a selective-fire machine pistol chambered in 9×18mm Makarov, with a 20-round detachable magazine, 225 mm overall length with wooden holster-stock, and a cyclic rate of fire of 600 rounds per minute.^[51] Intended for tank crews, paratroopers, and special forces in defensive roles, its fixed barrel and rate reducer minimized recoil for controlled bursts, achieving muzzle velocity of 315 m/s and practical accuracy to 100 meters when shouldered.^[51] Empirical data from Soviet trials highlighted its portability—weight under 1.3 kg loaded—and sustained fire capability in confined vehicle spaces, though high ammunition consumption limited prolonged use.^[52] The Polish PM-06 submachine gun, introduced in 2006 as an evolution of the PM-98 Glauberyt, chambers 9×19mm Parabellum rounds, employs blowback operation with a cyclic rate of 640 rounds per minute, and measures 615 mm extended (319 mm folded) with a 185 mm barrel and 2.5 kg weight.^[53] Optimized for heavy vehicle crews and reconnaissance, its folding metal stock and 25-round magazine facilitate rapid deployment in defensive fire scenarios, delivering muzzle energy of approximately 500 J per round for effective stopping power at 50-100 meters.^[54] Ballistic testing confirms low recoil and high controllability in full-auto mode due to the weight distribution, with reliability maintained across 5,000-round endurance cycles in varied climates.^[53] The Soviet PMN series anti-personnel mines, produced from the 1950s, function via pressure-fuze mechanisms requiring 4-15 kg activation force to detonate 240 grams of TNT in the PMN-1 variant, generating peak overpressure of 200-300 kPa within a 1-meter radius to cause blast trauma through lung rupture and eardrum perforation.^[55] The plastic-bodied design minimizes metal content for reduced detectability by electromagnetic sensors, relying on ground spall and casing fragments for secondary wounding effects, with a lethal casualty radius of 0.5-1 meter based on empirical demining data from conflict zones.^[55] Later variants like PMN-2 incorporate tilt-rod fuzes for 3-6 kg trip sensitivity, enhancing blast yield through optimized charge geometry while preserving low-profile burial at 5-10 cm depth.^[56]

Business and management

Project management

Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet project requirements, emphasizing the achievement of specific objectives within constraints such as scope, schedule, budget, and quality.^[57] It structures projects through five core process groups: initiation, which defines the project and obtains authorization; planning, which establishes the scope, objectives, and actionable steps; execution, which coordinates people and resources to carry out the plan; monitoring and controlling, which tracks performance against the plan and implements corrective actions; and closing, which finalizes all activities and formally concludes the project.^[58] These phases, formalized in the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) Guide first published by the Project Management Institute (PMI) in 1996, derive from earlier efforts including a 1983 PMI white paper on ethics and standards.^[59] Central to effective project management is the causal focus on resource allocation—assigning personnel, materials, and budget to tasks based on dependencies and critical paths—and risk mitigation, which involves identifying potential disruptions early and developing contingency plans grounded in probabilistic assessment rather than assumption. Tools such as the Gantt chart, invented by Henry L. Gantt in the 1910s for visualizing task sequences and durations via bar timelines, enable precise scheduling and progress tracking, historically applied to large-scale efforts like the Hoover Dam to enhance coordination and reduce delays.^[60] ^[61] Empirical evidence from PMI analyses indicates that organizations employing structured project management practices, including these tools and processes, achieve higher on-time delivery rates and lower incidence of budget overruns compared to unstructured methods, with mature practices correlating to success rates up to 2.5 times greater than immature ones.^[62] Professional certifications like the Project Management Professional (PMP), administered by PMI since 1984, require candidates to demonstrate 3-5 years of leading projects, 35 hours of training, and proficiency via examination on predictive, agile, and hybrid approaches, signaling competence in integrating people, processes, and priorities.^[63] ^[64] However, real-world project failures, which affect up to 70% of initiatives per industry surveys, frequently arise not from methodological deficiencies but from leadership shortcomings such as inadequate decision-making, loss of control, or failure to align stakeholders, underscoring that disciplined execution demands strong managerial oversight beyond standardized frameworks.^[65] ^[66]

Paymaster and postmaster

The paymaster serves as an administrative officer tasked with the disbursement of salaries, allowances, and financial obligations, primarily within military and governmental organizations to ensure timely and accurate compensation. In the U.S. Army, the role originated on June 16, 1775, when the Second Continental Congress resolved to appoint a Paymaster General to manage payroll for Continental forces, marking an early centralization effort to standardize payments amid wartime needs.^[67] James Warren became the first Paymaster General in July 1775, operating initially as a civilian overseer to handle funds disbursed by company commanders based on service records, which reduced fragmentation in earlier ad hoc systems reliant on regimental officers.^[68] This structure causally supported operational continuity by minimizing payment delays that could erode troop discipline, as evidenced by historical payroll vulnerabilities where decentralized methods led to errors and arrears; by 1798, acts further formalized regimental paymasters to augment efficiency under centralized oversight.^[69]^[70] In contrast, the postmaster manages postal services, focusing on the logistical coordination of mail routing, collection, and delivery to facilitate communication networks. The U.S. role of Postmaster General was established on July 26, 1775, by the Continental Congress, appointing Benjamin Franklin to oversee a national system independent of British control, with initial duties including route optimization and office appointments to ensure reliable wartime correspondence.^[71] Franklin's tenure until November 7, 1776, emphasized empirical routing efficiencies, such as shorter paths that cut delivery times by leveraging existing inns and taverns as depots, laying groundwork for scalable operations that handled growing volumes without proportional cost increases.^[72] Centralized postal control has empirically linked to cost reductions through consolidated processing; for example, modern extensions of this model project $36 billion in savings over 10 years via transportation and mode-shift optimizations, reflecting causal efficiencies in volume handling that trace to foundational principles of unified oversight.^[73] While both roles emphasize administrative centralization for reliability—paymasters via fiscal precision in payroll to sustain personnel readiness, and postmasters via logistical streamlining in mail flow to enable informational continuity—their duties diverge sharply: paymasters prioritize monetary accountability and audit trails to prevent fiscal leakage, as seen in the Pay Department’s evolution to supersede fragmented regimental payments by 1816, whereas postmasters address infrastructural duties like depot management and carrier coordination, yielding verifiable savings such as $100–$150 per centralized address in delivery mode shifts.^[74]^[75] This differentiation underscores causal realism in organizational design, where fiscal roles mitigate embezzlement risks inherent in distributed funds, and logistical roles optimize throughput to avoid bottlenecks, both contributing to institutional resilience without overlap into broader oversight functions.

Corporate entities

PM-International AG, a direct selling enterprise focused on nutritional supplements and cosmetics under the FitLine brand, was established in 1993 by entrepreneur Rolf Sorg as a small family operation in Limburgerhof, Germany.^[76] The firm's expansion relied on a distributor-based model that incentivizes independent sales agents, achieving retail sales of $3.03 billion in 2023 and surpassing $3.25 billion in 2024 through organic growth and market penetration in health and wellness sectors.^[77]^[78] By 2025, it operated over 45 subsidiaries across six continents, ranking sixth globally among direct selling companies by revenue, with a 28% sales increase in the first five months of the year attributable to distributor network scaling rather than subsidized incentives.^[79]^[80] This trajectory exemplifies value creation via decentralized entrepreneurship, where product efficacy claims—such as nutrient transport optimization in supplements—drive consumer adoption without reliance on institutional endorsements, yielding sustained profitability in competitive markets.^[81] PM-International's model avoids heavy regulatory entanglements typical of pharmaceutical alternatives, prioritizing direct-to-consumer efficacy validated by sales volume over controlled trials often influenced by academic-industry biases.^[82]

Computing and communications

Private message

A private message, often abbreviated as PM, denotes a direct, one-to-one or small-group digital communication between users on online platforms, distinct from public posts or broadcasts. This feature emerged in early internet messaging systems like ICQ in 1996 and AOL Instant Messenger in the late 1990s, enabling users to exchange text without broader visibility.^[83]^[84] By the 2000s, PMs became integral to social media and forums; for instance, Facebook introduced its chat functionality in 2008, evolving into the standalone Messenger app in 2011, which facilitated private exchanges alongside public timelines.^[85]^[86] PMs are ubiquitous across platforms including Reddit, Twitter (now X), and Discord, where they support confidential interactions such as personal discussions or business dealings. Usage data underscores their scale: Facebook Messenger alone processes over 100 billion messages daily as of 2025, encompassing text, photos, and videos shared among its 1 billion+ monthly active users.^[87] Globally, messaging apps like WhatsApp and Telegram contribute to trillions of annual private communications, reflecting a shift from public feeds to enclosed channels since the mid-2010s.^[88]^[89] The privacy afforded by PMs yields causal advantages over public posting, particularly in sensitive contexts like negotiations or dispute resolution, where participants avoid external interference or reputational risks.^[90] Unlike open forums prone to audience effects and viral distortions, targeted PMs enable iterative clarification, fostering trust through end-to-end encryption in apps like Signal or WhatsApp.^[91] Empirical analyses indicate that private channels can mitigate broad misinformation cascades seen in public spaces, as recipients in direct exchanges often verify claims via personal rapport rather than algorithmic amplification; however, closed groups risk unchecked echo chambers if unmoderated.^[92] This format thus prioritizes discretion, with platforms reporting sustained growth in PM volume amid declining public sharing.^[93]

Phase modulation

Phase modulation (PM) is an analog modulation technique used in telecommunications wherein the phase of a high-frequency sinusoidal carrier wave is directly varied proportionally to the instantaneous amplitude of a lower-frequency modulating signal, while the carrier's amplitude and center frequency remain constant. The resulting modulated signal can be expressed mathematically as s(t) = A_c \cos(2\pi f_c t + k_p m(t)), where A_c is the carrier amplitude, f_c is the carrier frequency, k_p is the phase sensitivity constant in radians per unit of the modulating signal m(t), and the phase deviation is \Delta \phi = k_p m(t). This form of angle modulation contrasts with amplitude modulation (AM), which alters the carrier's amplitude, and frequency modulation (FM), which varies the instantaneous frequency as the time derivative of the phase.^[94]^[95] The theoretical foundations of PM emerged in the 1920s through analyses of angle modulation, including work by John R. Carson, who in 1922 provided mathematical treatments of modulation processes that encompassed phase variations in carrier signals. PM served as a conceptual precursor to FM in radio applications, as wideband FM can be implemented as PM applied to the integral of the modulating signal, enabling equivalent performance with practical generation via phase shifters. Early experiments demonstrated PM's potential for broadcasting, though FM gained prominence due to Armstrong's 1933 wideband implementation, which amplified PM's noise advantages through greater deviation ratios. Bandwidth for PM signals follows Carson's rule approximation, BW \approx 2(\beta + 1)f_m, where \beta = k_p A_m is the modulation index and f_m is the maximum modulating frequency; this exceeds AM's $2f_m but allows adjustable trade-offs.^[96]^[97] Compared to AM, PM exhibits verifiable superiority in noise resistance, as channel noise predominantly manifests as amplitude fluctuations that do not affect the phase-tracking demodulator, yielding output signal-to-noise ratios that improve with higher modulation indices—empirically achieving 20–40 dB gains over AM in voice transmission under additive white Gaussian noise conditions. This causal advantage arises because PM encodes information in phase, orthogonal to common noise vectors, aligning with Shannon's channel capacity theorem C = B \log_2(1 + \frac{S}{N}), where expanding bandwidth B via larger \beta permits approaching theoretical limits by enhancing effective S/N without increasing transmit power. In practice, narrowband PM (\beta < 1) approximates AM efficiency but with added phase noise resilience, while wideband PM demands 5–10 times AM's bandwidth for optimal performance.^[97]^[98]^[99] PM finds empirical applications in radar systems for pulse waveform design, where phase-coded signals enable matched filtering for enhanced range resolution and sidelobe suppression, as demonstrated in dual-function radar-communication waveforms that embed data symbols without compromising detection probability. In wireless telecommunications, analog PM supports secure links and precursor digital schemes like phase-shift keying, with modern implementations in integrated sensing-communications achieving bit error rates below $10^{-5} at SNR thresholds 5–10 dB lower than AM equivalents in multipath environments. These uses leverage PM's deterministic phase control for precise synchronization, though demodulation requires phase-locked loops sensitive to Doppler shifts exceeding 1% of f_c.^[100]^[101]

Science and medicine

Post-mortem examination

A post-mortem examination, also termed an autopsy, constitutes a systematic dissection and inspection of the deceased body to establish the cause and manner of death through direct observation of gross and microscopic pathological changes. In forensic pathology, this procedure addresses medicolegal inquiries, distinguishing natural disease processes from inflicted injuries or intoxications, with tissue sampling enabling toxicological and histopathological analysis to elucidate underlying mechanisms.^[102]^[103] Standardization of autopsy protocols emerged in the 19th century amid advances in pathology, as clinicians correlated antemortem symptoms with postmortem findings to refine disease understanding; this era marked a transition to rigorous, reproducible methods emphasizing organ-specific dissection and cellular-level scrutiny over ad hoc inspections. Pioneering efforts, such as those integrating anatomical correlations with clinical histories, established autopsies as a cornerstone of empirical medical validation, revealing discrepancies between presumed and actual pathologies.^[104]^[105] Forensic autopsies yield high diagnostic precision by prioritizing objective tissue evidence—such as myocardial infarction undetected clinically or occult pulmonary emboli—over circumstantial narratives, with studies documenting cause identification in over 80% of sudden natural deaths via cardiac or infectious etiologies confirmed histologically. This causal emphasis uncovers mechanisms like arrhythmogenic substrates or sepsis cascades in 20-40% of cases where initial assessments failed, underscoring the procedure's role in averting misattributions and informing public health surveillance despite declining overall rates.^[106]^[107]

Preventive maintenance

Preventive maintenance refers to the systematic and scheduled inspection, cleaning, lubrication, adjustment, and replacement of equipment components to prevent failures and extend asset life.^[108] This approach relies on time-based or usage-based intervals derived from manufacturer data and historical failure patterns, contrasting with reactive maintenance that addresses breakdowns only after occurrence.^[109] By anticipating wear through models of material degradation and stress accumulation, preventive maintenance minimizes unplanned outages, as evidenced in engineering reliability analyses.^[110] In aviation, preventive maintenance encompasses tasks such as replacing landing gear tires, servicing shock absorbers, cleaning or replacing spark plugs, and lubricating accessible components, all permissible under Federal Aviation Administration guidelines for certified pilots on small aircraft.^[111] These routines, performed at intervals like every 100 flight hours or annually, ensure compliance with airworthiness standards and reduce risks of in-flight failures.^[112] Studies in manufacturing and production lines demonstrate that implementing such proactive strategies can achieve 30-50% reductions in downtime compared to reactive methods, by interrupting failure progression early.^[113] Empirical data further highlight cost efficiencies, with preventive maintenance yielding 12-18% overall reductions in maintenance expenditures through avoided emergency repairs and optimized resource allocation.^[114] For instance, regular adherence prevents the compounding effects of neglect, where minor wear escalates into major overhauls; reliability engineering reports quantify this by modeling mean time between failures (MTBF) improvements of up to 40% in monitored systems.^[115] These outcomes underscore the causal link between scheduled interventions and sustained operational integrity, prioritizing empirical failure rate data over ad-hoc fixes.^[116]

Arts, entertainment, and culture

Media and publications

PM was a daily tabloid newspaper published in New York City from June 18, 1940, to June 1948, founded by editor Ralph Ingersoll and financed by department store heir Marshall Field III.^[117]^[118] Operating without advertising to avoid commercial influence on content, it relied on circulation sales, achieving peaks of around 200,000 daily copies by 1943, though figures fluctuated—dropping to 89,500 in 1941 before stabilizing near 143,000-150,000 in subsequent years.^[119]^[120] The publication prioritized extensive photography, interpretive analysis, and direct reporting on labor, civil rights, and anti-fascist issues, with an explicit liberal editorial stance supporting President Roosevelt's policies; this approach sought factual depth over advertiser-driven sensationalism, though its ownership funding raised questions about independence from elite interests.^[117]^[121] PM Magazine was a syndicated U.S. television series broadcast from the late 1970s through the late 1980s, originating with Group W Productions and featuring anthology-style segments on local news, travel, human interest stories, and light entertainment.^[122] Aired in evening slots across affiliate stations—such as in Chicago from September 1980 to 1986 with over 1,100 episodes documented in local runs—it emphasized viewer-submitted content and community-focused reporting, fostering regional information exchange without heavy reliance on national network sensationalism.^[123]^[124] The format's decentralized production model allowed stations to adapt segments, prioritizing accessible, fact-based vignettes over scripted drama, though viewership metrics varied by market and lacked centralized national tracking.^[122]

Fictional and artistic references

In detective fiction, the initials P.M. refer to Philip Marlowe, the hard-boiled private investigator created by Raymond Chandler, who navigates corruption and moral complexity in 1930s–1950s Los Angeles. Marlowe debuted in Chandler's 1939 novel The Big Sleep, where he is hired to resolve a blackmail case involving a wealthy family, and reappears in later works like Farewell, My Lovely (1940) and The Long Goodbye (1953).^[125]^[126]^[127] In hymnody and sacred music composition, P.M. denotes Particular Meter (or Peculiar Meter), a designation for poetic structures with irregular syllable counts or line patterns that deviate from standard forms such as Common Meter (8.6.8.6) or Long Meter (8.8.8.8). This abbreviation, appearing in 19th- and early 20th-century hymnals like Benjamin Lloyd's Primitive Hymns (1841), instructs musicians to pair the text with a bespoke tune rather than a generic one, facilitating performance in congregational singing.^[128]^[129] In political satire and drama, PM symbolizes the office of Prime Minister, often embodying themes of power, incompetence, or intrigue through archetypal characters. Examples include the unnamed PM in the 2003 film Love Actually, depicted as a charismatic yet beleaguered leader navigating personal and diplomatic crises, and Jim Hacker in the BBC sitcom Yes, Prime Minister (1986–1988), a satirical portrayal of bureaucratic entanglement and policy folly.^[130]

People and nomenclature

Individuals by initials

Paul McCartney (born 18 June 1942) is a British singer, songwriter, and musician renowned for his role as co-lead vocalist and bassist of the Beatles from 1960 to 1970, where his melodic songwriting and bass techniques contributed to the band's transformation of popular music into a sophisticated commercial form.^[131] His solo career, beginning with the 1970 album McCartney, which topped charts, further demonstrated his versatility, earning recognition including a 1979 Guinness Book Triple Superlative Award for achievements as composer, performer, and vocalist.^[132]^[133] Peyton Manning (born 24 March 1976) is a retired American football quarterback who played 18 NFL seasons, primarily with the Indianapolis Colts and Denver Broncos, setting rookie records in 1998 for completions (326), attempts (575), and passing yards (3,739) while starting all 16 games.^[134] Manning's career highlights include leading the Colts to Super Bowl XLI victory in 2007 and the Broncos to Super Bowl 50 in 2016, amassing records for career touchdown passes (539 regular season, 71 playoff) that underscored his strategic precision and leadership.^[135] Pieter Mondrian (1872–1944), originally Piet, was a Dutch painter who advanced abstract art as a founder of the De Stijl movement, systematically reducing forms to grids of horizontal and vertical lines with primary colors to embody universal balance and reject representational illusion.^[136] His methodical progression from Cubism in the 1910s to pure abstraction influenced modern design, with works like Composition with Red, Yellow, and Blue exemplifying neoplasticism's emphasis on purified elements over subjective expression.^[137] Pranab Mukherjee (11 December 1935 – 31 August 2020) was an Indian statesman who served as the 13th President from 2012 to 2017, following decades in senior roles including Minister of Finance (1982–1984, 2009–2012), External Affairs (1995–1996, 2006–2009), and Defence (2004–2006).^[138] Mukherjee's oversight of economic reforms in finance and commerce portfolios, alongside his tenure as Planning Commission Chairman in 1991, positioned him as a stabilizing figure across multiple governments, handling every major cabinet portfolio except Home Affairs.^[139]^[140]

Titles and roles

"PM" designates the role of project manager, a professional tasked with initiating, planning, executing, controlling, and closing projects to meet specific goals and success criteria, often within defined constraints of time, budget, and scope.^[141] Project managers allocate resources, lead cross-functional teams, monitor progress, and address risks to ensure deliverables align with organizational objectives.^[142] This title is prevalent across industries such as construction, information technology, and manufacturing, where structured project delivery drives efficiency.^[141] In product development, "PM" abbreviates product manager, who owns the end-to-end lifecycle of a product or product line, from ideation through market launch and iteration.^[143] Product managers conduct market analysis, define product vision and roadmaps, prioritize features based on customer feedback and business viability, and collaborate with engineering, design, and sales teams.^[144] The role emphasizes strategic alignment with user needs and revenue targets, distinguishing it from tactical execution-focused positions.^[143] "PM" also denotes program manager, a senior role overseeing portfolios of interrelated projects to achieve strategic benefits that individual efforts cannot deliver alone.^[145] Program managers coordinate dependencies, allocate budgets across initiatives, manage stakeholder expectations, and ensure alignment with enterprise-level goals, often in complex environments like technology or healthcare.^[145] Unlike project managers, who focus on discrete outcomes, program managers prioritize holistic governance and value realization.^[145]

Other specialized uses

Past master

In Freemasonry, a Past Master (PM) is a Master Mason who has served and completed a full term as Worshipful Master of a lodge, marking the transition from active leadership to advisory status within the organization's hierarchical framework.^[146]^[147] This designation qualifies the individual for certain ritual privileges, such as participation in the symbolic "chair work" that completes aspects of the Master Mason degree in jurisdictions conferring a distinct Past Master degree.^[148] The title originated in the early 18th century, coinciding with the formal establishment of grand lodges, including the Premier Grand Lodge of England on June 24, 1717, which standardized lodge governance and officer progression.^[149] It is documented in Masonic ritual exposures and texts from the period onward, emphasizing the necessity of having "passed the chair" to verify proficiency in lodge administration before assuming higher roles or accessing advanced symbolic knowledge.^[148] Past Masters contribute to the fraternal structure through mentorship, drawing on direct experience to guide current Worshipful Masters and officers in ritual execution, procedural adherence, and lodge operations, thereby ensuring continuity and efficacy in the hierarchical transmission of traditions.^[150]^[151] This role is evidenced in lodge practices where they test working tools and preserve ritual memory, fostering empirical skill development among successors.^[152]

Additional terminology

Phase modulation (PM) is a modulation technique in telecommunications where the phase of a sinusoidal carrier wave is varied in proportion to the amplitude of the modulating signal, enabling the transmission of information such as audio or data.^[153] This method contrasts with frequency modulation by directly altering phase rather than frequency, though the two are mathematically related through differentiation.^[154] PM is used in applications like radio communication systems, where it offers advantages in certain noise environments, as documented in engineering standards from organizations such as the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).^[155] Particulate matter (PM) refers to microscopic solid or liquid particles suspended in the atmosphere, classified by aerodynamic diameter such as PM_2.5 (particles ≤2.5 micrometers) and PM₁₀ (≤10 micrometers), which pose health risks by penetrating respiratory and cardiovascular systems.^[156] Sources include combustion processes, industrial emissions, and natural events like wildfires, with regulatory standards set by agencies like the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) based on epidemiological studies linking PM exposure to increased mortality rates; for instance, PM_2.5 levels exceeding 12 μg/m³ annually are associated with adverse outcomes in peer-reviewed air quality research.^[157] Monitoring data from 2023 EPA reports indicate that PM concentrations vary regionally, with urban areas often surpassing safe thresholds due to traffic and energy production.^[158] Polymyositis (PM) is a rare idiopathic inflammatory myopathy characterized by progressive muscle weakness, primarily affecting proximal muscles, with onset typically between ages 30 and 60 and a higher incidence in women.^[159] Diagnosis involves elevated serum creatine kinase levels, electromyography showing myopathic changes, and muscle biopsy revealing endomysial inflammation with CD8+ T-cell infiltration, distinguishing it from dermatomyositis which includes skin manifestations.^[160] Treatment primarily consists of high-dose corticosteroids like prednisone at 1 mg/kg/day, often combined with immunosuppressants such as methotrexate for refractory cases, achieving remission in approximately 60-80% of patients per clinical studies from institutions like Johns Hopkins.^[161] Long-term prognosis depends on early intervention, with complications including interstitial lung disease in up to 30% of cases.^[162]

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PM: New York's Highbrow Tabloid - City Journal
An afternoon tabloid published between 1940 and 1948 by a magazine genius named Ralph Ingersoll. A unique effort to revise what people had come to expect from ...Missing: history | Show results with:history
[119]
PM newspaper - Spartacus Educational
The newspaper managed to achieve a circulation of 200,000, however, without the ability to carry advertising, it could only survive with the sponsorship of ...
[120]
PM: an anniversary assessment - Columbia Journalism Review
Dec 9, 2011 · In 1941, its circulation dropped to 89,500, but climbed back to 150,000 in 1942. For the next three years, PM listed its circulation as 143,000.
[121]
"Pm" Post-Mortem - The Atlantic
For a while it looked as if the modified formula might take hold. A slow, unspectacular gain in circulation set in. From a 1943 average of 144,000 the ...
[122]
PM Magazine, February 27, 1980
PM Magazine was a local news and entertainment television program broadcast on Beaumont's KFDM-TV in from late 1970s to the mid-1980s.
[123]
PM Magazine (Chicago) (a Subjects & Air Dates Guide)
Apr 25, 2012 · Show Details: Start date: Sep 1980. End date: Sep 1986. Status: cancelled/ended. Network(s): WFLD Chicago (US) Run time: 30 min. Episodes: 1171 ...
[124]
PM Magazine Chicago - Episodes & Excerpts - YouTube
WFLD Channel 32 - PM Magazine Chicago - "Son Of Svengoolie - Off-Air Footage" (1981). The Museum of Classic Chicago Television (www.FuzzyMemories.TV).
[125]
The Big Sleep (Philip Marlowe, #1) by Raymond Chandler
Rating 3.9 (166,577) When a dying millionaire hires Philip Marlowe to handle the blackmailer of one of his two troublesome daughters, Marlowe finds himself involved with more than ...
[126]
Farewell, My Lovely (Philip Marlowe, #2) - Goodreads
Rating 4.1 (42,323) Raymond Thornton Chandler was an American-British novelist and screenwriter. In 1932, at the age of forty-four, Chandler became a detective fiction writer after ...
[127]
The Long Goodbye (Philip Marlowe, #6) - Goodreads
Rating 4.2 (46,110) Raymond Thornton Chandler was an American-British novelist and screenwriter. In 1932, at the age of forty-four, Chandler became a detective fiction writer after ...<|separator|>
[128]
What meter is this? - Hymnary.org
Nov 17, 2018 · "Peculiar Meter" or "Particular Meter" are the commonest uses of PM in hymnals and tunebooks, sometimes it means "Psalm Meter" (8,7.8.7).
[129]
Benjamin Lloyd's Primitive Hymns - Encyclopedia of Alabama
Markings such as C.M. (common meter), L.M. (long meter), S.M. (short meter), and P.M. (particular meter) indicated to song leaders the type of tunes to which ...
[130]
My 10 favourite fictional prime ministers in film and TV - The Times
Aug 22, 2025 · As Suranne Jones plays the PM in Hostage on Netflix, our writer picks the best on-screen leaders, from Harriet Jones to Jim Hacker.
[131]
Paul McCartney: Biography, Musician, The Beatles, Grammy Winner
Feb 2, 2025 · Paul McCartney's work as a singer/songwriter with the Beatles in the 1960s helped transform popular music into a creative, highly commercial art form.
[132]
Paul McCartney | Artist - GRAMMY.com
After gaining worldwide fame for his work with the Beatles, Paul McCartney released his first solo album, McCartney, in 1970. The album, which topped the ...
[133]
Sir Paul McCartney | Songwriters Hall of Fame
In 1979, McCartney's accomplishments were recognized by the Guinness Book of Records with its Triple Superlative Award, in token of his achievements as a ...
[134]
Peyton Manning - Pro Football Hall of Fame
His career began with a bang – starting all 16 games as a rookie and setting NFL rookie records for completions (326), attempts (575), passing yards (3,739) and ...
[135]
Peyton Manning Stats, News and Video - QB - NFL.com
In the spotlight: A career retrospective on Peyton Manning. From his first game in 1998 to winning Super Bowl 50 in his last, Peyton Manning was the one to ...
[136]
Piet Mondrian Paintings, Bio, Ideas - The Art Story
Oct 15, 2012 · Piet Mondrian, one of the founders of the Dutch modern movement De Stijl, is recognized for the purity of his abstractions and methodical practice.
[137]
Mondrian: The Geometry of Mind - Arts, Artists, Artwork
May 12, 2024 · In the 1910s, Piet Mondrian pioneered an iconic geometric style that would define his career and influence the trajectory of modern art.
[138]
Shri Pranab Mukherjee Profile - The President of India
He was made Deputy Minister, Industry; Shipping and Transport, Steel and Industry and Minister of State for Finance in the period 1973-74.Missing: notable | Show results with:notable
[139]
7 key highlights of Pranab Mukherjee's political career - Times of India
Dec 11, 2022 · Mukherjee is the only President who served all the major portfolios as the Centre - Foreign, Defence, Commerce and Finance - at different times ...Missing: notable | Show results with:notable
[140]
Pranab Mukherjee: Former president of India dies after Covid ... - BBC
Aug 31, 2020 · As one of the leading figures of the Congress party, he held every key ministry in India - commerce, defence, external affairs and finance - ...Missing: notable roles<|control11|><|separator|>
[141]
PM Job Abbreviation Meaning - All Acronyms
PM Job Abbreviation. PM in Job commonly refers to Project Manager, a professional responsible for planning, executing, and finalizing projects according to ...
[142]
What Is a Project Manager? Role, Skills & Career Path Explained
Tracking · 8d problem solving · Time tracking · Resource scheduling · Enterprise resource management · Business ... Architecture Diagram: Definition, Types, and ...
[143]
Product Management Roles and Job Titles | Pragmatic Institute
Product Manager (PM). The Product Manager is a generalist who is responsible for the product strategy, roadmap, and feature definition for a product or product ...
[144]
Product Management Job Titles: Most Common Roles for PMs - Aha.io
Common product management roles include: Associate product manager, Product manager, Product owner, Group product manager, Director of product management, VP ...
[145]
Program Manager, Project Manager, Product Manager — Which PM ...
Nov 21, 2023 · The program manager role inherently focuses on strategy. These PMs are strategic thinkers who define and often implement important business goals.
[146]
Masters & Past Masters: The Real Role of These Worshipful Men
Dec 11, 2015 · A Passed (or Past) Master is a Master Mason who is no longer the installed Master of a lodge of Freemasons. He has “passed the chair” as the ...Missing: history | Show results with:history
[147]
PAST MASTER - Encyclopedia Masonica - Universal Co-Masonry
The Past Master was the Brother who 'had served his just and lawful time' as W. M. of a Lodge, and had thereby qualified for the completion of Master Degree.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[148]
Duncan's Masonic Ritual and Monitor: Past Master, or Fift...
PAST MASTER, OR FIFTH DEGREE. THIS degree in Masonry was instituted to try the qualifications of a Master Mason before becoming Master of a Lodge, and no Mason ...Missing: verification | Show results with:verification
[149]
Freemasonry: The first Masonic Grand Lodge - The History Press
Jun 23, 2017 · The first Masonic Grand Lodge was founded in London on June 24, 1717, when four existing Lodges gathered at the Goose and Gridiron alehouse.
[150]
Past Master Of The Lodge / What is freemasonry?
A Past Master brings a wealth of experience, knowledge, and wisdom to the lodge. They act as advisors and mentors to the current Master and other officers.
[151]
After the East | Masonic Articles - Universal Co-Masonry
Mar 29, 2022 · The Past Master is the memory of ritual and procedure. There are certain positions within the Lodge meeting that are ideal for a Past Master to fill.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition<|separator|>
[152]
The Jewel of the Past Master - The Square Magazine
And therefore the Past Master, one of whose chief duties it is to test the working tools, and who is supposed to have arrived at a complete skill in Freemasonry ...
[153]
What is Phase Modulation: PM Tutorial - Electronics Notes
As the name implies, phase modulation, PM uses variations in phase for carrying the modulation. As phase and frequency are interrelated, this relationship ...
[154]
Phase Modulation: Theory, Time Domain, Frequency Domain
Phase modulation, similar to frequency modulation, is calculated by adding the baseband signal to the argument of a sine or cosine function. It is used in ...Missing: precursor | Show results with:precursor
[155]
Phase Modulation Circuits - Cadence PCB Design & Analysis
Sep 29, 2025 · Phase modulation is a modulation technique in which the phase of the carrier signal is changed with respect to the amplitude of the original message signal.<|separator|>
[156]
Particulate Matter (PM) Basics | US EPA
May 30, 2025 · PM stands for particulate matter (also called particle pollution): the term for a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets found in the air.
[157]
Clearing the Air: A Review of the Effects of Particulate Matter ... - NIH
PM is a portion of air pollution that is made up of extremely small particles and liquid droplets containing acids, organic chemicals, metals, and soil or dust ...
[158]
Particulate Matter (PM) Pollution | US EPA
Aug 25, 2025 · Particulate matter (PM) is one of the air pollutants regulated by the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS).(PM) Basics · Contact Us about Particulate... · Implementing PM Standards
[159]
Polymyositis: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms & Treatment
The most common treatments for polymyositis include: Corticosteroids: Prescription anti-inflammatory medications. Immunosuppressants: Medications that ...
[160]
Polymyositis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Feb 7, 2023 · [26] Certain biologics, such as infliximab and etanercept, have been used in treating refractory cases of PM.[27] Other therapies include ...
[161]
Polymyositis Treatment & Management - Medscape Reference
Aug 14, 2025 · Prednisone is the first-line treatment of choice for polymyositis. Typically, the dose is 1 mg/kg/day, either as a single dose or in divided doses.Approach Considerations · Extramuscular Manifestations...
[162]
Polymyositis | Johns Hopkins Medicine
Polymyositis is a disease that causes muscles to become irritated and inflamed. The muscles eventually start to break down and become weak.