Portable media player
A portable media player (PMP) is a battery-powered handheld electronic device designed to store, organize, and play back digital media files, primarily audio and video, often incorporating flash memory or hard disk storage, integrated displays, and user interfaces for navigation and control.[1][2] These devices emerged as successors to analog portable players, enabling compressed digital formats like MP3 to facilitate greater storage capacity and convenience without physical media.[3] The foundational milestone for portable audio was the Sony Walkman cassette player released in 1979, which popularized personal listening but relied on analog tapes.[4] Digital PMPs debuted in the late 1990s, with the Diamond Rio PMP300 in 1998 marking the first commercial flash-based MP3 player capable of holding about one hour of music.[5][6] Apple's iPod, launched in 2001, revolutionized the category by combining a 5GB hard drive, intuitive scroll wheel, and seamless integration with iTunes software, selling over 450 million units and establishing ecosystem lock-in that boosted legal digital music sales amid piracy concerns.[7] Subsequent innovations included video playback, touchscreen interfaces, and connectivity features, though dedicated PMPs declined sharply after smartphones assimilated their functions around 2007, rendering standalone devices niche for audiophiles seeking superior sound quality or offline access.[1][8]Definition and Core Characteristics
Functionality and Scope
Portable media players (PMPs) are battery-powered devices engineered for storing, organizing, and reproducing digital media, encompassing audio files, video content, and images. Core functionality involves decoding compressed formats via dedicated codec chips and processors; supported audio codecs typically include MP3, AAC, FLAC, WAV, and ALAC, while video playback accommodates MP4, AVI, MKV, and H.264 in capable models.[9][10] Output occurs through wired headphone jacks or Bluetooth connectivity, with user controls ranging from physical buttons and scroll wheels to touch interfaces for navigation and playback management.[11] Storage relies on internal flash memory or, in earlier variants, miniature hard disk drives, with modern capacities starting at 32 GB and expandable via microSD slots to hold thousands of audio tracks or several hours of video. Battery life prioritizes endurance for on-the-go use, often providing 10 to 90 hours of continuous audio playback per charge, far exceeding that of multifunctional smartphones due to the absence of competing processes like notifications or app execution.[9][10][12] The scope of PMPs focuses on dedicated media consumption, extending beyond basic playback to include features such as FM radio tuning, built-in microphones for voice recording, and photo viewing in select models, though advanced recording or editing remains limited without accessories. Unlike integrated devices, PMPs eschew telephony, internet browsing, and general-purpose computing to optimize for media fidelity and efficiency, a design choice rooted in their evolution from audio-centric players to multimedia tools since the late 1990s.[13][14][11]Differentiation from Integrated Devices like Smartphones
Dedicated portable media players (PMPs) differ from smartphones primarily in their singular focus on media playback, eschewing integrated telephony, computing, and app ecosystems to prioritize efficiency and performance in audio and video reproduction. This specialization enables PMPs to allocate resources—such as processing power and battery capacity—exclusively to media tasks, avoiding the multitasking overhead inherent in smartphones' general-purpose operating systems. As a result, PMPs often deliver uninterrupted playback without the interference of notifications, calls, or background processes that can disrupt audio sessions on smartphones.[15][16] A key advantage lies in battery longevity, where PMPs typically outlast smartphones during extended media use due to their streamlined power management. High-quality digital audio players (DAPs), a subset of PMPs, commonly provide 10 to 40 hours of continuous playback, as their hardware and software are optimized solely for decoding and outputting media without sustaining cellular radios, displays for non-media tasks, or app execution. In contrast, smartphones, even high-end models, often achieve only 5 to 15 hours of music playback under similar conditions because of competing demands like network connectivity and screen maintenance, leading to faster depletion during prolonged listening.[15][17][10] Audio fidelity represents another core distinction, with PMPs incorporating dedicated components like superior digital-to-analog converters (DACs), amplifiers, and noise-isolated circuits tailored for high-resolution formats, yielding clearer sound, greater dynamic range, and reduced distortion compared to the compromised audio subsystems in smartphones. Smartphones prioritize compact integration and cost efficiency, often relying on shared processors and basic audio chips that introduce electrical noise from nearby cellular and Wi-Fi modules, limiting their performance in audiophile applications even when paired with external DACs. Dedicated PMPs thus excel in scenarios demanding uncompromised reproduction, such as playback of lossless files up to 24-bit/192 kHz or DSD, where measurable differences in clarity and separation emerge.[15][18][17] Ergonomically, PMPs emphasize physical controls, compact form factors, and lightweight designs suited for prolonged pocket carry or activity-specific use, such as running, without the bulk of smartphone cameras and batteries. This focus minimizes distractions and enhances reliability in media-centric environments, preserving smartphone batteries for essential functions like communication. While smartphones offer versatility through streaming and app integration, their broader scope dilutes media-specific optimizations, making PMPs preferable for users seeking pure, distraction-free immersion in personal audio libraries.[19][20]Hardware Classifications
Flash Memory-Based Players
Flash memory-based portable media players employ solid-state NAND flash storage, eliminating mechanical parts found in hard disk drives, which enhances durability against shocks, vibrations, and drops while enabling smaller, lighter designs.[21] This storage type also consumes less power, supporting longer battery life in battery-powered devices, and provides faster random access times for quick song navigation.[22] Early limitations included high cost per megabyte—around $3 to $4 per MB in 2000—and constrained capacities, restricting initial models to storing only a handful of tracks, though rapid advancements in NAND fabrication reduced these barriers over time.[5] The category originated in the late 1990s as flash memory became viable for consumer audio storage. The SaeHan MPMan F10, launched in Asia in 1998, represented one of the first commercial flash-based players with 32 MB capacity, sufficient for about 8-10 MP3 files at 128 kbps bitrates.[23] Diamond Multimedia followed with the Rio PMP300 that same year, featuring similar 32 MB flash, a monochrome LCD, and USB connectivity for file transfer, marking a shift from optical media like MiniDiscs by prioritizing digital compression and solid-state reliability.[6] By the early 2000s, manufacturers like iRiver and Creative introduced models such as the iRiver iFP-190 (2001) with expandable flash via SmartMedia cards, allowing capacities up to 128 MB while maintaining clip-on portability for active use.[24] Mid-2000s innovations capitalized on falling flash prices and multi-level cell (MLC) technology, boosting densities. Apple's iPod Nano, introduced in September 2005, offered 1 GB to 4 GB options in a slim aluminum body, combining flash resilience with color displays and video playback support, outselling HDD iPods due to its jog wheel interface and iTunes ecosystem integration.[5] SanDisk's Sansa e100 series, debuting in May 2005, provided affordable entry-level flash players with FM radio and microSD expansion, emphasizing value with capacities starting at 512 MB.[23] Sony's NW-E series Walkman players from 2005 onward incorporated flash for rugged, lightweight builds, evolving to support higher-resolution audio formats like FLAC by the 2010s in models such as the NW-A1000 series, which featured balanced outputs and Android integration for streaming alongside local playback.[25] Contemporary flash-based players target niche markets like audiophiles and fitness enthusiasts, prioritizing high-fidelity sound over smartphone multifunctionality. Devices like the SanDisk Clip Jam (2015) retain simple, distraction-free interfaces with 16 GB flash and microSD slots for up to 128 kbps MP3/WMA playback, while premium offerings such as Sony's NW-ZX707 (2022) integrate 64 GB flash with LDAC Bluetooth codecs and DSEE Ultimate upscaling for near-lossless wireless audio from hi-res files up to 384 kHz/32-bit.[21] These players persist due to flash's inherent advantages in power efficiency and mechanical silence, though market share has declined with smartphone ubiquity, with production focusing on specialized features like waterproofing and extended playback—up to 45 hours on models like the Clip Sport Plus.[22]Hard Disk Drive-Based Players
Hard disk drive (HDD)-based portable media players utilized miniature rotating hard drives, typically 1.8-inch or 2.5-inch form factors, to achieve significantly larger storage capacities than contemporary flash memory devices during their peak in the early 2000s. This approach addressed the high cost per gigabyte of flash storage at the time, enabling devices to hold thousands of audio tracks—far exceeding the hundreds possible with flash equivalents. Early models incorporated buffer memory for skip protection, buffering several minutes of audio to mitigate interruptions from mechanical vibrations or shocks.[5] Pioneering examples include the HanGo Personal Jukebox, developed by Compaq in 1998 and licensed to HanGo Electronics, which employed a 2.5-inch laptop drive for its storage. Commercial viability was demonstrated by the Archos Jukebox 6000, released in 2000 with a 6 GB Toshiba HDD, capable of storing approximately 1,500 MP3 tracks at 128 kbps. Similarly, Creative Labs launched the Nomad Jukebox in 2000, featuring a 6 GB drive and supporting MP3, WAV, and WMA formats, with a battery life of about 10-12 hours. Apple's iPod, introduced on October 23, 2001, with a 5 GB Toshiba 1.8-inch HDD, revolutionized the category by storing "up to 1,000 songs" and integrating seamless synchronization via iTunes software, achieving sales exceeding 100 million units across HDD variants by 2007.[5] Other notable models encompassed the iRiver H300 series (2004), offering up to 40 GB capacities with color screens and FM recording; Toshiba's Gigabeat S (2005), with 30-60 GB drives and support for WMA DRM; and Sony's NW-HD1 Walkman (2004), utilizing a 1.8-inch HDD for 3.7 GB storage alongside ATRAC audio format compatibility. These devices often featured LCD displays for navigation, USB connectivity for data transfer, and basic equalization options, but HDD mechanics necessitated robust enclosures to withstand portability demands. Battery life typically ranged from 8-20 hours, influenced by drive spin-up power requirements, contrasting with longer durations in later flash-based successors.[5] Despite capacity advantages—such as the iPod classic's final 160 GB model in 2009 enabling over 40,000 songs—HDD players suffered from inherent drawbacks including greater weight (often 150-200 grams), vulnerability to physical shock causing read errors or head crashes, and higher susceptibility to environmental factors like temperature fluctuations. Power consumption from spinning platters reduced efficiency compared to solid-state alternatives, and manufacturing costs for miniaturized drives limited scalability. The decline accelerated post-2005 as NAND flash prices plummeted, rendering high-capacity flash viable; Apple discontinued new iPod classic production in 2009, though stock sales continued until 2014. By the early 2010s, HDD-based players were obsolete in mainstream markets, relegated to niche or vintage appeal due to reliability issues and the dominance of durable, compact flash storage.[5][26]Specialized and Hybrid Variants
Specialized variants of portable media players encompass designs optimized for niche applications or superior audio performance, diverging from standard flash or HDD models through targeted hardware adaptations. High-fidelity digital audio players (DAPs), such as the Astell & Kern A&norma SR35, feature advanced digital-to-analog converters (DACs) supporting up to 32-bit/384kHz PCM, DSD256, and MQA decoding, alongside balanced outputs (2.5mm and 4.4mm) and expandable storage up to 1TB via microSD, prioritizing low-noise audio circuitry and audiophile-grade amplification over broad multimedia versatility.[10] Similarly, the Astell & Kern A&ultima SP3000 employs the AK4499EX DAC chip for 32-bit/768kHz and DSD512 playback, with stainless steel chassis construction to minimize interference, offering 10 hours of battery life from its integrated flash storage base.[10] These DAPs distinguish themselves via hardware emphasis on signal purity and high-resolution format handling, catering to users seeking uncompressed audio reproduction unattainable in entry-level players.[10] Other specialized hardware includes clip-on models for active lifestyles, like the SanDisk Sansa Clip, announced in August 2007 and featuring a compact, wearable form factor with integrated belt clip, 1-inch OLED screen, built-in FM tuner, and microphone for voice recording, all powered by flash memory for shock resistance during exercise.[27][28] This design provides up to 15 hours of playback and direct file deletion, enabling standalone operation without a computer for on-the-go adjustments.[29] Hybrid variants integrate disparate hardware paradigms, such as combining portable flash-based playback with docking for stationary amplification or optical disc mechanisms. The Astell&Kern PS10, released globally in May 2025, pairs 256GB internal flash storage (expandable to 2TB via microSD) with four AKM AK4498EX DACs and a docking cradle enabling XLR balanced outputs for home hi-fi integration, alongside Wi-Fi streaming and 15-hour battery life from its 5,770mAh cell.[30] Complementing digital files, the Shanling EC Zero T incorporates an optical CD drive for physical media playback with USB-C digital input (up to 768kHz PCM and DSD512), hybrid tube/solid-state amplification using dual JAN6418 tubes and TPA6120 amp, and Bluetooth 5.3, delivering 330mW at 3.5mm or 1220mW balanced output in a portable chassis.[31] These hybrids bridge mobile and fixed environments or analog-digital playback, leveraging versatile hardware for expanded utility without relying solely on solid-state storage.[30][31]Operational Mechanisms
User Interfaces and Displays
Early portable media players relied on simple button arrays for core functions like play, pause, skip, and volume control, paired with minimal monochrome LCD displays showing track numbers, elapsed time, and battery status. The MPMan F10, released by SaeHan Information Systems in September 1998 as one of the first commercial flash-based MP3 players, utilized four directional buttons and a small 2-line LCD screen for navigating its 32 MB to 64 MB storage of compressed audio files. These interfaces prioritized compactness and low power consumption over visual feedback, reflecting hardware constraints of limited processing power and battery life in devices weighing under 50 grams. The introduction of the Apple iPod in October 2001 marked a shift with its mechanical scroll wheel, enabling faster menu scrolling through thousands of songs stored on a 5 GB hard drive, complemented by a 160x128 pixel greyscale LCD display for album art placeholders and text menus.[32] This design addressed the inefficiency of button-only navigation for large libraries, allowing thumb-driven circular motion to simulate infinite scrolling without mechanical wear from multiple keys. By July 2004, Apple refined this into the capacitive Click Wheel on the fourth-generation iPod and iPod Mini, where the entire surface registered directional swipes and discrete button presses for play, menu, and back functions, improving tactile responsiveness and reducing accidental inputs.[33][34] Competitors like Creative's Zen series adopted similar jog dials, while Sony Walkman models incorporated hold switches and dedicated EQ buttons alongside evolving LCDs. Display technologies advanced from passive-matrix LCDs to active-matrix TFT color screens by the mid-2000s, supporting 262,000 colors and resolutions up to 320x240 pixels for video playback on devices like the iPod Video (2005) with its 2.5-inch QVGA screen.[5] OLED displays emerged in premium players for superior contrast and power efficiency, as seen in later Sony NW-ZX series models with 3.5-inch or larger panels. Touchscreen adoption accelerated post-2007 with capacitive overlays on larger TFT or IPS panels, enabling gesture-based navigation in players like Microsoft's Zune HD (2009), though many dedicated audio-focused PMPs retained hybrid physical controls to maintain blind operability during use.[35] By 2023, high-end PMPs such as Astell & Kern models featured high-resolution touchscreen LCDs up to 4 inches with 720p or higher, integrating swipe gestures for playlist management while preserving dedicated playback buttons for ergonomic reliability.[36] This evolution balanced visual richness for multimedia against the causal need for intuitive, low-error physical feedback in mobile contexts, where screens under 3 inches dominate to minimize size and weight.[37]Content Synchronization and Device Management
Content synchronization for portable media players primarily involves transferring digital media files, such as audio tracks and playlists, from a host computer to the device via wired or wireless connections. Early flash-based and hard drive players often relied on USB mass storage class (MSC) mode, allowing users to drag and drop files directly as if accessing a removable drive, which simplified transfers but limited advanced features like metadata synchronization.[38][39] The Media Transfer Protocol (MTP), developed by Microsoft and adopted widely since the mid-2000s, superseded MSC for most players to enable safer file handling and support for protected content. MTP presents the device as a database rather than a raw filesystem, facilitating playlist creation, automatic synchronization based on device capacity, and metadata updates without risking corruption of internal structures, though it can be slower for large transfers compared to MSC.[38][40] Device management software integrates these protocols to organize libraries and customize playback. Apple's iTunes, introduced with the first iPod in 2001, pioneered automatic syncing of selected music, podcasts, and videos, with options for manual management to prevent overwriting existing content on the device.[41] Windows Media Player's synchronization engine, available since version 10 in 2004, similarly handles playlist-based transfers to compatible devices, prioritizing user-defined criteria like ratings or play counts to fit storage limits.[42][43] Third-party tools like MediaMonkey extend management across ecosystems, supporting tag editing, duplicate detection, and syncing to non-proprietary players via MTP or MSC.[44] Firmware updates and diagnostic tools often accompany synchronization software, allowing manufacturers to patch vulnerabilities or enhance compatibility; for instance, Sony Walkman devices use dedicated utilities for both content transfer and system maintenance over USB. Wireless synchronization emerged in later models, such as certain Sony NWZ series players supporting Wi-Fi syncing with PCs running proprietary apps, reducing cable dependency but requiring stable networks.[45] These mechanisms evolved to balance user control with content protection, though proprietary implementations like iTunes have drawn criticism for ecosystem lock-in, limiting interoperability without workarounds.[41][46]Principal Features
Audio Reproduction Capabilities
Portable media players primarily reproduce audio through digital signal decoding, followed by digital-to-analog conversion (DAC) and amplification for headphone or speaker output. Entry-level flash-based models typically employ basic integrated DACs supporting lossy formats like MP3 and AAC at standard CD quality (16-bit/44.1 kHz), with output power sufficient for low-impedance headphones around 10-20 mW per channel. Higher-end dedicated audio players (DAPs) integrate premium DAC chips, such as ESS Sabre or AKM models, enabling playback of lossless formats including FLAC, WAV, ALAC, and APE, often with native DSD support up to DSD128.[9][10] Advanced players extend capabilities to high-resolution audio, decoding files up to 32-bit/384 kHz PCM or equivalent, surpassing CD specifications to capture extended frequency response and dynamic range. Bit depth determines amplitude resolution, with 24-bit providing a theoretical signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of approximately 144 dB, though practical portable implementations achieve 100-120 dB SNR due to power and noise constraints. Total harmonic distortion (THD) in quality units measures below 0.01%, minimizing audible artifacts; for instance, some models report 0.008% THD with SNR exceeding 107 dB.[47][48][49][50] Reproduction fidelity depends on the player's analog output stage, including low-noise amplification and impedance matching for headphones (typically 16-300 ohms). Many incorporate digital signal processing (DSP) for equalization, crossfeed to simulate speaker staging, or upsampling to reduce jitter, enhancing perceived spatial imaging without altering source material. Battery-powered designs prioritize efficiency, often limiting maximum output voltage swing compared to stationary equipment, yet high-end variants like those from Sony or FiiO deliver balanced outputs (2.5mm/4.4mm jacks) for reduced crosstalk and higher power.[51][52] SNR thresholds above 85 dB suffice for portable use, where environmental noise masks subtler deficiencies.[53]Multimedia Support Beyond Audio
Early portable media players focused primarily on audio reproduction, but by the early 2000s, manufacturers began integrating video playback and image viewing capabilities to broaden device utility. Archos introduced one of the first devices supporting portable video playback with its AV series in 2003, featuring a color LCD screen for displaying video content alongside audio and photo files.[54] This innovation allowed users to watch MPEG-encoded videos stored on hard drives, though screen resolutions were limited to around 320x240 pixels, constraining visual fidelity.[55] Video format support varied by model but commonly included MPEG-1, MPEG-2, and AVI containers, which balanced compression efficiency with the decoding power of embedded processors from that era. Devices like the Archos Gmini 400, released in 2004, popularized smaller form factors for video, with a 2.2-inch screen enabling on-the-go playback of downloaded clips, predating similar features in mainstream competitors. Later entrants, such as iRiver's H300 series around 2004, added support for DivX and XviD codecs within AVI files, appealing to users sourcing content from peer-to-peer networks.[56] Photo viewing emerged as a complementary feature, with JPEG emerging as the universal standard due to its efficient compression and widespread compatibility with device hardware.[11] Most players from 2003 onward displayed static images in basic slideshow modes, often with zoom and rotate functions, but lacked advanced editing tools. Battery life posed a significant constraint for multimedia use; video playback typically consumed 2-4 hours of power versus over 20 hours for audio-only, owing to continuous screen activation and CPU-intensive decoding. Screen sizes rarely exceeded 3.5 inches in early models, prioritizing portability over immersive viewing, which often necessitated external TV output via composite or S-Video ports for better experiences.[57] These limitations reflected trade-offs in power efficiency and thermal management inherent to battery-powered, pocket-sized designs.Supplementary Functions and Connectivity
Many portable media players integrate supplementary functions to extend utility beyond audio playback. FM radio tuners, which receive analog broadcasts, appeared in models like the iRiver H300 series launched in 2004, allowing users to listen to live stations without digital files.[5] Voice recording features, often via built-in microphones, support capturing memos or external audio, a capability common in flash-based players from manufacturers such as Creative and iRiver by the early 2000s.[5] Additional functions include pedometers for step tracking in clip-style designs like the SanDisk Sansa Clip series introduced around 2007, aiding fitness applications by integrating motion sensors with playback controls. Some devices incorporate alarm clocks, calendars, and basic e-book readers using LCD screens, though these vary by model and storage constraints limit extensive text support.[58] Connectivity primarily relies on USB interfaces for data synchronization and charging, with early players adopting USB 1.1 in the late 1990s for file transfer to computers, later upgrading to USB 2.0 for faster rates by 2001.[59] Bluetooth emerged in mid-2000s models for wireless audio transmission to headphones via the A2DP profile, reducing cable dependence; for instance, multi-functional players highlighted this by 2007.[60] Wi-Fi connectivity, added to select Android-based players post-2010, enables direct streaming from services like Spotify and over-the-air updates, though battery drain limits its prevalence in dedicated audio devices.[61]Media Formats and Signal Processing
Supported Audio and Video Codecs
Portable media players support a diverse array of audio codecs to accommodate varying file formats from digital music libraries, with compatibility influenced by device hardware, firmware, and intended use cases such as casual listening versus audiophile-grade reproduction. The MP3 codec, a lossy format from the MPEG-1 standard, remains foundational across nearly all players due to its efficient compression—typically achieving 128-320 kbps bitrates—and backward compatibility with devices dating to the original Rio PMP300 released in 1998. Advanced Audio Coding (AAC), an MPEG-2/4 successor to MP3, is equally prevalent, providing superior perceptual quality at equivalent bitrates and serving as the primary format for platforms like Apple's iTunes ecosystem. Windows Media Audio (WMA), a Microsoft-developed lossy codec, was common in early 2000s players from brands like Creative and SanDisk for its integration with Windows Media Player. Higher-end digital audio players (DAPs), particularly those targeting high-resolution audio enthusiasts, extend support to lossless codecs that retain full dynamic range and frequency response without data discard. Free Lossless Audio Codec (FLAC) is standard in modern DAPs, compressing files to 50-70% of uncompressed size while allowing verification of bit integrity via checksums. Apple Lossless Audio Codec (ALAC) offers similar fidelity, optimized for iOS-compatible devices. Uncompressed formats like WAV (Pulse-Code Modulation) and AIFF enable direct playback of raw PCM data, though their large file sizes—often exceeding 10 MB per minute at CD quality—necessitate ample storage in flash or SSD-based players. Specialized hi-res DAPs further accommodate DSD (Direct Stream Digital) for formats like SACD rips, supporting native playback up to DSD512 rates on devices with dedicated DACs. Video codec support emerged with multimedia-capable players in the mid-2000s, prioritizing formats balancing quality, file size, and decoding efficiency for small screens and limited processing power. H.264/AVC (Advanced Video Coding) predominates in contemporary Android-based and hybrid players, offering high compression ratios—up to 50% better than prior standards—for resolutions like 720p or 1080p at 1-5 Mbps bitrates. MPEG-4 Part 2 (ASP profile) remains viable in legacy and budget devices for AVI or early MP4 containers, though it yields larger files than H.264 equivalents. Compatibility often hinges on container formats: MP4 for progressive download-style playback and 3GP for mobile-optimized clips, with hardware decoders in players like Sony Walkman video models handling baseline profiles to minimize latency.| Audio Codec | Compression Type | Typical Bitrate Range | Common in Players |
|---|---|---|---|
| MP3 | Lossy | 128-320 kbps | All eras and brands[62] |
| AAC | Lossy | 96-256 kbps | Apple, modern DAPs[63] |
| FLAC | Lossless | 500-1400 kbps | Hi-res DAPs[9] |
| ALAC | Lossless | Variable | Apple ecosystem DAPs[64] |
| WAV | Uncompressed | 1411 kbps (CD) | Audiophile players[64] |
| DSD | Lossless (1-bit) | 2.8-22.5 Mbps | Premium hi-res DAPs[65] |
| Video Codec | Profile/Support | Typical Resolution/Bitrate | Common in Players |
|---|---|---|---|
| H.264/AVC | Baseline/Main | 720p/1-5 Mbps | Android-based, post-2005 video PMPs[66] |
| MPEG-4 ASP | Simple/Advanced | 480p/2-8 Mbps | Early video players (e.g., iPod Video era)[66] |