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Pulmonary function testing

Pulmonary function testing (PFT), also referred to as lung function testing, comprises a group of noninvasive diagnostic procedures that assess the respiratory system's function by measuring key parameters such as lung volumes, airflow rates, capacities, and gas exchange efficiency.^[1]^[2] These tests provide quantitative data on how effectively the lungs inhale, exhale, and transfer gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide, helping to identify abnormalities in lung mechanics and performance.^[3]^[4] The primary purposes of PFT include diagnosing respiratory disorders, monitoring disease progression, evaluating treatment responses, and assessing surgical risks or occupational exposures.^[1]^[2] They are particularly valuable for detecting obstructive lung diseases, such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), where airflow is impeded, or restrictive conditions, like pulmonary fibrosis, where lung expansion is limited.^[3]^[4] Results are interpreted by comparing measured values to predicted norms adjusted for factors such as age, sex, and height, with recent guidelines from organizations like the American Thoracic Society recommending race-neutral reference equations over ethnicity-specific adjustments, and abnormalities indicating potential pathology when integrated with clinical history and physical examination.^[1]^[2]^[5] Common types of PFTs encompass spirometry, which evaluates forced vital capacity (FVC), forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1), and the FEV1/FVC ratio to differentiate obstructive from restrictive patterns; lung volume testing via body plethysmography or gas dilution methods to determine total lung capacity (TLC), residual volume (RV), and functional residual capacity (FRC); and diffusion capacity (DLCO) studies that measure the lungs' ability to transfer gas to the bloodstream using carbon monoxide as a proxy.^[1]^[4] Additional tests may include bronchoprovocation challenges to assess airway hyperresponsiveness or exercise-based evaluations like the six-minute walk test for functional capacity.^[1]^[3] PFTs are generally safe and performed in outpatient settings by trained respiratory therapists, lasting 15 to 45 minutes, though they may cause temporary discomfort such as dizziness, coughing, or shortness of breath in susceptible individuals.^[2]^[3] Preparation typically involves avoiding heavy meals, caffeine, smoking, and certain medications, with contraindications including recent myocardial infarction or pneumothorax.^[4]^[2] Standardized guidelines from organizations like the American Thoracic Society and European Respiratory Society ensure consistent interpretation and quality control.^[1]

Overview

Definition and Purpose

Pulmonary function testing (PFT) comprises a group of noninvasive diagnostic procedures that assess lung mechanics and gas exchange by measuring parameters such as lung volumes and capacities, airflow rates, diffusion capacity for gases, and respiratory muscle function.^[1] These tests provide objective data on how effectively the lungs perform their primary roles of ventilation and oxygenation, enabling clinicians to quantify respiratory performance in various physiological states.^[6] The core purposes of PFT are to aid in the diagnosis of lung impairments, evaluate the severity of existing conditions, monitor changes in lung function over time or in response to therapeutic interventions, assess surgical risk in patients undergoing procedures that may affect respiration, and screen for potential lung hazards in occupational settings.^[1] By establishing baseline measurements and tracking deviations from predicted norms—adjusted for factors like age, sex, and height using race-neutral reference equations—PFT helps guide clinical decision-making and predict outcomes in respiratory care.^[6]^[5] PFT distinguishes between static and dynamic assessments: static tests evaluate lung volumes and capacities under relaxed conditions, independent of airflow speed, whereas dynamic tests measure airflow and resistance during effort-dependent maneuvers, such as forced exhalation.^[1] At a high level, test results can indicate obstructive patterns, marked by limitations in airflow, or restrictive patterns, characterized by diminished lung volumes, providing foundational insights into the type of ventilatory dysfunction present.^[6] PFT laboratories are equipped with standardized apparatus, including volume- or flow-sensing spirometers for airflow evaluation, whole-body plethysmographs (body boxes) for precise lung volume measurements via Boyle's law, and gas analyzers for diffusion studies, all calibrated daily and operated by certified technicians in environments adhering to infection control protocols to ensure measurement reliability and patient safety.^[6]

Historical Development

The origins of pulmonary function testing (PFT) trace back to the mid-19th century, when English physician John Hutchinson developed the first practical spirometer in 1846 to measure vital capacity, the maximum volume of air that could be exhaled after a full inhalation.^[7] Hutchinson's water-filled spirometer, a large inverted bell submerged in a tank, allowed for quantitative assessment of lung volumes in over 2,000 healthy individuals and patients, establishing vital capacity as a key indicator of respiratory health influenced by factors like age, height, and body weight.^[8] This device marked the beginning of systematic PFT, shifting from qualitative observations to precise volumetric measurements, though early spirometers were cumbersome and limited to static lung volumes.^[8] In the 20th century, PFT expanded with innovative techniques for measuring total lung volumes and gas exchange. The helium dilution method, introduced in 1949 by Meneely and Kaltreider, enabled accurate determination of functional residual capacity by having patients rebreathe a helium-oxygen mixture, allowing inert gas dilution to estimate alveolar volume without requiring full exhalation. Following World War II, diffusing capacity tests gained prominence, building on Marie Krogh's 1915 carbon monoxide uptake concept but refined into the single-breath diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide (DLCO) in the 1950s, which quantified the lung's ability to transfer gases across the alveolar-capillary membrane.^[9] Body plethysmography, pioneered by DuBois and colleagues in 1956, provided a non-invasive way to measure thoracic gas volume and airway resistance using Boyle's law in a sealed chamber, overcoming limitations of dilution methods in obstructive diseases.^[10] Standardization efforts accelerated in the late 20th century to ensure reproducibility across labs. The American Thoracic Society (ATS) issued its first comprehensive guidelines for spirometry in 1979, emphasizing standardized maneuvers, equipment calibration, and acceptability criteria, which were later harmonized with the European Respiratory Society (ERS).^[11] These were updated in joint ATS/ERS statements, including the 2005 standards for spirometry that refined reference values and quality control, the 2019 update to spirometry standardization, the 2017 standards for single-breath DLCO uptake in the lung, and the 2022 technical standard on interpretive strategies for routine lung function tests.^[12]^[13]^[14]^[15] In 2023, the ATS issued a statement recommending race-neutral reference equations for PFT interpretation to address historical biases in ethnicity-based adjustments.^[5] Technological advancements paralleled this, with the transition from wet spirometers—prone to spillage and temperature errors—to dry rolling-seal or turbine-based devices in the mid-20th century, improving portability and accuracy.^[16] By the 1980s and 1990s, integration of microprocessor-based computer software enabled real-time data acquisition, automated curve analysis, and expert systems like PUFF for interpretive reporting, enhancing diagnostic efficiency.^[17] In the modern era since the 1990s, PFT incorporated dynamic assessments such as cardiopulmonary exercise testing, standardized by ATS/ACCP guidelines in 1999 to evaluate integrated cardiorespiratory function under stress. Exhaled nitric oxide measurement emerged as a non-invasive marker of airway inflammation, with fractional exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO) techniques validated in the early 1990s for asthma monitoring. These developments, supported by ongoing ATS/ERS updates, have solidified PFT as a cornerstone of respiratory diagnostics.

Indications

Respiratory Diseases

Pulmonary function testing (PFT) is indicated in obstructive lung diseases such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) to diagnose airflow limitation and differentiate between reversible and irreversible obstruction.^[1] In asthma, PFT assesses bronchodilator responsiveness, with pre-bronchodilator and post-bronchodilator spirometry helping identify reversible airway obstruction typically showing a significant increase in forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) after bronchodilator administration.^[18] For COPD, PFT confirms irreversible airflow obstruction, characterized by a reduced FEV1/forced vital capacity (FVC) ratio that persists post-bronchodilator, aiding in severity staging and monitoring disease progression.^[1] In restrictive lung diseases, PFT evaluates reduced lung volumes to support diagnosis and assess disease extent. For idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), PFT demonstrates a restrictive pattern with decreased total lung capacity (TLC) and FVC, often accompanied by impaired diffusing capacity, which informs prognosis and treatment decisions as per ATS/ERS/JRS/ALAT guidelines.^[19] Similarly, in sarcoidosis, PFT detects restrictive ventilatory defects due to parenchymal involvement, with reduced lung volumes correlating to disease severity and guiding therapeutic interventions.^[20] PFT serves additional roles in other respiratory conditions, including preoperative risk stratification for lung resection, where baseline measurements predict postoperative function and surgical tolerance.^[21] In cystic fibrosis, PFT monitors exacerbations and tracks longitudinal lung function decline, with spirometry providing key metrics for timely intervention.^[22] For occupational pneumoconioses, such as silicosis or asbestosis, PFT assesses dust-induced restrictive or mixed defects in exposed workers to evaluate impairment and support compensation claims.^[23] Spirometry is recommended in primary care for case-finding in adults over 40 years with a significant smoking history and respiratory symptoms, such as chronic cough, sputum production, or unexplained dyspnea, to detect early obstructive diseases like COPD.^[24]

Neuromuscular and Other Disorders

Pulmonary function testing (PFT) plays a crucial role in evaluating respiratory involvement in neuromuscular disorders, where primary lung pathology is absent but muscle weakness impairs ventilation mechanics. In these conditions, PFT helps detect early respiratory compromise, guide ventilatory support decisions, and monitor disease progression.^[25] In amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), PFT is indicated to assess diaphragmatic weakness, often through measurements of maximal inspiratory pressure (PImax), which can identify reductions below -30 cmH2O signaling significant impairment. Supine spirometry further enhances detection by revealing a greater than 20-30% drop in forced vital capacity (FVC) compared to upright position, reflecting diaphragm dysfunction.^[26] Similarly, in myasthenia gravis, PFT evaluates respiratory muscle strength during exacerbations, showing a restrictive pattern due to inspiratory and expiratory weakness, with maximal pressures aiding in identifying the need for ventilatory intervention.^[27] For Duchenne muscular dystrophy, PFT serves as a screening tool for sleep-disordered breathing, where reduced FVC and oxygen desaturation during sleep (SpO2 ≤ 88% for ≥5 minutes) predict hypercapnia and guide noninvasive ventilation initiation.^[26] Cardiovascular conditions also warrant PFT to quantify secondary effects on breathing. In pulmonary hypertension, testing evaluates gas exchange abnormalities, with reduced diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide (DLCO) commonly observed, helping differentiate vascular from parenchymal issues.^[28] For heart failure, PFT assesses restrictive deficits and impaired gas transfer, where moderate DLCO reductions reflect pulmonary congestion and inform prognosis.^[29] Other systemic conditions benefit from PFT for risk stratification and recovery monitoring. In obesity hypoventilation syndrome, preoperative PFT identifies restrictive ventilatory defects and rules out alternative hypoventilation causes, aiding bariatric surgery planning by highlighting elevated postoperative respiratory risks.^[30] Following thoracic surgery, serial PFT monitors recovery, typically showing gradual improvement in lung volumes and spirometric parameters within 6-12 months, depending on resection extent.^[31] In these non-respiratory disorders, PFT uniquely emphasizes respiratory muscle testing, such as maximal pressures (detailed in the Tests and Measurements section), over standard spirometry alone, as muscle weakness predominantly drives ventilatory limitations rather than intrinsic lung disease.^[32]

Tests and Measurements

Spirometry

Spirometry is a fundamental pulmonary function test that assesses lung function by measuring the volume and speed of air that can be inhaled and exhaled during a forced maneuver. The procedure involves the patient inhaling maximally to total lung capacity (TLC), pausing briefly for no more than 2 seconds, and then exhaling as forcefully and completely as possible into a spirometer, typically continuing the exhalation for at least 6 seconds in adults or until no further volume change occurs. This maneuver is repeated at least three times to ensure reproducibility, with coaching to achieve maximal effort throughout. The test produces a full inspiratory and expiratory flow-volume loop, providing graphical representation of the breathing dynamics.^[13] Key parameters derived from spirometry include forced vital capacity (FVC), which is the total volume of air exhaled during the maneuver; forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV₁), the volume exhaled in the first second; and the FEV₁/FVC ratio, which helps evaluate airflow limitation. Peak expiratory flow (PEF), the maximum flow rate achieved during exhalation, offers a quick measure of large airway patency and is often used for monitoring in conditions like asthma. Flow-volume loops visualize the expiratory flow against volume, allowing assessment of effort quality, such as detecting suboptimal blasts or early termination, and identifying patterns suggestive of airway obstruction, like concave scooping in the expiratory limb. These parameters are reported in liters for volumes and liters per second for flows, with ratios as decimals.^[13] Spirometers are categorized into volume-displacement types, which directly measure displaced volume in a chamber or bellows, and flow-sensing types, which detect airflow using transducers like pneumotachographs and integrate signals to derive volume. Both must comply with international standards, such as ISO 26782:2009, ensuring volume accuracy within ±2.5% and flow accuracy within ±5% when calibrated with a 3-liter syringe. Calibration verification is required daily, with results logged to maintain device reliability.^[13]^[33] Despite its utility, spirometry is effort-dependent, requiring full patient cooperation to yield valid results, and suboptimal performance can lead to underestimation of lung function. It measures dynamic parameters during forced breathing but cannot directly assess static lung volumes like total lung capacity (TLC) or residual volume, necessitating complementary tests for comprehensive evaluation. Bronchodilator responsiveness can be assessed as an extension by repeating the maneuver post-administration of a bronchodilator.^[13]

Lung Volume Tests

Lung volume tests measure static lung volumes, including total lung capacity (TLC), residual volume (RV), and functional residual capacity (FRC), which cannot be directly assessed by spirometry alone. These tests are essential for evaluating lung hyperinflation in obstructive diseases or restriction in parenchymal disorders. The primary techniques include body plethysmography and gas dilution methods, each providing insights into lung compartments but differing in accuracy depending on disease severity.^[34] Body plethysmography, often considered the gold standard, involves the patient sitting inside a sealed, airtight body box while panting gently against a closed shutter at the mouth. This maneuver creates small changes in mouth pressure (ΔP) and box volume (ΔV), allowing measurement of thoracic gas compression based on Boyle's law (P₁V₁ = P₂V₂). The thoracic gas volume (TGV), which approximates FRC at end-expiration, is calculated as TGV = - (ΔV / ΔP) × P_B, where P_B is barometric pressure corrected to body temperature and water vapor saturation (BTPS). From TGV, FRC is derived, and RV is obtained by subtracting expiratory reserve volume (ERV), while TLC is computed as TLC = vital capacity (VC) + RV. This method accurately measures all compressible gas volumes, including trapped air in poorly ventilated regions, making it reliable in obstructive lung diseases where air trapping occurs.^[34] Gas dilution techniques, such as helium dilution and nitrogen washout, measure only the communicating lung volumes by equilibrating a tracer gas with alveolar gas. In helium dilution, the patient breathes a mixture containing a known concentration of helium (typically 10%) from a closed spirometer circuit starting at FRC. Over several minutes, helium mixes with lung gas until equilibrium, and the FRC is calculated from the change in helium concentration. The derivation begins with the conservation of helium mass: initial amount = F_He1 × V_app, where F_He1 is the initial helium fraction and V_app is the apparatus volume. At equilibrium, final concentration F_He2 = (F_He1 × V_app) / (V_app + FRC), solving for FRC yields FRC_He = V_app × (F_He1 / F_He2 - 1), with corrections to BTPS conditions. This method is simple and cost-effective but underestimates volumes in obstructive diseases due to incomplete mixing in areas of gas trapping.^[34] Nitrogen washout operates on an open circuit, where the patient inhales 100% oxygen at FRC, washing out nitrogen from the lungs over multiple breaths until the end-tidal nitrogen concentration falls below 1/40th of baseline (typically 5-10 minutes). The total nitrogen exhaled is measured, and FRC is derived as FRC_N2 = [VN2_exhaled + (VN2_tissue contribution)] / F_N2_initial, accounting for nitrogen from body tissues and dead space, with BTPS correction. Like helium dilution, it excels in normal or restrictive lungs but underestimates FRC in obstruction due to prolonged washout from non-communicating spaces.^[34] Comparisons between methods highlight their clinical utility: body plethysmography yields higher FRC values (often 20-50% greater) in obstructive diseases compared to gas dilution techniques, as it captures trapped gas, whereas dilution methods are more precise in homogeneous lungs without air trapping. Selection depends on patient characteristics, with plethysmography preferred for accuracy in severe obstruction. In restrictive diseases, these tests confirm reduced TLC and RV, aiding differential diagnosis.^[34]

Diffusing Capacity

The diffusing capacity of the lung for carbon monoxide (DLCO) is a key pulmonary function test that quantifies the lung's ability to transfer gas from inhaled air across the alveolar-capillary membrane into the pulmonary blood. It primarily assesses the integrity of the alveolar surface area and the pulmonary capillary blood volume available for gas exchange, providing insight into impairments in diffusion that are not captured by spirometry or lung volume measurements alone.^[35] The standard method for measuring DLCO is the single-breath technique, in which the patient inhales a dilute gas mixture containing approximately 0.3% carbon monoxide (CO), 10% helium (or methane as a tracer gas), 21% oxygen, and the balance nitrogen, then holds the breath for a fixed period before exhaling. The patient begins by exhaling to residual volume, rapidly inhales the test gas to total lung capacity (achieving at least 85% of vital capacity in under 4 seconds), holds the breath for 10 ± 2 seconds with minimal effort to avoid straining maneuvers, and then exhales smoothly to residual volume, discarding the initial 0.75–1.0 L of dead-space gas to collect an alveolar sample for analysis. Carbon monoxide is used because it binds avidly to hemoglobin, minimizing back-pressure from blood, while the tracer gas helps calculate alveolar volume (VA). This uptake of CO during the breath-hold reflects the diffusing capacity, with measurements performed using rapid-response gas analyzers for accuracy.^[35]^[35] The DLCO value is calculated from the single-breath technique using the equation:

\text{DLCO} = \frac{V_A \times (F_{I\text{CO}} - F_{A\text{CO}})}{t \times \overline{P_{A\text{CO}}}}

where V_A is the alveolar volume, F_{I\text{CO}} is the inspired fraction of CO, F_{A\text{CO}} is the alveolar (expired) fraction of CO, t is the breath-hold time, and \overline{P_{A\text{CO}}} is the mean alveolar pressure of CO (adjusted for barometric pressure and water vapor). This formula accounts for the exponential decline in alveolar CO concentration during the breath-hold, approximating the transfer rate; in practice, a logarithmic correction is often applied for precision: \text{DLCO} = \frac{V_A}{t} \times (P_B - P_{H_2O}) \times \ln\left(\frac{F_{I\text{CO}}}{F_{A\text{CO}}} \times \frac{F_{A\text{Tr}}}{F_{I\text{Tr}}}\right), where P_B is barometric pressure, P_{H_2O} is water vapor pressure, and subscript Tr denotes the tracer gas. Alveolar volume V_A is derived from the dilution of the inert tracer gas. The test is typically repeated 2–3 times for reproducibility, with values averaged if within 10% variability.^[35]^[35] Physiologically, DLCO is determined by two main components: the membrane diffusing capacity (DM), which reflects the conductance across the alveolar-capillary membrane, and the capillary blood volume (Vc), which represents the volume of blood available for CO binding in the pulmonary capillaries. These are related through the Roughton-Forster equation, $1/\text{DLCO} = 1/\text{DM} + 1/(\theta \times V_c), where \theta is the specific rate of CO uptake by hemoglobin-laden red blood cells; reductions in either DM (e.g., due to membrane thickening or loss of surface area) or Vc (e.g., due to capillary destruction) lower DLCO. To account for hemoglobin levels affecting CO binding, DLCO is corrected to a standard value (DLCOc) using the formula \text{DLCOc} = \text{DLCO} \times \frac{1.7 \times \text{Hb}}{10.22 + \text{Hb}} for males (or $9.38 + \text{Hb} for females), where Hb is hemoglobin in g/dL, normalizing for anemia or polycythemia.^[35]^[35] Clinically, DLCO is valuable for detecting intrinsic defects in gas transfer, such as in emphysema where low DLCO results from alveolar wall destruction reducing DM and Vc, often with reduced VA due to uneven ventilation-perfusion matching. In contrast, low DLCO due to anemia is typically correctable with hemoglobin adjustment, as VA remains normal, helping differentiate extrinsic from parenchymal causes of impaired diffusion. This test integrates briefly with lung volume assessments, as the measured VA approximates total lung capacity when combined with prior volume data.^[35]^[35]

Additional Specialized Tests

Maximal respiratory pressures evaluate the strength of the respiratory muscles, providing insight into neuromuscular function beyond standard volumetric assessments. Maximal inspiratory pressure (MIP) measures the highest negative pressure generated during a maximal inspiratory effort against an occluded airway, typically performed at residual volume using a flanged mouthpiece with a small leak to prevent oral pressure contributions.^[36] Maximal expiratory pressure (MEP) similarly assesses the highest positive pressure during a maximal expiratory effort at total lung capacity.^[36] These tests are particularly useful in diagnosing and monitoring conditions like amyotrophic lateral sclerosis or myasthenia gravis, where reduced values indicate inspiratory or expiratory muscle weakness.^[36] The American Thoracic Society (ATS) and European Respiratory Society (ERS) recommend multiple efforts (at least 10 for MIP and 5 for MEP) to ensure reproducibility, with the highest consistent value reported.^[36] Bronchodilator responsiveness testing assesses the reversibility of airflow obstruction by comparing spirometry results before and after administration of a short-acting bronchodilator, such as albuterol. The patient inhales the bronchodilator via a metered-dose inhaler or nebulizer, followed by repeat spirometry measurements after 10-15 minutes. A positive response is indicated by an increase in forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV₁) of at least 12% and 200 mL from baseline, though the 2022 ATS/ERS update refines this to a relative change greater than 10% of the predicted value for more precise classification in asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. This test helps differentiate obstructive diseases with reversible components, guiding therapeutic decisions like inhaled corticosteroid initiation. Exercise testing in pulmonary function extends evaluation to dynamic capacity, revealing limitations not apparent in resting tests. The six-minute walk test (6MWT) involves walking as far as possible on a flat, measured course in six minutes, with continuous monitoring of oxygen saturation (SpO₂) to detect exercise-induced desaturation (typically a drop ≥4%).^[37] It serves as a simple, field-based measure of functional exercise tolerance in interstitial lung diseases or pulmonary hypertension, where distance walked and desaturation patterns inform prognosis and oxygen therapy needs.^[37] Cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) provides a more comprehensive assessment using a cycle ergometer or treadmill with incremental workloads, measuring peak oxygen uptake (VO₂ max) via gas exchange analysis to quantify aerobic capacity and identify causes of dyspnea, such as ventilatory or cardiovascular limitations. CPET is indicated for preoperative risk stratification or unexplained exertional intolerance, offering integrated data on cardiac output, ventilation, and gas transfer. Arterial blood gas (ABG) analysis complements pulmonary function testing by directly sampling arterial blood to measure pH, partial pressure of oxygen (PaO₂), and partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PaCO₂), assessing gas exchange efficiency and acid-base status.^[38] Performed via radial or femoral artery puncture, it is invasive and reserved for cases where noninvasive oximetry or capnography is insufficient, such as acute respiratory failure or to confirm hypoxemia in chronic lung disease.^[38] Unlike routine pulmonary function tests, ABG is not standardized for all patients due to discomfort and risks like hematoma, but it provides critical context for interpreting ventilation-perfusion mismatches.^[38] Fractional exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO) offers a noninvasive marker of eosinophilic airway inflammation, measured during a single-breath exhalation at a constant flow rate of 50 mL/s using a chemiluminescence analyzer.^[39] Levels above 50 ppb in adults (or 35 ppb in children) suggest type 2 inflammation responsive to corticosteroids, aiding asthma diagnosis and management in atopic patients.^[39] The ATS recommends FeNO as an adjunct to spirometry for guiding anti-inflammatory therapy, particularly when symptoms are disproportionate to airflow obstruction.^[39]

Procedure

Patient Preparation

Proper preparation of patients prior to pulmonary function testing (PFT) is essential to obtain accurate, reproducible results and minimize variability due to external factors. Guidelines recommend that patients withhold certain medications, particularly bronchodilators, depending on the testing purpose; for diagnostic evaluations, short-acting beta-agonists (SABAs) should be withheld for 4-6 hours, long-acting beta-agonists (LABAs) for 24 hours, and long-acting muscarinic antagonists (LAMAs) for 36-48 hours, while for assessing response to therapy, medications are typically not withheld.^[13] Patients should avoid smoking, vaping, or using water pipes for at least 1 hour before testing to prevent acute airway irritation that could alter airflow measurements.^[13] Additionally, heavy or large meals should be avoided for 2 hours prior, and intoxicants such as alcohol for 8 hours, to reduce discomfort and ensure optimal effort during maneuvers.^[6]^[13] Patients are advised to wear loose, comfortable clothing that does not restrict chest or abdominal expansion, and to arrive in indoor attire without shoes for accurate anthropometric measurements.^[13] Patient education plays a critical role in successful PFT performance, with instructions provided at the time of appointment scheduling and compliance verified upon arrival. Technicians should explain the required breathing maneuvers in simple terms, demonstrate techniques using the equipment, and encourage practice to build confidence and reduce anxiety, which can otherwise lead to suboptimal effort. For special populations, such as children, explanations should be age-appropriate, emphasizing that the test is painless, and patience is key; older children benefit from interactive demonstrations.^[40]^[13] In elderly or cognitively impaired individuals, operators trained in these groups should use simplified instructions, repeated demonstrations, and reassurance to accommodate potential physical limitations or comprehension challenges.^[41] Environmental factors must be controlled to ensure test validity. Testing is typically conducted in the upright position—seated with feet flat on the floor, back supported, and nose clips applied—unless contraindicated by patient condition, as this posture optimizes lung expansion and reproducibility compared to supine positioning.^[42] The testing room should be quiet, comfortable, and well-ventilated, with ambient temperature maintained between 19°C and 25°C to avoid influencing gas volumes or patient comfort; temperature and barometric pressure are recorded for each session.^[6] Accurate documentation of patient demographics is vital for calculating reference values using equations like those from the Global Lung Function Initiative (GLI). Technicians must record age to one decimal place, standing height in centimeters (measured without shoes, head in Frankfort plane), weight to the nearest 0.5 kg (in indoor clothing), birth sex, and ethnicity, as these factors significantly affect predicted norms for lung function parameters.^[13]

Test Performance and Quality Control

Pulmonary function tests (PFTs) are performed in a controlled laboratory setting by trained technicians to ensure accurate and reproducible measurements of lung function. The process emphasizes patient coaching to achieve maximal effort, with tests typically involving multiple trials until quality standards are met. For spirometry, the most common PFT, the procedure consists of four distinct phases: a maximal inspiration to total lung capacity, a forceful and rapid expiration, a complete expiration lasting at least 6 seconds or until a plateau is reached, and a rapid inspiration back to total lung capacity.^[13] Technicians demonstrate the maneuver to the patient and provide verbal encouragement, such as "blast out as hard and fast as you can" and "keep blowing," while monitoring real-time flow-volume loops on the equipment display to guide adjustments.^[13] Between 3 and 8 trials are generally conducted, continuing until two acceptable and reproducible efforts are obtained, to minimize variability and capture the patient's best performance.^[13] Quality control in PFTs relies on standardized acceptability and reproducibility criteria established by the American Thoracic Society (ATS) and European Respiratory Society (ERS) to validate data reliability. Acceptability ensures each maneuver meets technical requirements, including no leaks at the mouthpiece, full inspiration and expiration without hesitation, a good start to expiration with back-extrapolated volume ≤5% of the forced vital capacity or 0.100 L whichever is greater, absence of cough or glottis closure in the initial phase affecting forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1), and complete exhalation evidenced by an expiratory plateau of no more than 0.025 L in the final second or a forced expiratory time of at least 15 seconds for those with obstruction.^[13] Reproducibility requires the two largest values for FEV1 and forced vital capacity (FVC) to agree within 0.15 L for adults over 6 years, confirming session consistency across trials.^[13] These criteria apply similarly to other PFTs, such as lung volume measurements where stable pressure signals indicate no leaks, and diffusing capacity tests requiring consistent breath-holding without valve switching artifacts.^[43] Trained technicians play a central role in test performance by providing immediate feedback, recognizing and correcting artifacts in real time, and ensuring equipment calibration. They identify issues like submaximal effort through flattened flow-volume curves or hesitation via irregular loops, prompting repeat maneuvers with specific coaching to address them, such as emphasizing a tight seal or sustained blow.^[13] Software used in PFT devices must adhere to International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 26782 specifications, including volume accuracy within ±2.5% and flow linearity, with daily biological controls and weekly volume linearity checks to validate measurements.^[13] Common errors that compromise PFT quality include submaximal effort, leading to underestimated FEV1 and FVC, mouthpiece leaks causing volume loss, premature termination of expiration, and extraneous factors like cough or hesitation distorting initial flow rates.^[13] Post-test review involves grading the entire session on an A-to-F scale, where grade A indicates at least three acceptable maneuvers with the two best FEV1 and FVC within 0.15 L, grade B requires two acceptable and reproducible efforts, grade C has two reproducible but only one acceptable, grade D shows no reproducibility despite some acceptability, grade E has no acceptable maneuvers but usable reproducibility, and grade F denotes no acceptable or reproducible values, rendering the test uninterpretable.^[43] This grading system, applicable across spirometry, lung volumes, and diffusing capacity, guides clinical usability, with grades A through C generally considered reliable for interpretation.^[43]

Safety Considerations

Risks and Complications

Pulmonary function testing (PFT) is considered a safe procedure overall, with serious adverse events occurring infrequently. A review of over 186,000 tests in a tertiary care setting identified patient safety incidents in only 5 per 10,000 routine spirometry procedures, primarily consisting of minor cardiopulmonary events such as syncope.^[13] The majority of these incidents result in no lasting harm, underscoring the low risk profile when performed under standardized protocols. Common minor risks include dizziness and lightheadedness, often resulting from hyperventilation during forced expiratory maneuvers in spirometry or other tests. In a retrospective analysis of 64,191 PFTs, dizziness was reported in approximately 0.44% of cases, typically resolving without intervention.^[44] Bronchospasm may occur rarely in patients with asthma during spirometry, though it can be triggered by deep inhalations or bronchodilator administration.^[1] These symptoms are usually transient and self-limiting. Rare complications include pneumothorax, particularly in individuals with pre-existing bullae.^[3] Syncope may be associated with the Valsalva maneuver during body plethysmography. In cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET), oxygen desaturation or arrhythmias may arise, but major events like myocardial infarction or significant hemodynamic instability occur very rarely. To mitigate risks, vital signs should be monitored continuously, rescue bronchodilators kept accessible, and testing halted if symptoms such as chest pain or severe dizziness emerge; adherence to American Thoracic Society guidelines further minimizes these occurrences.^[13]

Contraindications

Pulmonary function testing (PFT) involves forced maneuvers that can impose physiological stress, including changes in intrathoracic pressure and cardiovascular demand, necessitating careful consideration of contraindications to avoid harm.^[1] Contraindications are categorized as absolute (where testing should be deferred due to high risk of serious complications) or relative (where testing may proceed if benefits outweigh risks, often after clinical evaluation).^[45] These guidelines are informed by standards from organizations such as the American Thoracic Society (ATS) and European Respiratory Society (ERS).^[6] Absolute contraindications include conditions where PFT could precipitate life-threatening events. A recent pneumothorax increases the danger of barotrauma from forced expiration.^[46] Active tuberculosis or other transmissible respiratory infections are also absolute to prevent aerosol generation and infection spread during testing, with enhanced infection control measures recommended as of 2025.^[47]^[6] Relative contraindications encompass scenarios where caution is advised, and testing may be modified or postponed. Acute myocardial infarction within 1 week poses a cardiovascular risk due to increased myocardial oxygen demand.^[13] Recent eye surgery, such as cataract extraction, carries a risk of intraocular pressure changes from Valsalva-like efforts.^[46] Severe hypertension, defined as systolic blood pressure exceeding 200 mm Hg or diastolic exceeding 120 mm Hg, heightens the risk of vascular complications.^[1] Inability to follow instructions, often due to cognitive impairment or acute distress, can lead to invalid results and unnecessary strain.^[48] Other relative factors include hemoptysis of unknown origin, pulmonary embolism, thoracic or abdominal aneurysms, recent major surgery (e.g., thoracic or abdominal), and acute illnesses like nausea or chest infections that impair performance.^[45]^[46] Special considerations apply in certain populations. Pregnancy is generally not contraindicated for PFT, as it represents a normal physiological state without inherent risks from the tests, though it should be avoided in high-risk cases such as complicated pregnancies or when alternative assessments suffice.^[45] Abdominal aortic aneurysms warrant relative caution due to potential rupture from pressure fluctuations.^[1] When PFT is contraindicated, alternatives such as chest imaging (e.g., CT scans) or non-invasive monitoring like pulse oximetry can provide supportive diagnostic information without the associated risks.^[45] In some cases, less demanding techniques like impulse oscillometry may be considered as substitutes.^[45]

Interpretation

Normal Reference Values

Normal reference values for pulmonary function tests (PFTs) are established through prediction equations derived from large cohorts of healthy individuals, ensuring adjustments for key demographic factors to reflect physiological norms accurately. The Global Lung Function Initiative (GLI) Global 2023 race-neutral equations serve as the current widely adopted global standard for spirometry, providing continuous reference values for forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1), forced vital capacity (FVC), and their ratio across ages 3 to 95 years, incorporating adjustments for age, sex, and height without ethnicity factors to promote equity in interpretation.^[49]^[50] These equations define the lower limit of normal (LLN) as the 5th percentile of the predicted distribution (z-score of -1.645), below which values are considered abnormal. The previous GLI-2012 equations included ethnicity adjustments but have been superseded by the race-neutral GLI Global model as recommended by the American Thoracic Society (ATS) and European Respiratory Society (ERS) as of 2023.^[51] Key normal ranges for common PFT parameters are expressed relative to predicted values to account for individual variability. For spirometry, FEV1 typically falls between 80% and 120% of predicted, while the FEV1/FVC ratio exceeds 70-75% (or remains within 5% of the age-specific predicted ratio). Diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide (DLCO) is generally 75-125% of predicted, reflecting efficient gas transfer in healthy lungs. These ranges establish the baseline for assessing lung function, with values outside them prompting further evaluation.^[52]^[53]^[54] Sources of variability in reference values include environmental and lifestyle factors that can alter norms even in healthy populations. Smoking, for instance, reduces FEV1 norms by 10-20% compared to non-smokers due to airway inflammation and accelerated lung function decline, necessitating consideration in prediction models. Altitude influences gas exchange measures like DLCO, as lower barometric pressure reduces inspired oxygen partial pressure, potentially increasing measured DLCO by 10% or more at high elevations unless corrected.^[55]^[56] For precise interpretation, especially in pediatrics or diverse populations where traditional percent-predicted values may skew due to non-normal distributions, z-scores are preferred over percent predicted. Z-scores standardize results by expressing deviation from the mean in standard deviation units (with LLN at -1.645), providing a more robust metric for cross-group comparisons and longitudinal tracking as recommended by international guidelines.^[57]

Disease-Specific Patterns

Pulmonary function tests (PFTs) reveal characteristic patterns in obstructive lung diseases, primarily through spirometry and lung volume measurements. In chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), airflow limitation is indicated by a reduced FEV1/FVC ratio below 70% post-bronchodilator, reflecting persistent airway obstruction.^[58] Lung volumes show hyperinflation with increased residual volume (RV) and an elevated RV/total lung capacity (TLC) ratio often exceeding 40%, due to air trapping.^[59] Diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide (DLCO) is typically reduced in the emphysema-predominant subtype of COPD, signifying impaired gas exchange from alveolar destruction.^[1] In contrast, asthma presents an obstructive pattern with a low FEV1/FVC ratio that demonstrates reversibility, defined as an increase of at least 12% and 200 mL in FEV1 following bronchodilator administration.^[60] Restrictive patterns on PFTs are characterized by reduced lung volumes with a preserved or elevated FEV1/FVC ratio. In interstitial lung diseases (ILDs), such as idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, total lung capacity (TLC) is decreased below 80% of predicted values, alongside a low DLCO due to thickened alveolar-capillary membranes impairing diffusion.^[20] The FEV1/FVC ratio remains normal, distinguishing parenchymal restriction from obstruction. In obesity, a mild restrictive defect emerges primarily from reduced expiratory reserve volume (ERV), often dropping significantly as body mass index rises, while TLC may be mildly affected and DLCO remains normal.^[61] Unique or mixed patterns highlight specific pathologies beyond pure obstruction or restriction. Neuromuscular disorders, like amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, typically show normal or mildly reduced lung volumes with a normal FEV1/FVC ratio and preserved DLCO, but reveal respiratory muscle weakness through low maximal inspiratory pressure (MIP) and maximal expiratory pressure (MEP) values, often below 60 cmH2O and 80 cmH2O, respectively.^[62] In pulmonary vascular diseases, such as pulmonary hypertension, spirometry and lung volumes are normal, but DLCO is markedly reduced, reflecting vascular obstruction without parenchymal involvement.^[1] Severity grading in COPD relies on post-bronchodilator FEV1 as a percentage of predicted values, per Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD) criteria: mild (GOLD 1, ≥80%), moderate (GOLD 2, 50–79%), severe (GOLD 3, 30–49%), and very severe (GOLD 4, <30%).^[58] These stages correlate with symptom burden and prognosis, though they are now supplemented by symptom and exacerbation assessments in clinical management. For restrictive diseases, severity is similarly gauged by the degree of TLC or FEV1 reduction relative to predicted norms, with greater decrements indicating worse impairment.

Clinical Applications

Diagnostic Uses

Pulmonary function testing (PFT) serves as a cornerstone in the diagnostic evaluation of respiratory symptoms by providing quantifiable data on lung mechanics, volumes, and gas exchange, enabling clinicians to confirm or exclude specific pathologies. In the context of dyspnea, a common presenting symptom, PFTs facilitate differential diagnosis by differentiating intrinsic lung diseases from extrapulmonary causes such as cardiac dysfunction. Abnormal results, including obstructive patterns with reduced forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV₁) to forced vital capacity (FVC) ratio below 0.7 or restrictive patterns with decreased total lung capacity (TLC), point to primary pulmonary involvement, whereas normal PFTs support a cardiac etiology like congestive heart failure, where lung function remains preserved despite breathlessness. This distinction is particularly valuable when integrated with clinical history and imaging, as supported by evaluations emphasizing PFTs' role in ruling out lung disease in cardiac dyspnea cases.^[63]^[64] For confirming specific diagnoses, PFTs offer targeted insights aligned with established guidelines. Spirometry is recommended by the Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA) to verify asthma through evidence of variable expiratory airflow limitation, typically demonstrated by a bronchodilator response showing an increase in FEV₁ of at least 12% and 200 mL from baseline after administration of a short-acting beta-agonist. This reversibility distinguishes asthma from fixed obstructions and is assessed in adults and children over 6 years, with repeat testing during symptoms if initial results are inconclusive. Similarly, diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide (DLCO) is crucial for emphysema diagnosis within chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), where reduced values indicate alveolar destruction and impaired gas transfer, helping differentiate it from other obstructive conditions like chronic bronchitis where DLCO may be normal.^[65]^[54] Beyond acute diagnostics, PFTs quantify impairment for disability assessments under frameworks like the U.S. Social Security Administration (SSA) criteria, which rely on post-bronchodilator spirometry to evaluate severity in respiratory listings (e.g., 3.02 for chronic respiratory disorders). FEV₁ values are pivotal: FEV₁ equal to or less than the values specified in Table I of SSA listing 3.02A based on height, gender, and age (e.g., for height 65 inches and age 20+, ≤1.35 L for females and ≤1.50 L for males) meets listing-level impairment for obstructive diseases, requiring documentation of stable conditions and satisfactory test efforts to ensure validity for insurance or legal claims.^[66] PFTs also enable proactive screening in high-risk populations to detect subclinical disease. For occupational exposures, such as among asbestos workers, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) mandates annual surveillance including spirometry to measure FVC and FEV₁, identifying early restrictive or obstructive changes from pleural fibrosis or asbestosis before radiographic evidence emerges. In genetic screening for alpha-1 antitrypsin (AAT) deficiency, PFTs are recommended at COPD diagnosis to uncover premature emphysema in nonsmokers or those with family history, with abnormal airflow limitation prompting confirmatory AAT level and genotype testing; integrating direct AAT screening (e.g., buccal swab) in PFT laboratories has been shown to boost detection rates up to 50-fold compared to physician referrals.^[67]^[68]^[69]

Monitoring and Prognosis

Pulmonary function testing plays a key role in monitoring disease progression and assessing prognosis in chronic respiratory conditions through serial measurements that track changes over time. In chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), spirometry may be repeated periodically, with frequency determined by clinical judgment, to evaluate the rate of forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1) decline as a marker of treatment response and disease trajectory. As per the 2025 GOLD report, monitoring should also consider comorbidities like cardiovascular disease and pulmonary hypertension. In healthy nonsmokers, FEV1 typically declines by 20-30 mL per year with advancing age, but this rate accelerates in smokers and COPD patients, often exceeding 50 mL per year, highlighting the impact of tobacco exposure and the potential benefits of smoking cessation or pharmacotherapy in slowing progression.^[70]^[71]^[72] For idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), serial diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide (DLCO) assessments are essential for tracking progression, as a decline to below 40% of predicted value strongly predicts poor survival outcomes, with median survival often reduced to less than 2 years in such cases. This threshold serves as a critical indicator for considering interventions like lung transplantation referral, emphasizing DLCO's role in prognostic stratification beyond baseline patterns.^[54]^[73] In surgical planning for lung resection, such as lobectomy, preoperative pulmonary function tests predict postoperative FEV1, with values exceeding 40% of predicted generally indicating acceptable risk for complications and supporting proceeding with surgery. This quantitative estimation, often derived from quantitative ventilation-perfusion scans or segmental counting methods, helps balance oncologic benefits against postoperative pulmonary morbidity.^[74] Prognostic indices like the BODE index integrate pulmonary function data with clinical measures to forecast mortality risk in COPD. The BODE index combines body mass index, FEV1 percent predicted, dyspnea (via Modified Medical Research Council scale), and exercise capacity (6-minute walk test distance), yielding a score from 0 to 10 where higher values correlate with elevated all-cause and respiratory mortality over 4-5 years of follow-up. This multidimensional tool outperforms FEV1 alone in predicting outcomes and guides personalized management strategies.^[75]

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