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Religious cosmology

Religious cosmology refers to the study of the universe's origin, structure, physical and metaphysical dimensions, operation, and ultimate purpose from the vantage of religious doctrines, typically attributing these to supernatural entities such as deities and drawing from sacred scriptures, revelation, or theological interpretation rather than empirical observation.^[1] In contrast to scientific cosmology, which employs mathematical physics, testable predictions, and observational data to model cosmic evolution—such as the Big Bang theory positing a finite-age universe expanding from a hot dense state—religious cosmologies emphasize teleological design, divine agency, and often unobservable realms like heavens or spiritual hierarchies, rendering them non-falsifiable by scientific standards.^[2]^[1] Prominent examples span Abrahamic faiths, where Judaism, Christianity, and Islam describe a transcendent God creating the cosmos ex nihilo (from nothing) in a structured sequence, as outlined in Genesis or the Quran, frequently incorporating eschatological endpoints like divine judgment; Eastern traditions, including Hinduism's cyclical kalpas of cosmic creation, preservation, and dissolution overseen by deities like Brahma; and Buddhism's doctrine of interdependent origination, portraying universes as transient phenomena arising from karma without a singular creator.^[2]^[3] These frameworks have profoundly shaped adherents' worldviews, influencing ethics, rituals, and societal norms, though they have sparked enduring controversies, particularly literalist interpretations clashing with empirical findings like cosmic microwave background radiation evidence for a 13.8-billion-year-old universe, prompting debates over compatibility between faith-based narratives and naturalistic explanations.^[2]^[3] Historically intertwined with early scientific endeavors—such as Newtonian mechanics invoking divine sustenance for orbital stability—religious cosmologies persist in providing existential meaning amid scientific advances, yet remain unsubstantiated by causal mechanisms verifiable through experiment or observation.^[3]^[1]

Conceptual Foundations

Definition and Etymology

Religious cosmology encompasses the doctrinal and mythological frameworks within various faith traditions that explain the universe's origin, structure, organization, and ultimate fate, often positing supernatural causation, divine agency, and eschatological endpoints such as cycles of renewal or apocalyptic dissolution.^[4] These accounts typically derive from sacred scriptures, oral traditions, or revelatory experiences, distinguishing them from empirical observations by emphasizing purposeful creation by deities or transcendent forces over naturalistic processes.^[5] For instance, many traditions describe a primordial chaos ordered into cosmos through intentional acts of gods, followed by ongoing maintenance and predicted dissolution.^[4] The term "cosmology" derives from the Ancient Greek kósmos (κόσμος), signifying "order," "universe," or "world," combined with -logía (-λογία), a suffix indicating "study," "discourse," or "account," yielding a meaning of "the study or theory of the universe."^[6] This neologism entered English usage around 1650–1660, initially in philosophical and theological writings to denote systematic inquiries into the world's fundamental principles and arrangement, as seen in early modern treatises blending Aristotelian and Christian thought.^[6]^[7] "Religious cosmology," as a qualifier, emerged later to specify non-scientific, faith-based models, contrasting with physical cosmology's reliance on observational data and mathematical models developed from the 20th century onward.^[7] Etymologically, it retains the Greek roots but applies them to revelatory or scriptural cosmogonies, cosmographies, and teleologies rather than rational deduction from sensory evidence.^[4]

Core Elements: Creation, Structure, and Eschatology

Religious cosmologies across traditions commonly feature three interrelated elements: accounts of creation detailing the universe's origins, descriptions of its structure as an ordered, often hierarchical system, and eschatological visions of its dissolution, judgment, or renewal. These components provide a framework for understanding existence as purposeful and divinely orchestrated, contrasting with scientific models by emphasizing supernatural causation and teleology.^[2] Creation narratives posit the cosmos's emergence from non-existence or primordial disorder through intentional divine action. In monotheistic faiths like Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, a singular, omnipotent deity originates the universe ex nihilo (from nothing), serving as both initiator and ongoing sustainer, independent of prior material causes.^[2] Polytheistic and indigenous traditions frequently depict creation as a transformative process, such as gods imposing order on chaos (e.g., Mesopotamian Tiamat narratives) or through secretion, dismemberment, or emergence from a world-parent entity, reflecting anthropomorphic explanations of cosmic origins tied to ritual and social order.^[8] These myths underscore causality rooted in willful agency rather than random processes, with empirical echoes in uniformitarian geological layers interpreted by some as sequential creative acts.^[9] The structural element portrays the universe as a coherent, vertically organized domain integrating physical, spiritual, and moral planes. Ancient and medieval religious models typically divide reality into a tripartite schema: an upper celestial realm housing deities or divine essences, a central earthly plane for human habitation, and a lower underworld for the dead or chaotic forces, often separated by firmaments or cosmic pillars symbolizing stability and divine oversight.^[10] This layered architecture, evident in Sumerian ziggurats mimicking cosmic mountains and Hindu lokas (realms), facilitates rituals bridging human and transcendent spheres, with the cosmos's order maintained by recurring divine interventions against entropy or moral decay.^[3] Eschatology outlines the cosmos's terminal phase, emphasizing accountability, transformation, or eternal continuity rather than indefinite persistence. Linear eschatologies in Abrahamic religions foresee a cataclysmic end—marked by divine judgment, resurrection of the dead, and a renovated creation free of suffering—driven by historical culmination rather than natural cycles.^[2] Cyclical variants, as in Hindu or Buddhist frameworks, involve periodic cosmic dissolutions (pralaya or kalpa endings) via fire, flood, or dissolution into primordial unity, followed by inexorable re-formation, aligning with observed astronomical cycles like galactic rotations but attributing them to karmic or deific rhythms.^[4] These visions prioritize causal resolution of evil and impermanence through supernatural means, rejecting naturalistic endpoints like thermodynamic heat death as incomplete.^[2]

Distinction from Scientific and Philosophical Cosmology

Religious cosmology posits the origin, structure, and destiny of the universe through narratives involving supernatural agents and divine intent, derived from sacred texts and traditions rather than empirical observation. In contrast, scientific cosmology constructs models based on testable hypotheses from physics and astronomy, such as the Big Bang theory, which describes the universe expanding from a hot, dense state approximately 13.8 billion years ago, corroborated by evidence like the cosmic microwave background radiation discovered in 1965 and galactic redshifts observed in the 1920s.^[2]^[4] Religious explanations emphasize teleological purpose and eschatological endpoints, such as divine judgment or cyclical renewals, which are not falsifiable through experimentation, whereas scientific claims, including the accelerating expansion inferred from Type Ia supernovae data in 1998, remain provisional and subject to revision with new measurements.^[2]^[3] Philosophical cosmology differs from its religious counterpart by prioritizing rational deduction and metaphysical analysis over faith-based revelation, exploring questions of causality and existence through logic without commitment to specific doctrinal authorities. For instance, ancient thinkers like Aristotle argued for an eternal universe driven by an unmoved mover, grounded in observations of perpetual motion rather than scriptural exegesis.^[2]^[3] While religious cosmology integrates supernatural creation—such as ex nihilo origination in monotheistic traditions—philosophical approaches often remain neutral on divine involvement, focusing on conceptual necessities like the finitude or infinity of the cosmos, as debated by medieval scholastics reconciling Aristotelian eternity with theological beginnings.^[2] This rational framework bridges empirical science and theology but eschews the unquestioned acceptance of revealed truths characteristic of religious views.^[4]

Historical Origins and Evolution

Prehistoric and Early Animistic Frameworks

Prehistoric religious cosmologies, inferred from archaeological remains rather than textual records, exhibit animistic characteristics, attributing agency, vitality, or spirit to natural phenomena such as animals, landscapes, and celestial bodies.^[11] This framework, reconstructed through phylogenetic analysis of contemporary hunter-gatherer societies as proxies for ancestral states, positions animism as the earliest religious trait, likely present in the last common ancestor of modern human foragers before 60,000 years ago.^[11] Such beliefs emphasized relational interactions between humans and non-human entities, viewing the cosmos not as a mechanistic structure but as a web of intentional forces responsive to social and ritual engagement.^[11] Archaeological evidence from the Upper Paleolithic (ca. 40,000–10,000 BCE) supports this through rock art and artifacts depicting therianthropic figures—hybrids of human and animal forms—suggesting shamanic transformations and visions of interconnected spirit worlds.^[12] Sites like Chauvet Cave in France (ca. 36,000–30,000 BCE) feature such imagery alongside entoptic patterns (e.g., dots, zigzags) consistent with trance-induced hallucinations, indicating practices where individuals accessed cosmological layers via altered consciousness.^[13] These elements imply a tiered cosmos, often comprising an upper realm (sky/ancestral spirits), earthly domain, and lower world (chthonic forces), mirrored in cave topography where deep chambers evoked descent into underworlds.^[14] Burial practices provide further attestation of cosmological beliefs extending to an afterlife. Middle Paleolithic interments, such as Neanderthal sites at Shanidar Cave, Iraq (ca. 60,000–70,000 BCE), include pollen evidence of flowers and tools, hinting at provisioning for a post-mortem existence.^[15] In the Upper Paleolithic, elaborate graves like Sungir near Vladimir, Russia (ca. 34,000 BCE), contained thousands of ivory beads, fox teeth pendants, and spears with over 13,000 insertions, signaling intentional preparation for a spirit realm where the deceased retained agency.^[16] Phylogenetic models indicate that afterlife beliefs emerged after animism but before shamanism, with shamans serving as mediators traversing cosmic boundaries to influence spirits affecting human affairs.^[11] Unlike later hierarchical systems, these early frameworks lacked centralized deities or moral cosmogonies, prioritizing adaptive social bonds with vitalistic entities—e.g., animal masters controlling natural cycles—fostered by egalitarian forager lifestyles.^[11] Cave sites' spatial organization, with surface panels for earthly motifs and deeper areas for transformative scenes, reinforces a fluid, experiential cosmology accessed through ritual rather than doctrine.^[14] Such inferences, while speculative due to absent direct testimony, align across global Paleolithic evidence, from European caves to African and Asian analogs, underscoring animism's role as foundational to subsequent religious evolutions.^[12]

Ancient Near Eastern and Mesopotamian Influences

Mesopotamian cosmology, preserved in Sumerian and Akkadian cuneiform texts from the third millennium BCE through the first millennium BCE, depicted the universe as a structured cosmos emerging from primordial chaos, governed by a pantheon of deities who imposed order through divine acts. The earth was conceived as a flat, disk-shaped landmass floating on the subterranean fresh waters of the Apsu, encircled by the salty cosmic ocean associated with Tiamat, while a solid heavenly vault—personified by the god An—arched overhead, held aloft by the earth's edges or cosmic mountains to separate the upper waters from those below.^[17] Beneath the earth lay the underworld, Kur or Irkalla, a dark realm of the dead accessed through gateways or caverns. This tripartite structure—heaven, earth, and underworld—reflected a worldview where celestial bodies, including the sun, moon, and stars, traversed fixed paths along the dome, influencing earthly events via omens interpreted by priests.^[18] Astronomical observations, such as those in the MUL.APIN tablets from the eighth century BCE, integrated empirical star catalogs with mythological explanations, treating the cosmos as a divine tablet inscribed by the gods Ea and Asarluhi.^[19] Central to Mesopotamian creation narratives was the motif of combat against chaos to establish cosmic order, most fully articulated in the Babylonian Enuma Elish, a seven-tablet epic composed no later than the late second millennium BCE and recited during the Akitu New Year festival around 1800–1600 BCE. In this account, the primordial gods Apsu (fresh water) and Tiamat (salt water) beget younger deities, whose noise disturbs Apsu; after his slaying by Ea, Tiamat wages war, only to be defeated by the storm god Marduk, who cleaves her body to form the sky (upper half) and earth (lower half), stations the stars, and organizes the cosmos into a habitable domain for humanity, crafted from the blood of Tiamat's slain consort Kingu.^[20] Earlier Sumerian precursors, such as the Gudea Cylinders from circa 2100 BCE, describe gods like Enki shaping the world from clay and water, emphasizing fertility and irrigation as foundational to order amid potential inundation by chaotic floods.^[21] These myths underscored a cyclical view of renewal, where annual rituals reenacted creation to avert cosmic dissolution, contrasting with linear eschatologies in later traditions. Ancient Near Eastern and Mesopotamian cosmologies exerted influence on subsequent religious frameworks, particularly through shared cultural motifs in the Levant and beyond, as evidenced by textual parallels in creation from watery abyss and spatial divisions, though adapted to monotheistic critiques. Hebrew biblical accounts in Genesis 1, dated to exilic or post-exilic periods around 600–400 BCE amid Babylonian captivity, echo Mesopotamian separation of upper and lower waters (tehom akin to Tiamat) and a firmament dome (raqia paralleling the heavenly vault), yet invert polytheistic combat into sovereign divine speech without conflict, positioning Yahweh as unchallenged creator to polemicize against Babylonian theology.^[22] Archaeological and textual evidence from sites like Ugarit (circa 1400–1200 BCE) shows Canaanite variants with similar storm-god battles (Baal vs. Yam/Sea), suggesting a regional milieu where Israelite scribes reframed inherited elements to assert ethical monotheism over anthropomorphic divine strife.^[23] Such adaptations highlight causal borrowing in a shared empirical environment—rivers, floods, and star observations—but with deliberate theological divergence, as Mesopotamian sources prioritize hierarchical pantheon dynamics while biblical texts emphasize unified divine intentionality.^[24]

Indo-European and Zoroastrian Foundations

The reconstructed Proto-Indo-European cosmology featured a vertically structured universe divided into three interconnected realms: the celestial sky domain of the patriarchal sky god *Dyḗus Ph₂tēr, the terrestrial earth governed by the mother goddess *Dʰéǵʰōm, and the subterranean or aquatic underworld associated with fertility and the dead.^[25] This tripartite model aligned with Georges Dumézil's trifunctional hypothesis, wherein divine functions mirrored societal divisions—sovereignty and ritual order in the sky, martial prowess in atmospheric storms, and productive abundance on earth and waters—sustained through sacrificial rites that reinforced cosmic stability (*h₂értus).^[26] Cosmogonic myths often involved the dismemberment of a primordial entity, yielding the ordered world from chaos, as evidenced in cognates across Vedic, Norse, and Greek traditions.^[27] Within the Indo-Iranian subgroup, diverging around 2000 BCE, these foundations evolved into shared concepts of cosmic order (*ṛtá/*áša), upheld by sky deities, fire cults, and a spatial cosmography of seven encircling regions (karšvar/dvīpa) centered on a sacred mountain (Harā bərəzaitī/Meru), with ritual haoma/soma reinforcing harmony between human action and divine law.^[28] Zoroastrianism, emerging as a reform in the eastern Iranian plateau circa 1500–1000 BCE under Zarathustra, recast this heritage in a monotheistic-dualistic mold: Ahura Mazda, the wise lord and uncreated creator, first manifested the spiritual prototypes, then the material world in seven sequential stages—sky (as shining metal), waters, earth, plants, cattle, the archetypal human Gayōmard, and fire—to fortify against the invasive malice of Angra Mainyu (Ahriman), the destructive twin spirit.^[29]^[30] Zoroastrian texts like the Gathas and later Pahlavi Bundahišn depict creation as a proactive defense in a 9,000-year cosmic timeline: 3,000 years of pure spirit, followed by 3,000 of mingled struggle after evil's assault, culminating in 3,000 of separation and final triumph (Frashokereti), where molten metal purifies the world and resurrects the righteous.^[29] This linear eschatology, emphasizing ethical dualism—choice between truth (asha) and lie (druj)—and judgment via the soul's bridge-crossing trial, marked a departure from pre-Zoroastrian polytheism by demonizing daēvas (former Indo-Iranian gods) and prioritizing moral agency over mere ritual, influencing subsequent Abrahamic cosmologies while grounding in empirical ritual practices like fire-tending for purity.^[28]^[29]

Abrahamic Traditions

Jewish Biblical Cosmology

The Hebrew Bible depicts a cosmos ordered by divine fiat, originating from the primordial chaos of unformed waters (tohu wabohu) in Genesis 1:2, with God imposing structure through sequential acts of creation over six days.^[31] This model envisions a three-tiered universe: the heavens (shamayim) above, the earth (eretz) as the central habitable domain, and the subterranean realm of Sheol below, reflecting an ancient Near Eastern worldview adapted to monotheistic theology.^[32] The earth functions as a flat, disc-shaped plane, founded upon pillars (e.g., Job 9:6; Psalm 75:3) and suspended over the chaotic deep (tehom), which encircles it and supplies subterranean waters via springs and the sea.^[33] Above lies the firmament (raqia), a solid, hammered-out vault (from the root raqa, meaning "to beat out" metal) that divides the cosmic waters into upper and lower reservoirs, preventing inundation and providing a barrier for the sky's phenomena.^[34] Biblical texts consistently portray this raqia as a tangible expanse capable of bearing weight, with windows or gates (e.g., Genesis 7:11; Isaiah 24:18) that open during the Flood to release upper waters, affirming its role as a structural divider rather than mere atmosphere.^[35] Celestial bodies—sun, moon, and stars—are embedded as lights within or upon this firmament on the fourth creation day (Genesis 1:14-17), serving as signs for seasons, days, and years, and traversing its surface in fixed paths under divine command (e.g., Psalm 19:4-6; Job 38:31-33).^[36] The heavens themselves comprise multiple layers, with the highest reserved for God's throne (e.g., 1 Kings 8:27; Psalm 115:16), while birds fly in the lower atmospheric expanse "across the face of the firmament" (Genesis 1:20). Beneath the earth, Sheol represents the shadowy abode of the dead, a place of dust and darkness accessed through pits or the grave (e.g., Numbers 16:30-33; Job 17:16), distinct from later concepts of punitive hell but evoking a dim, inescapable realm sustained by the earth's foundations over the lower waters (Exodus 20:4; Deuteronomy 32:22).^[10] This cosmology underscores causal divine sovereignty, where earthquakes result from God shaking the earth's pillars (1 Samuel 2:8) and cosmic order reflects covenantal stability (e.g., Jeremiah 31:35-37), without empirical mechanisms like gravity or orbits.^[37] Prophetic and poetic texts reinforce this framework, portraying the sun as a bridegroom running a circuit under the dome (Psalm 19:4-6) and stars as divine council members (Job 38:7), while eschatological visions involve the firmament's dissolution or renewal (Isaiah 34:4; Revelation draws parallels, but biblical focus remains structural).^[32] Scholarly analyses, drawing from cuneiform parallels like Enuma Elish, note Israelite adaptations emphasizing Yahweh's unchallenged control over chaos monsters (e.g., Leviathan in Psalm 74:13-14; Job 41), rejecting polytheistic origins for the cosmos.^[31] This biblical model prioritizes theological function over physical precision, with no explicit spherical earth or heliocentrism; claims of modern scientific alignment often impose anachronistic readings, as ancient Hebrew terms like "ends of the earth" (e.g., Isaiah 40:22) denote horizontal boundaries, not curvature.^[33]

Christian Patristic and Medieval Developments

Early Church Fathers interpreted the Genesis account to affirm a cosmos originating ex nihilo through divine fiat, countering pagan notions of eternal matter or spontaneous emergence. St. Basil of Caesarea's Hexaemeron, a series of nine homilies composed circa 370 AD, expounded the six-day creation as a deliberate ordering by God, with heaven and earth drawn from non-being and structured to reveal divine wisdom, explicitly rejecting Epicurean atomism and Aristotelian eternalism as incompatible with scriptural temporality.^[38] St. Augustine of Hippo advanced a nuanced framework in De Genesi ad litteram (401–415 AD) and Confessions (circa 397–400 AD), arguing that God instantiated all creation instantaneously from nothing, encompassing unformed matter, its divine forming, and the resultant ordered forms; the "days" of Genesis symbolized logical distinctions or angelic apprehensions rather than solar cycles, allowing reconciliation with observed antiquity in nature.^[39] Bridging patristic and scholastic eras, John Scotus Eriugena's Periphyseon (circa 862–866 AD) portrayed the universe as a dynamic theophany—divine self-manifestation proceeding from and returning to an incomprehensible God through Neoplatonic emanations of being, while upholding creation's contingency and eschatological reintegration, though his pantheistic tendencies drew later condemnation.^[40] Medieval scholastics, confronting rediscovered Aristotelian texts via Arabic intermediaries, integrated empirical astronomy with theology to depict a finite, hierarchical cosmos centered on an immobile Earth. Thomas Aquinas, in Summa Theologica (1265–1274 AD), adapted Ptolemaic spheres into a Christian schema: ten concentric orbs, from the lunar sublunary realm of change to the crystalline sphere of fixed stars, culminating in the Empyrean heaven of beatific vision, with each supralunary sphere animated by distinct angelic orders under God's primum mobile, ensuring causal dependence on the Creator amid apparent pagan mechanics.^[41]^[42] Albertus Magnus, Aquinas's mentor (circa 1193–1280 AD), similarly purged Aristotelian eternity doctrines, affirming scriptural creation while leveraging natural philosophy for evidential support of providence.^[42] This geocentric model, visualized in Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy (completed 1320 AD), extended to eschatology: a corruptible sublunary sphere redeemed through incarnation and resurrection, ascending via purgatorial and celestial gradations to divine union, reflecting causal realism in which material order subserves spiritual teleology without necessitating uniformitarian timelines.^[43]

Islamic Quranic and Scholastic Cosmologies

The Quran describes the creation of the universe as an act initiated by Allah, who formed the heavens and the earth over six periods referred to as "days." Specific verses outline a sequence where the earth is established in two days, followed by the provision of mountains, sustenance, and measurements upon it in four days, and the heavens—depicted as seven layered firmaments—raised in two days, yielding a total of six days despite apparent overlaps in the phrasing.^[44]^[45] This process emphasizes divine command without intermediary agents, with the earth preceding the heavens in formation.^[44] The structure of the cosmos in Quranic terms features seven heavens (samāwāt), stacked in layers, each with its own order, and corresponding "seven earths" in some interpretations, through which divine decrees descend.^[46]^[47] The lowest heaven serves as a protected canopy over the earth, raised without visible pillars, while the sun and moon are subjected to orbits for reckoning time.^[48] The earth is portrayed as spread out like a carpet for habitation, with mountains as stabilizers against shaking.^[48] Eschatologically, the heavens and earth will be rolled up or cleaved asunder on the Day of Judgment, signaling the end of the current order.^[46] In scholastic Islamic thought, particularly among philosophers (falāsifa) like Avicenna (Ibn Sina, d. 1037 CE) and al-Farabi (d. 950 CE), cosmology integrated Aristotelian physics with Neoplatonic emanation, envisioning a hierarchical universe of ten intellects descending from the Necessary Existent (Allah), generating celestial spheres that influence the sublunary world through continuous motion.^[49]^[50] Avicenna posited the world as eternal in duration but originated through emanation, rejecting absolute creation ex nihilo in favor of necessary causation from divine essence.^[51] This view contrasted with orthodox theologians (mutakallimūn), such as the Ash'arites, who upheld atomistic occasionalism—positing discrete creation and re-creation of atoms at each instant by divine will—to affirm God's absolute sovereignty and avoid implying co-eternity with creation.^[50] Al-Ghazali (d. 1111 CE), in his Incoherence of the Philosophers, critiqued the falāsifa's emanationist eternalism as incompatible with Quranic temporality of creation, arguing it undermines divine freedom and leads to logical inconsistencies like infinite regress in causation; he advocated kalām cosmology emphasizing continual miraculous intervention over natural necessity.^[51] Later thinkers like Averroes (Ibn Rushd, d. 1198 CE) defended philosophical cosmology in Incoherence of the Incoherence, reconciling emanation with creation by viewing it as timeless divine act, while maintaining geocentric Ptolemaic spheres aligned with observable astronomy.^[52] These debates highlight tensions between rationalist interpretations and scriptural literalism, with scholastic cosmology often preserving a finite, divinely originated universe structured in concentric spheres enclosing a flat or spread-out earth.^[50]

Dharmic and Indian Traditions

Hindu Vedic and Puranic Models

In Vedic texts, particularly the Rigveda (composed approximately 1500–1200 BCE), cosmology emerges through poetic hymns rather than systematic doctrine, portraying the universe as arising from a primordial state of non-existence or unity. The Nasadiya Sukta (Rigveda 10.129) describes creation as potentially emerging from neither being nor non-being, with darkness enveloped in darkness, and questions whether even the highest overseer knows the origin, emphasizing epistemic limits over definitive mechanisms.^[53] Other hymns depict the separation of sky (Dyaus) and earth (Prithivi) by divine forces, forming a tripartite structure of earth, atmosphere, and heavens, sustained by pillars or atmospheric supports, with cosmic order (ṛta) maintained through ritual and natural cycles like day-night alternation driven by solar deities.^[54] These accounts prioritize phenomenological observation of celestial motions and seasonal rhythms over geometric models, reflecting an animistic integration of ritual efficacy with observed causality, as evidenced in sacrificial hymns invoking Agni and Indra to uphold cosmic stability.^[55] Later Vedic texts, such as the Atharvaveda and Brahmanas (c. 1000–800 BCE), expand this into embryonic motifs, envisioning the cosmos as a golden egg (hiranyagarbha) floating in primordial waters, from which Prajapati or a creator figure hatches the structured world, introducing notions of cyclical renewal tied to sacrificial regeneration. This framework underscores causal realism in portraying creation as an unfolding process governed by inherent principles rather than arbitrary fiat, with empirical alignments to astronomical phenomena like lunar phases informing ritual calendars. Puranic literature (composed c. 300–1500 CE), building on Vedic foundations, systematizes cosmology into a multileveled, cyclic model emphasizing vast temporal scales and structural hierarchies. The universe manifests as Brahmanda (cosmic egg), emanating from Vishnu's navel as Brahma emerges to create within a single kalpa (day of Brahma, lasting 4.32 billion human years, or 1,000 mahayugas of 4.32 million years each).^[56] ^[57] Each mahayuga comprises four descending yugas—Satya (1.728 million years), Treta (1.296 million), Dvapara (864,000), and Kali (432,000)—marking progressive decline in dharma, virtue, and lifespan, with the current Kali Yuga commencing in 3102 BCE.^[56] A kalpa divides into 14 manvantaras (eras ruled by successive Manus, progenitors of humanity), each spanning 71 mahayugas plus transitional periods, integrating demographic and moral causality into cosmic rhythms.^[57] ^[58] Spatially, Puranas delineate 14 lokas (realms): seven upper (urdhva-lokas, from earthly Bhuloka to transcendent Satyaloka) and seven lower (adho-lokas, subterranean realms like Atala to Patala), arrayed vertically around axial Mount Meru, surrounded by concentric continents (dvipas) and oceans in a disk-like terrestrial plane.^[59] Brahma's creation phase yields to Vishnu's preservation and Shiva's dissolution at kalpa's end, with infinite parallel universes (ananta-koti-brahmandas) embedded in Maha-Vishnu's form, each undergoing independent cycles, as detailed in texts like the Vishnu Purana and Bhagavata Purana.^[60] This model posits empirical verifiability through scriptural authority and aligns causal sequences—e.g., karmic aggregation driving rebirth across lokas—with observable patterns of decay and renewal, though interpretations vary due to interpretive layers in medieval commentaries.^[58]

Buddhist Cyclic and Emptiness-Based Views

Buddhist cosmology describes a vast, cyclic multiverse comprising innumerable independent world-systems (lokadhātu), each undergoing periodic formation, stability, dissolution, and renewal over immense temporal scales known as kalpas. In the Abhidharma traditions, systematized in texts like Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakośa (circa 4th–5th century CE), a typical world-system centers on Mount Meru (Sumeru), a colossal axial mountain rising 84,000 yojanas (approximately 672,000–1,260,000 kilometers, depending on yojana measurements) from its base, serving as the cosmic pillar linking earthly and divine realms.^[61] Surrounding Meru are seven concentric rings of golden mountains (such as Yugandhara and Isadhara) separated by saltwater and freshwater seas, enclosing four main continents in the outermost ocean: Jambudvīpa (southern, home to human realms), Pūrvavideha (eastern), Aparagodanīya (western), and Uttarakuru (northern).^[62] This flat, disc-like structure extends horizontally across billions of miles, with Meru at the north pole orientation, and vertically integrates hell realms below and heavenly abodes above.^[63] The cyclic dynamics of these world-systems are governed by impersonal processes of aggregation and dispersion of material elements (mahābhūta), without a creator deity, aligning with Buddhism's emphasis on conditioned arising (pratītyasamutpāda). A mahākalpa, the longest cycle, endures roughly 1.28 × 10^18 years—equivalent to 4 āsankhyeyakalpas (incalculable eons)—each phase marked by 20 antarakalpas where lifespans and worldly conditions progressively evolve or devolve due to collective karma.^[64] Formation (vivartakalpa) involves the coalescence of winds, waters, and earth into stable landmasses; duration (vivartasthāyikalpa) sees sustained existence amid moral fluctuations; destruction (saṃvartakalpa) unfolds via fire, water, or wind cataclysms consuming lower realms sequentially; and emptiness (saṃvartasthāyikalpa) persists as a void until reformation.^[65] These cycles encompass 31 planes of existence stratified into three realms (triloka): the sensuous desire realm (kāmadhātu) with 11 levels including hells (naraka), hungry ghosts (preta), animals, humans, and six sensual heavens; the form realm (rūpadhātu) with 16 meditative heavens tied to jhāna absorptions; and the formless realm (arūpadhātu) with four infinite attainments lacking physical form.^[66] Rebirth across these planes is determined by karmic actions, perpetuating saṃsāra until liberation via insight into impermanence (anicca), suffering (dukkha), and non-self (anattā).^[67] Mahāyāna developments, particularly in Nāgārjuna's Madhyamaka (circa 2nd century CE), introduce śūnyatā (emptiness) as the ultimate ontological ground, asserting that all dharmas—including cosmological entities like Meru, kalpas, and triloka—lack inherent essence (svabhāva) and exist only through dependent origination.^[68] Emptiness does not negate conventional functionality but reveals the illusory, non-substantial nature of phenomena, rendering cyclic cosmology a provisional teaching (upāya) for guiding beings toward nirvāṇa rather than a literal metaphysics.^[69] In this view, the apparent solidity of world-systems arises from interdependent causes and conditions, devoid of autonomous reality, thus undermining reification of cycles as eternal or self-existent.^[70] Yogācāra extensions further interpret cosmological multiplicity as mind-only (cittamātra) projections, where external forms manifest from consciousness streams, though still empty of independent status.^[67] This emptiness-based lens critiques attachment to cosmological models, prioritizing direct realization of voidness to transcend saṃsāric cycles, as elaborated in Prajñāpāramitā sūtras where even buddha-fields and eons are deemed empty.^[71]

Jain Multiverse and Karma-Driven Structures

In Jain doctrine, the universe—termed Loka—comprises an eternal, uncreated expanse without origin or end, independent of any creator deity, and divided into living entities (jīva) and non-sentient substances governed by inherent causal principles.^[72]^[73] This structure, detailed in canonical texts like the Tattvārtha Sūtra attributed to Umāsvāti (circa 2nd–5th century CE), manifests as a finite but vast world-space (loka-ākāśa) amid infinite void, shaped roughly like a cosmic figure standing akimbo with arms on hips, symbolizing stacked tiers of existence.^[74]^[72] The Loka partitions into three primary vertical strata: the upper world (ūrdhva-loka), encompassing 30 heavenly realms for celestial beings (deva) experiencing refined pleasures; the middle world (madhya-loka), a horizontal expanse of seven concentric continents and oceans centered on Jambūdvīpa where humans, animals, plants, and microbes reside; and the lower world (adho-loka), a descending pyramid of seven hells (naraka) marked by escalating suffering.^[75]^[74] These fixed architectural layers, unalterable by external agency, host infinite souls in perpetual migration, with interpretations extending the model to a multiverse of coexistent lokas akin to steady-state cosmologies.^[72]^[76] Karmic matter (karma), envisioned as pervasive particulate substance finer than atoms, binds to the soul (jīva) through psychophysical activities (yoga) of mind, speech, and body, obscuring its innate omniscience and bliss while dictating rebirth placement across Loka's tiers.^[77]^[78] Eight primary karma types—such as deluding (mohaniya), lifespan-determining (āyu), and body-making (nāma)—accrue via influx (āsrava) from passions and actions, propelling souls upward to heavens with meritorious bonds or downward to hells via demeritorious ones, thus rendering the stratified habitations dynamically populated by karmic causality alone.^[77]^[72] Liberation (mokṣa) demands exhaustive karmic shedding through ascetic discipline, freeing the soul to ascend beyond Loka's bounds to siddha-loka, the realm of perfected, disembodied entities.^[78]^[73] This karma-centric framework underscores a materialist ontology where cosmic order emerges from souls' self-inflicted karmic loads, absent divine orchestration, with time unfolding in eternal wheel-like cycles (kalpa) of progression and regression that redistribute life forms across structures without altering the Loka's form.^[72]^[75] Empirical analogies in Jain texts liken karma's binding to iron filings drawn to a magnet, illustrating causal realism in soul-realm dynamics verifiable through meditative insight into one's karmic residues.^[77]

East Asian and Sinic Traditions

Chinese Correlative Cosmology in Taoism and Confucianism

Chinese correlative cosmology conceptualizes the universe as an interconnected system governed by dynamic patterns of yin (passive, receptive forces) and yang (active, expansive forces), alongside the five phases (wuxing: wood, fire, earth, metal, water), which interact through cycles of generation and conquest to produce order from underlying vital energy (qi). This framework, emerging in the Warring States period (475–221 BCE), emphasizes systematic correspondences between cosmic, natural, and human phenomena, enabling predictive understanding via resonance rather than mechanical causation.^[79]^[80] In Taoism, cosmology derives from the Dao (Way), the undifferentiated source that spontaneously bifurcates into yin and yang, engendering qi and the myriad things through non-interventionist processes described in the Daodejing (c. 4th–3rd century BCE). The Taiji (Supreme Ultimate) symbolizes this unity, evolving into dualities that cycle eternally without a singular creation event, as elaborated in texts like the Huainanzi (139 BCE), where the five phases regulate seasonal and physiological harmonies to sustain cosmic balance. Taoist practice, such as internal alchemy, applies these correlations to align human vitality with universal rhythms, viewing imbalance as deviation from the Dao's natural flux.^[81]^[79] Confucianism adapts correlative principles to ethical and political order, with the Yijing (Book of Changes, compiled c. 1000–200 BCE) serving as a core text that maps 64 hexagrams—combinations of broken (yin) and solid (yang) lines—to situational changes, correlating heavenly mandates (tianming) with human conduct. Confucian thinkers like those in the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) integrated wuxing to justify dynastic cycles, positing that rulers must harmonize virtues with cosmic phases to avert disorder, as seen in Dong Zhongshu's (179–104 BCE) doctrine linking moral failings to natural calamities via resonance. This yields a participatory cosmology where human agency influences the cosmos through ritual propriety (li), distinct from Taoism's emphasis on yielding to spontaneity.^[80]^[82] Shared across both traditions, correlative models reject anthropomorphic deities in favor of immanent patterns, influencing medicine, astronomy, and governance; for instance, Han calendars synchronized agricultural cycles with wuxing phases, predicting eclipses through qi correlations accurate to within hours by the 2nd century BCE. Yet, while Taoism prioritizes existential alignment with flux, Confucianism instrumentalizes cosmology for social stability, reflecting divergent emphases on individual cultivation versus collective hierarchy.^[83]

Korean and Japanese Shamanic and Shinto Extensions

Korean shamanism, known as musok or muism, features a three-tiered cosmological structure comprising an upper world of benevolent deities and ancestral spirits, a middle realm of human existence intertwined with nature kami, and a lower domain associated with malevolent entities and the underworld. This layered model underpins gut rituals performed by mudang (primarily female shamans), which aim to mediate imbalances between realms by invoking spirits to restore harmony, reflecting an animistic worldview where all phenomena possess spiritual essence rather than a centralized creation event.^[84] Unlike the abstract correlative systems of Chinese Taoism emphasizing cyclical yin-yang flux, Korean shamanic cosmology prioritizes relational dynamics among spirits, with rituals addressing personal misfortunes as manifestations of cosmic disharmony traceable to ancestral or environmental causes.^[84] Japanese Shinto cosmology, articulated in the Kojiki compiled in 712 CE, depicts the universe originating from a formless void of floating chaos, from which the first generations of kami (divine spirits) spontaneously emerged without a singular creator deity.^[85] Primordial deities Izanagi and Izanami then stirred the ocean with a jeweled spear to form the first landmasses and subsequent kami, including solar goddess Amaterasu, establishing a divine hierarchy linking heavenly realms (Takamagahara) to earthly domains populated by myriad localized kami inhabiting natural features.^[85] This mythic framework extends Sinic influences by integrating yin-yang dualism and five-phase correlations via Onmyōdō practices, which adapt Chinese divination for harmonizing cosmic forces in rituals, architecture, and imperial ceremonies, though core Shinto remains polytheistic and immanent rather than philosophically dualistic.^[86] Both traditions extend East Asian correlative paradigms through indigenous animism: Korean shamanism emphasizes ecstatic spirit possession for traversing cosmological layers, persisting in modern Korea with an estimated 200,000-300,000 active mudang as of the early 21st century, while Shinto's kami proliferation fosters purity rituals (harae) to maintain equilibrium amid an eternal, non-linear cosmic order unbound by eschatological endpoints.^[84] These systems privilege experiential causality—spirits as agents of misfortune or fortune—over deterministic heavenly mandates, adapting Chinese elements selectively to local ecologies and social needs without subordinating native myths to imported abstractions.^[84]

Other Regional and Esoteric Traditions

Greco-Roman and Norse Polytheistic Systems

In Greco-Roman polytheistic cosmology, the universe originates from primordial entities rather than a singular creator deity, as detailed in Hesiod's Theogony, an 8th-century BCE poem outlining the genealogy of the gods. The process begins with Chaos, a yawning void, from which emerge Gaia (Earth), Tartarus (the abyss), and Eros (procreative force), followed by the generation of sky (Uranus), mountains, and sea through Gaia's union with Uranus. Successive divine conflicts, including the castration of Uranus by Cronus and the Titanomachy where Zeus overthrows the Titans, establish the Olympian order, framing the cosmos as a hierarchical realm governed by anthropomorphic gods whose actions shape cosmic structure.^[87]^[88] The spatial organization envisions Earth as a flat disk or sphere at the center, surrounded by Oceanus, with the heavens as a solid dome above and the underworld below, reflecting a geocentric model integrated with mythological elements like the pillars of Atlas holding the sky. Later philosophical refinements by figures such as Plato and Aristotle, while influenced by religious traditions, posited a spherical cosmos divided into sublunary (terrestrial, mutable elements) and superlunary (celestial, eternal ether) realms, yet rooted in polytheistic narratives of divine agency.^[89]^[90] Roman polytheism largely assimilated Greek cosmology through interpretatio romana, equating deities—such as Zeus with Jupiter—and adopting cosmogonic myths with minimal alteration, as seen in Virgil's Aeneid and Ovid's Metamorphoses, which retell Hesiodic themes of primordial chaos resolving into ordered creation under divine rule. This syncretism preserved the emphasis on gods as causal agents in cosmic events, including celestial phenomena attributed to interventions by figures like Apollo (sun) and Diana (moon), without introducing novel structural divergences from Greek models.^[91] Norse cosmology, preserved in the 13th-century Prose Edda by Snorri Sturluson and the earlier Poetic Edda, depicts a cosmos emerging from the interaction of elemental voids: the fiery Muspellheim and icy Niflheim converge in Ginnungagap, birthing the primordial giant Ymir from rime and heat. The gods Odin, Vili, and Ve slay Ymir around the mythic era preceding recorded history, fashioning Midgard (Earth) from his flesh, the sky from his skull supported by four dwarves, mountains from bones, and seas from blood, thus establishing a structured world from chaotic dismemberment.^[92]^[93] Central to this system is Yggdrasil, an immense ash tree serving as the axis mundi, interconnecting nine worlds—including Asgard (gods' realm), Midgard (humans'), Jotunheim (giants'), and Hel (underworld)—with roots extending to wells of fate (Urdarbrunnr) and primordial forces, symbolizing interdependence and inevitable decay as the tree is gnawed by creatures like Níðhöggr. The cosmology incorporates cyclicality, culminating in Ragnarök, a cataclysmic battle destroying the current order, followed by renewal with a new earth rising from the sea, underscoring themes of fatalism and regeneration driven by divine and monstrous conflicts rather than linear progression.^[94]^[95]

Mesoamerican and Andean Cyclic Narratives

Mesoamerican religious cosmologies, as recorded in post-conquest Nahuatl and Mayan texts, emphasize cyclical processes of creation, sustenance, and destruction, where divine actions maintain cosmic balance through periodic renewals tied to calendrical rhythms. Among the Aztecs, the Leyenda de los Soles delineates four antecedent worlds, each governed by a distinct sun deity and terminated by elemental cataclysms: the first era of Tezcatlipoca ended with jaguars devouring inhabitants in approximately 1,716 years before the present cycle; the second, under Quetzalcoatl, collapsed via hurricanes after 1,171 years; the third, dominated by Tlaloc, succumbed to fiery rain lasting 312 years; and the fourth perished in a flood after 675 years, with surviving humans transformed into fish or dogs.^[96]^[97] The current Fifth Sun, initiated around 1479 CE in the Aztec calendar as 13-Reed, requires ongoing human blood sacrifices to propel its motion, foretelling eventual destruction by earthquakes unless ritually propitiated, reflecting a causal mechanism where neglect of divine debts precipitates collapse.^[98] This narrative, preserved in codices like the Aubin Codex, underscores empirical observations of natural disasters interpreted as cosmic resets, with the 52-year xiuhmolpilli cycle ritually reenacting renewal to avert endings.^[99] Parallel Mayan accounts in the Popol Vuh, a K'iche' text compiled in the 16th century from pre-Columbian oral traditions, depict iterative divine experiments in world-making across multiple failed epochs before the successful fourth creation. Initial attempts fashioned mud or clay beings that dissolved in water, followed by wooden figures lacking souls and memory, annihilated by flood, resin, and animal uprising as retribution for their inertness.^[100] Only maize-based humans, molded from white and yellow corn dough after Hero Twins Hunahpu and Xbalanque's underworld victories established solar and lunar cycles, achieved viability, aligning with agricultural empiricism where corn's growth mirrors human sustenance.^[101] These cycles integrate with the 260-day tzolk'in and 365-day haab' calendars, forming a 52-year Calendar Round symbolizing perpetual regeneration, as evidenced in inscriptions from sites like Palenque dating to the Classic period (250–900 CE), where long-count dates track cosmic eras potentially spanning 5,125-year baktun intervals.^[102] Such frameworks prioritize causal realism, positing that flawed creations necessitate divine intervention to realign order, without linear progression toward finality. Andean Inca cosmology, transmitted via Spanish chroniclers like Felipe Guamán Poma de Ayala in the early 17th century, frames existence through pachakuti—recurrent "world reversals" or overturnings of space-time—dividing history into millennial cycles of approximately 1,000 years each, punctuated by cataclysmic transformations. These epochs, measured by solar (Inti) progressions, involve destructions by flood, fire, or seismic upheaval, with the current era postdating a prior deluge that reshaped the hanan pacha (upper world), kay pacha (this world), and ukhu pacha (lower world) tripartition.^[103] Viracocha, the creator deity, initiates each phase from Lake Titicaca, populating realms with ancestral beings before upheavals enforce renewal, as in the myth where the sun's emergence follows submersion, empirically linked to Andean seismic and hydrological patterns.^[104] The Inca emperor Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui (r. 1438–1471 CE), whose name evokes this cosmic motif, institutionalized rituals to synchronize human order with these turns, including Inti Raymi festivals aligning solstices to avert disorder, evidencing a tradition where cycles demand reciprocal ayni (reciprocity) between cosmos and society to sustain stability.^[105] Unlike Mesoamerican solar-centric destructions, Andean narratives stress territorial inversion—e.g., mountains becoming valleys—causally tying geological realism to renewal without inevitable eschatology.^[106]

African and Indigenous Ontologies (e.g., Serer and Dogon)

African indigenous ontologies, including those of the Serer and Dogon peoples, often feature a distant supreme creator who initiates existence from primordial forms like cosmic eggs or swamps, with creation involving transitions from chaos to structured harmony maintained through ancestral spirits and natural intermediaries rather than direct divine intervention in daily affairs.^[107] These frameworks emphasize relational wholeness, where humans, ancestors, and the environment form an interconnected web governed by ethical reciprocity and ritual balance, contrasting with linear monotheistic progressions by prioritizing cyclical renewal and communal ontology over individualistic salvation.^[108] In Serer cosmology, Roog serves as the transcendent supreme being who crafts the universe from a cosmic egg embodying chaotic potential, initiating earthly formation in a primordial swamp that yields the first trees as foundational life forms.^[109] This act establishes principles of order from disorder, with Roog withdrawing after creation to allow pangool—nature and ancestor spirits—to mediate divine will, enforce moral laws, and guide human conduct through totemic clans and sacred sites like the Saltigue priesthood's rituals.^[110] Absent concepts of heaven or hell, Serer ontology views souls as eternal, reincarnating or joining ancestors to perpetuate cosmic equilibrium, underscoring causal links between ritual observance and ecological prosperity.^[109] Dogon ontology centers on Amma, the androgynous creator who shapes the cosmos within a vibrating cosmic egg, but whose initial flawed creation by the jackal-like Yurugu introduces imperfection, resolved by the descent of the Nommo—amphibious, twin progenitor spirits who organize matter, seed life, and teach agriculture, metallurgy, and astronomy to humanity.^[111] Nommo embody water's generative and purifying forces, linking terrestrial order to stellar vibrations in a binary-structured universe of twinned opposites.^[112] Claims of pre-telescopic Dogon knowledge of Sirius B's dense, orbiting nature, popularized in 1970s accounts, lack corroboration in independent ethnographic surveys post-1950s, with anthropologists attributing such details to cultural exchange during French colonial-era fieldwork rather than indigenous antiquity, as unprompted informants in later studies omitted them.^[113]^[114] This highlights interpretive challenges in oral traditions, where empirical verification favors diffusion over anomalous prescience.

Comparative Analysis and Philosophical Implications

Common Motifs Across Traditions

Religious cosmologies across diverse traditions frequently feature the motif of an axis mundi, a central axis or pillar symbolizing the connection between heavenly, earthly, and underworldly realms, serving as the structural core of the universe. This element manifests as the Norse Yggdrasil, a vast ash tree linking the nine worlds; the Hindu Mount Meru, a cosmic mountain at the universe's center surrounded by continents and oceans; and analogous world trees or poles in shamanic practices among Korean, Japanese, and indigenous groups. In Mesoamerican systems, such as Mayan cosmology, the ceiba tree or world tree similarly bridges the tripartite divisions of sky, earth, and Xibalba. This shared archetype underscores a universal perception of vertical hierarchy in existence, where the sacred center orients profane space and facilitates communication between domains.^[115] Another recurrent pattern involves cosmic cycles of creation, preservation, and destruction, reflecting observed natural rhythms like seasons and celestial movements rather than arbitrary invention. Hindu traditions describe vast yuga cycles culminating in pralaya dissolution, followed by renewal through Vishnu's agency; Buddhist kalpas similarly entail world systems arising and perishing over eons, driven by interdependent causation. Norse Ragnarök envisions apocalyptic destruction yielding a regenerated world, while Mesoamerican and Andean narratives, such as Aztec Five Suns, depict sequential eras ending in cataclysm but birthing successors. Even in East Asian correlative systems, Taoist yin-yang dynamics imply eternal flux without strict linearity, paralleling Confucian heavenly mandates that renew social order. These cycles often tie to moral or karmic principles, where ethical lapses precipitate decline, as in Jain karma-accumulating souls traversing multiversal layers.^[116]^[117] Hierarchical multi-realm structures appear ubiquitously, positing layered realities inhabited by deities, humans, and lesser beings, ordered by proximity to the divine or purity. Greco-Roman cosmology divides into Olympian heavens, terrestrial plane, and Hades; African ontologies like Dogon describe multiple superimposed skies with ancestral nommo beings descending to organize creation; Serer creation involves supreme Roog emanating worlds from a primordial egg. Parallelly, East Asian shamanic extensions feature spirit realms accessed via rituals, mirroring Confucian cosmic harmony. This stratification often incorporates microcosm-macrocosm correspondence, where human societies or bodies reflect universal order, as in Chinese correlative grids aligning emperor with heaven or Balinese villages emulating cosmic layouts. Such motifs likely stem from empirical analogies between observable hierarchies in nature—skies above earth, roots below—and social structures, fostering causal explanations for phenomena like eclipses or disasters as disruptions in divine equilibrium.^[115]^[117] Sacrificial or separative acts in cosmogony form a further archetype, where order emerges via division or offering from undifferentiated potential. Vedic Purusha sukta details the cosmos arising from a primordial man's dismemberment; analogous themes recur in some Norse and indigenous narratives of body-parts forming elements. Separation motifs, such as sky-earth parting, appear in Egyptian Nun waters yielding ordered domains and Babylonian Enuma Elish's Marduk cleaving Tiamat. These parallel divine creativity archetypes, emphasizing intentional agency over random emergence, and recur possibly due to intuitive recognition of differentiation as prerequisite for complexity, observable in embryonic development or elemental sorting in floods. While interpretations vary, the consistency across isolated traditions suggests convergence on causal mechanisms grounded in human experience rather than diffusion alone.^[117]^[116]

Divergences in Monotheism vs. Polytheism and Cyclical vs. Linear Time

In monotheistic traditions, such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, cosmology centers on a singular, transcendent deity who creates the universe ex nihilo—from absolute nothing—asserting absolute divine sovereignty and rendering the cosmos contingent upon God's will rather than self-existent or co-eternal with divinity.^[118] This doctrine, formalized in early Christian theology by figures like Irenaeus around 180 CE and emphasized against Greco-Roman alternatives, posits the material world as wholly dependent, with no primordial substrate independent of the creator.^[119] Polytheistic cosmologies, by contrast, typically integrate deities into an enduring or emergent cosmic framework, where gods arise from or manipulate pre-existing chaos, void, or matter, as in Hesiod's Theogony (c. 700 BCE), which describes primordial Chaos birthing Gaia and subsequent divinities without an external originator.^[120] Norse mythology similarly features the Ginnungagap abyss preceding the gods' formation from elemental interactions, implying an eternal, uncreated cosmic potential rather than fiat creation.^[121] These ontological divergences influence views of divine agency: monotheism attributes cosmic order to unified intentionality, avoiding the conflicts and limitations inherent in polytheistic pantheons, where gods contend, reproduce, or succumb to fate, as evidenced in Babylonian Enuma Elish (c. 18th–16th century BCE), where Marduk's victory over Tiamat reorganizes but does not originate chaos.^[122] Scholars note that polytheistic systems thus portray the universe as a dynamic, god-inhabited arena subject to recurring disruptions, contrasting monotheism's emphasis on stable, purposeful design under one omnipotent will.^[123] Hindu cosmology, often polytheistic in its pantheon despite Brahmanic unity, exemplifies this with cyclic creations by Brahma within an eternal, uncreated reality, where universes manifest and dissolve without a singular absolute beginning.^[124] Temporal frameworks further diverge, with monotheistic religions adopting linear time—initiated by divine act (e.g., Genesis 1:1, dated traditionally to c. 4004 BCE in Ussher's chronology) and directed toward eschatological fulfillment, such as the Islamic Qiyamah or Christian Second Coming—enabling historical progress, moral accountability, and teleological purpose.^[125] This linearity aligns with causal sequences of creation, fall, redemption, and judgment, rejecting eternal recurrence.^[126] Polytheistic and cyclical cosmologies, prevalent in ancient Near Eastern, Greek, Norse, and Dharmic traditions, conceive time as repetitive cycles mirroring natural rhythms like seasons or lunar phases, with no irreversible endpoint; for instance, Hindu yugas form descending and ascending ages within a mahakalpa of 311 trillion years, punctuated by pralaya dissolutions.^[124] Norse Ragnarök (c. described in 13th-century Eddas) entails cosmic destruction followed by rebirth, perpetuating the cycle without ultimate resolution.^[121] Such views foster perceptions of inevitability and renewal over monotheism's emphasis on novel divine interventions and finality.^[127] These contrasts extend to implications for human existence: linear monotheistic time supports doctrines of unique historical events and individual eschatology, as in the Biblical covenants tracing from Abraham (c. 2000 BCE) to apocalyptic prophecies, whereas cyclical polytheism correlates with ritualistic renewal and karmic repetition, diminishing linear progress in favor of eternal patterns observable in agricultural calendars across Mesoamerican and ancient Egyptian systems.^[128] Empirical alignments, such as Hindu timescales approximating modern Big Bang estimates (kalpa ≈ 4.32 billion years), highlight polytheistic flexibility but underscore monotheism's prioritization of volitional origins over mechanistic eternity.^[124]

Causal Realism in Religious vs. Materialist Explanations

Religious cosmologies attribute the universe's origin and fine-tuned structure to intentional divine causation, where a necessary, agentive being serves as the uncaused first cause, thereby avoiding explanatory infinite regresses that leave the existence of contingent reality unaccounted for.^[129] This framework posits productive causal powers inherent in a transcendent intelligence, capable of willing existence ex nihilo and sustaining natural laws, aligning with intuitions about causation as involving directed efficacy rather than undirected happenstance.^[130] Philosophical defenses, such as the Kalam cosmological argument, contend that whatever begins to exist has a cause, the universe began to exist, and thus requires an external, timeless cause outside spacetime.^[131] Materialist explanations, by contrast, model cosmic evolution through chains of efficient physical causes under deterministic or probabilistic laws, yielding empirically verifiable predictions without invoking supernatural agency. The standard Big Bang model describes the universe expanding from a hot, dense singularity approximately 13.8 billion years ago, corroborated by observations like the cosmic microwave background radiation—relic photons from 380,000 years post-singularity—whose blackbody spectrum and anisotropies match inflationary predictions. These successes demonstrate robust proximate causation via mechanisms such as quantum fields and general relativity, enabling technologies from GPS corrections to elemental nucleosynthesis ratios observed in ancient stars. Yet materialist cosmology struggles with ultimate origins, as extensions like quantum fluctuations from "nothing" rely on pre-existent vacuum states, Hilbert spaces, and conservation laws, which constitute something rather than absolute privation. Proposals of eternal inflation or multiverses introduce hierarchical or temporal infinite regresses, where explanatory power dissipates since no foundational cause accounts for the parameters enabling such ensembles—rendering the "why these laws?" question brute or anthropically selected without deeper resolution.^[134] Critics note that such regresses, unlike terminating in a necessary being, fail to explain the contingent totality, as each prior state demands its own justification ad infinitum.^[134] From a causal realist perspective prioritizing objective productive relations over correlational patterns, religious accounts offer greater explanatory depth for foundational contingencies by grounding them in intentional ontology, though they evade empirical adjudication.^[135] Materialism excels in mechanistic detail but often presupposes unexplained causal capacities in fundamental entities, such as why quantum fields possess instability toward particle production.^[136] Academic philosophy of science, disproportionately materialist, tends to dismiss theistic causation as non-scientific despite its resolution of regresses that naturalistic models sidestep via methodological limits rather than ontological sufficiency.^[129]

Criticisms, Controversies, and Modern Reassessments

Empirical Challenges from Scientific Discoveries

The heliocentric model, proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus in 1543 and bolstered by Galileo Galilei's 1610 telescopic observations of Jupiter's moons orbiting the planet and the phases of Venus, provided direct empirical refutation of geocentric cosmologies prevalent in Judeo-Christian, Islamic, and other traditions, which placed Earth immovably at the universe's center.^[137] These findings demonstrated that celestial bodies could orbit non-Earth centers, undermining scriptural interpretations implying a fixed Earth under a rotating firmament, such as those in Genesis or Quran 36:38-40, without requiring ad hoc epicycles or crystalline spheres.^[137] Edwin Hubble's 1929 observation of redshift in distant galaxies, indicating universal expansion, laid the groundwork for Big Bang cosmology, which posits the universe's origin from a hot, dense state rather than instantaneous divine assembly.^[138] This was corroborated by the 1965 accidental discovery of cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson at Bell Labs, a uniform 2.7 Kelvin glow matching predictions of relic radiation from an early hot phase, as forecasted by George Gamow in 1948.^[139]^[140] Further evidence includes the observed abundances of light elements like helium-4 (24% by mass), aligning with Big Bang nucleosynthesis models occurring minutes after the initial expansion, rather than primordial chaos or ex nihilo creation without thermal history.^[141] Cosmological parameters from CMB anisotropies, as mapped by the Planck satellite (2013-2018 data releases), yield a universe age of 13.787 ± 0.020 billion years, derived from the power spectrum of temperature fluctuations and Hubble constant measurements. This antiquity starkly contrasts with literal biblical chronologies, such as Archbishop James Ussher's 1650 calculation of creation on October 23, 4004 BCE, extrapolated from Genesis genealogies assuming no gaps. Similar young-universe timelines appear in some Islamic hadith interpretations or Hindu yuga cycles taken literally as ~6,000 years, but empirical data from supernova light curves (e.g., Type Ia standardization since 1998) and baryon acoustic oscillations independently confirm the multibillion-year scale, leaving distant starlight (e.g., from galaxies 13 billion light-years away) unresolved for young-earth models without invoking untested miracles like variable light speed. While proponents of young-earth creationism, such as those at the Institute for Creation Research, counter with claims of accelerated nuclear decay or post-Flood sorting to compress geological records, these lack falsifiable predictions and contradict heat retention models from Earth's core (e.g., insufficient radiogenic output for a 6,000-year formation without melting the planet). Peer-reviewed geology, including uranium-lead dating of zircon crystals yielding 4.4 billion-year-old Earth rocks and varved lake sediments spanning 50,000+ annual layers, systematically challenges such compressions, highlighting interpretive tensions between sacred texts and observable strata uniformity.^[142] Recent James Webb Space Telescope data on early massive galaxies has prompted reevaluations of formation timelines but reinforces the ancient universe framework, not a recent origin.^[143]

Ideological Critiques: Literalism vs. Metaphor and Cultural Relativism

Critiques of literal interpretations in religious cosmology emphasize their apparent conflict with empirical observations, such as radiometric dating establishing Earth's age at approximately 4.54 billion years and the universe's expansion consistent with a Big Bang origin around 13.8 billion years ago.^[140] Adherents of literalism, particularly in Abrahamic traditions, maintain that texts like Genesis describe actual sequences of events, including a young Earth created in six literal days around 4004 BCE as calculated by James Ussher in 1650.^[9] This stance invites ideological reproach for fostering anti-scientific attitudes, as evidenced by surveys showing higher literal belief correlating with lower acceptance of evolution; for instance, a 2019 Gallup poll found 40% of Americans viewed Genesis as literal history. Such views are often attributed to fundamentalist ideologies resisting modernist encroachments, though proponents argue literalism preserves textual integrity against accommodative dilutions. Metaphorical interpretations, conversely, recast cosmological narratives as symbolic conveyors of theological truths, such as divine sovereignty over chaos rather than chronological history.^[144] This approach gained traction post-Darwin, with figures like B.B. Warfield in the early 20th century advocating non-literal Genesis to reconcile faith and science.^[145] Ideological critics from conservative perspectives decry it as capitulation to secular pressures, enabling endless reinterpretation that undermines scriptural authority and invites skepticism; for example, Origen's ancient allegorical methods were later condemned at the Second Council of Constantinople in 553 CE for potentially veering into heresy.^[146] Empirical realists further question metaphorical flexibility, noting it lacks falsifiability and risks post-hoc rationalizations detached from original authorial intent, as analyzed in hermeneutical studies distinguishing plain-sense readings from imposed symbolism.^[147] Cultural relativism posits that religious cosmologies—ranging from linear monotheistic creation to cyclical Hindu kalpas or Indigenous dreamtime ontologies—hold validity solely within their societal frameworks, rendering cross-cultural evaluations impermissible.^[148] This doctrine, prominent in mid-20th-century anthropology via Franz Boas's influence, equates disparate worldviews despite variances in evidentiary alignment; for instance, it parallels Aztec cyclical myths of world destruction with Judeo-Christian teleology without privileging those corroborated by archaeology or astronomy.^[149] Philosophical rebuttals highlight its self-undermining logic: if truth claims are culturally bound, relativism itself lacks universal applicability, leading to incoherence in assessing causal explanations.^[150] Critics, including those wary of academic institutional biases favoring egalitarian narratives over hierarchical truths, argue it obscures objective metrics like predictive power—scientific cosmology's successes in forecasting cosmic microwave background fluctuations contrast with unverified mythical events—thus masking realism's primacy under guise of tolerance.^[151] Empirical data, such as convergent findings across global observatories on universal expansion, challenge relativistic equivalence by demonstrating non-cultural invariants in nature.^[140]

Defensive Arguments: Moral and Existential Necessity Against Secular Narratives

Proponents of religious cosmologies argue that these frameworks are morally necessary because they anchor objective moral values in a transcendent divine nature, whereas secular materialist narratives, which depict the universe as an unguided product of physical processes, reduce morality to subjective human constructs or evolutionary adaptations lacking ultimate authority. Philosopher William Lane Craig articulates this as: if God does not exist, objective moral values and duties do not exist; yet such values are evident in widespread intuitions of moral realism, such as the inherent wrongness of torturing innocent children for sport; therefore, God exists as their ground.^[152] ^[153] This argument ties directly to cosmology, as religious accounts posit a purposeful creation reflecting divine moral order, providing a causal basis for why humans experience moral obligations beyond survival instincts, in contrast to secular views where ethics emerge contingently from natural selection without prescriptive force.^[153] Fyodor Dostoevsky, in works like The Brothers Karamazov, defends the necessity of theistic foundations by warning that atheistic denial of divine oversight permits moral anarchy, encapsulated in the claim that "if God does not exist, everything is permitted," a view echoed in analyses of secular regimes' ethical collapses, such as the 20th-century totalitarian states where materialist ideologies justified mass atrocities absent transcendent accountability.^[154] C.S. Lewis extends this in Mere Christianity, arguing that the universal "moral law" imprinted on conscience implies a lawgiver, whose existence religious cosmologies affirm through narratives of creation imbued with ethical purpose, countering secular relativism that undermines societal cohesion by equating good and evil to mere cultural preferences.^[155] On the existential front, religious cosmologies furnish a coherent narrative of origin, purpose, and destiny—humans as intentional creations within a teleological universe—which empirical data links to enhanced life meaning and resilience against despair. Surveys indicate that individuals endorsing religious beliefs report higher levels of existential purpose compared to nonbelievers, with faith serving as a primary mechanism for meaning-making amid life's absurdities.^[156] This necessity manifests in mental health outcomes: meta-analyses of global studies show religiosity correlates with reduced suicide risk, including lower attempt rates among frequent religious service attendees after controlling for social support, and diminished prevalence in highly religious populations versus secular ones.^[157] ^[158] Secular narratives, by contrast, often yield nihilistic implications—a vast, indifferent cosmos where human existence is a fleeting accident—correlating with elevated existential anxiety and, in some datasets, higher suicide ideation in low-religiosity contexts, underscoring religious frameworks' role in sustaining psychological stability without reliance on illusory self-generated meaning.^[157] These defenses maintain that while secularism excels in empirical description, it fails causally to explain or sustain the moral intuitions and purpose-seeking evident in human behavior, rendering religious cosmologies indispensable for a viable existential order.

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Inca Cosmology: The Inca Views of the Universe - Happy Gringo Tours
Jul 25, 2023 · The Incas found divine connection through careful observation of the stars, planets, and natural phenomena. This article explores Inca cosmology.
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Pachakuti: The Overturning of Space-Time - Celestial Harmonies
Pachakuti means the overturning of space-time; a millennial moment in which one world ends and another begins; a total transformation of things.
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African indigenous knowledge and research - PMC - PubMed Central
Jan 16, 2013 · African indigenous knowledge is experiential, relational, based on a worldview of wholeness, community, and harmony, and is often oral and ...
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Rethinking the Study of African Indigenous Religions
In this essay, I attempt to refocus the centrality of indigenous religion, not only in defining African cosmology and an African worldview, but also in defining ...
[109]
The Traditional Religious Beliefs of the Serer People of West Africa
Dec 15, 2021 · Serer creation story is intricately linked to the first trees created on Planet Earth by Roog. Earth's formation began with a swamp.Missing: myth | Show results with:myth
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Mythology World Tour: The Serer | JeremyVarner.com
Mar 30, 2015 · The Serer lack a concept of Heaven or Hell but have a deep held belief that the soul is eternal. As such, those souls which do not return to ...
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Cosmology of the Dogon People - Stars, Spirits & Creation
May 7, 2025 · Nommo are primordial beings created by Amma to restore order after the flawed act of creation. Amphibious in nature, they combine traits of fish ...
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The Cosmic Egg in Dogon Creation Myth | Oriire
Jun 12, 2025 · Later, Amma successfully created the primordial divine twins, the Nommo, water spirits who play a central role in completing creation and— ...
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The Sirius Mystery: You Don't Need Columbo For This One
Jun 18, 2011 · This mystery has to do with how a primitive African tribe, the Dogon, had advanced knowledge of a system of stars that make up what we see with the naked eye ...
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Debunked: The Mystery of the Dogon and Chemistry. - ResearchGate
This article has illustrated that the Dogon did not have advanced knowledge of modern day chemistry (and no advanced knowledge of the structure of matter) as ...
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[PDF] Similar Yet Unique - An Exploration of Cosmologies Around the World
Aug 11, 2024 · ABSTRACT: Every culture has a distinct cosmology according to which social structures, beliefs and relations are ordered.
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[PDF] Cosmos and History: The Myth of the Eternal Return - Monoskop
... ELIADE. TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH BY WILLARD R, TRASK. HAEPER TORCHROOKS ... cosmogonies, the world was given existence through the sacrifice of a ...
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Origins Across Cultures: A Comparative Study of Creation Myths and ...
Jun 27, 2025 · Through comparative analysis, it identifies recurring archetypes such as separation, sacrifice, cosmic cycles, and divine creativity, while also ...<|separator|>
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https://oxfordre.com/religion/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-1195
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Historic Age Debate: Creation Ex Nihilo, Part 2 (of 4)
Jun 23, 2008 · So, the origin of the universe was a decisive battleground between Greco-Roman polytheism and Judeo-Christian monotheism.Missing: cosmos | Show results with:cosmos
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[PDF] Senior thesis work - UNI ScholarWorks
Monotheism vs. Polytheism? The first point of the creation story in Genesis that needs to be discussed is the central issue of polytheism versus monotheism.
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Time: Premodern concepts of Time - Palaeos
Most ancient cultures had a concept of time as cyclic, based no doubt, especially with agricultural societies, on the seasons of the year, and, with ...
[122]
Polytheism and the Victim in Ancient Egypt (Chapter 5)
Jun 4, 2021 · But the difference between Egyptian polytheism and Mosaic monotheism is not entirely simple, with a gradient between these ideal-types. The ...
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[PDF] Monotheism, Polytheism, Monolatry, or Henotheism? Toward an ...
In answer to the juxtaposition of polytheistic and monotheistic material in these passages, scholars argue that this phenomenon indicates either a rhetorical ...
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Hindu Dharma is Nearest to Scientific Concept of Time - satyameva
Hindu cosmology is the only system of cosmology whose vast time scales are comparable to those of physical cosmology. The Christian West also started out by ...Missing: Norse | Show results with:Norse
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Different cultural conceptions of time - David Cycleback
Jun 20, 2024 · Linear time is the standard convention used in science. Abrahamic religions chose a linear conception of time because it allows for the creation ...
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Science, Philosophy, Theology, & Culture - Religions and Time
These are time as a line and time as a circle. Linear time is apparent in daily life. Birth is followed by growth, aging, decay, and death.
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Cycles, Progress, and the Clash of Civilizations | by Benjamin Cain
Dec 16, 2020 · Cycle-based religions foster social collectivism, whereas linear ones promote individualism. Consider first the cyclical ones. Again, these go ...
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The problem of polytheisms: a serious challenge to theism - jstor
Dec 21, 2015 · If monotheism is in fact more likely than polytheism in that it provides a better explanation of the evidence, we must remember that the ...
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Cosmological Argument - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Jul 13, 2004 · The cosmological argument is part of classical natural theology, whose goal is to provide evidence for the claim that God exists.
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The Metaphysics of Causation - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Apr 14, 2022 · The metaphysics of causation asks questions about what it takes for claims like these to be true—what kind of relation the claims are about, and ...
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The Kalam Cosmological Argument | Popular Writings
The universe must have a beginning, and since nothing begins to exist without a cause, there must be a transcendent Creator of the universe.
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Hubble Big Bang - NASA Science
Oct 22, 2024 · Some 13.8 billion years ago, the universe was a dense, tremendously hot (too hot for the existence of atoms), extremely tiny point that ...
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[PDF] Evidence for the Big Bang - The University of Western Australia
Mar 29, 2020 · Today, our best estimate is that it's 13.7 billion years old. The age of the Universe ... According to the Big Bang theory, the Universe was ...
[134]
Infinite Regress Arguments - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Jul 20, 2018 · An infinite regress argument is an argument that makes appeal to an infinite regress. Usually such arguments take the form of objections to a theory.Regress and Theoretical Vices · Foundations, Coherence, and...
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Causal Approaches to Scientific Explanation
Mar 17, 2023 · This entry discusses some accounts of causal explanation developed after approximately 1990. For a discussion of earlier accounts of explanationThe Kairetic Account of... · Non-causal and Mathematical... · Bibliography
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Causation | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Pluralists believe that there is no single concept of causation, but a plurality of related concepts which we lump together under the word “causation.”
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The History of an Idea That Launched the Scientific Revolution
Jul 7, 2009 · Galileo discovered evidence to support Copernicus' heliocentric theory when he observed four moons in orbit around Jupiter.
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It all started with a Big Bang – the quest to unravel the mystery ...
Oct 30, 2024 · Let's look first at the evidence. In 1929, the American astronomer Edwin Hubble discovered that distant galaxies are moving away from each other ...
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Cosmic Anniversary: 'Big Bang Echo' Discovered 50 Years Ago Today
May 20, 2014 · On May 20, 1964, American radio astronomers Robert Wilson and Arno Penzias discovered the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB), the ancient light that ...
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WMAP Big Bang CMB Test - NASA
Feb 20, 2024 · Discovery of the Cosmic Microwave Background The existence of the CMB radiation was first predicted by Ralph Alpherin 1948 in connection with ...
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Big bang theory | McGraw Hill's AccessScience
From these investigations, the oldest stars in the universe have ages exceeding 13 billion years, in accordance with the timeline of the universe's development ...
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Confessions of a Failed Young-Earth Creationist - Personal Story
Nov 19, 2014 · Young-earth creationism had simply failed every empirical test that mainstream science demands. This is why there are no serious peer-reviewed creationist ...<|separator|>
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How old is the universe exactly? A new theory suggests that it's ...
Aug 29, 2023 · My research proposes a model that determines the universe's age to be 26.7 billion years, which accounts for the JWST's "impossible early galaxy" observations.
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[PDF] On literal and non-literal meaning of religious beliefs - PhilArchive
The metaphorical interpretation is based on literal meaning, but treats it as a carrier of a deeper and manifold sense, which expressed literally would ...
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Literal, Metaphorical, or Neither? - Reformed Forum
Sep 28, 2015 · A secular view of metaphor and analogy may have us believe all too easily that metaphorical language is not as “important” or “true” as literal language.
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Literal versus metaphorical interpretation of the Bible
Oct 26, 2024 · A metaphorical interpretation of the Bible takes the position that many (if not all) of the stories in the Bible are not meant to be taken literally.
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Against Biblical Literalism - Bleeding Heart Libertarians
Jun 3, 2016 · In a monotheistic religion, God is a metaphor for existence or the universe or something similar. "God's will" is a metaphor for necessary ...<|separator|>
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Relativism - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Sep 11, 2015 · Relativists argue that beliefs and values get their justification or truth only relative to specific epistemic systems or practices (see Kusch ...
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[PDF] Critiquing Cultural Relativism - Digital Commons @ IWU
Cultural relativism claims any set of customs is as valid as any other, and that experience is man's primary connection to reality.
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Philosophical Problems With Moral Relativism
Moral relativism argues there are no objective moral values, that everything is relative, and that there are no values that transcend culture or the individual.
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[PDF] A Cultural Critique of Cultural Relativism Author(s): Xiaorong Li Source
The cultural critique of cultural relativism undermines the idea that judgments on freedom and human rights are culturally relative, by showing that cultural ...
[152]
The Moral Argument for God | Reasonable Faith
Dec 23, 2013 · I've argued that objective moral values are rooted in God's nature, not in His will, and that that nature expresses itself toward us in the ...
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Moral Arguments for the Existence of God
Jun 12, 2014 · Moral arguments for God's existence form a diverse family of arguments that reason from some feature of morality or the moral life to the existence of God.
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Freedom by Necessity - | Lapham's Quarterly
Unlike most atheists and agnostics—in fact, unlike most devout believers—Dostoevsky grasps that God is the source of human freedom, not the obstacle to it.
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[PDF] Craig on God and Morality - PhilArchive
Craig admits this point himself when he argues that objective moral values exist. He says: “We know objective moral values exist because we clearly apprehend ...
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Do People Who Believe in God Report More Meaning in Their Lives ...
Geertz (1973) argues that today meaning making is the fundamental function of religious belief. Some theorists and theologians argue that the sense of purpose ...
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Religion and Suicide Risk: a systematic review - PMC
Several studies have found lower rates of suicide attempts among persons who attend religious services, after adjusting for social support. In the Canadian ...
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Religious Affiliation and Suicide Attempt | American Journal of ...
Dec 1, 2004 · Suicide rates are lower in religious countries than in secular ones (1, 2). Some of this difference may be due to underreporting in religious ...