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Ruthlessness

Ruthlessness is the quality of having or showing no pity or compassion, often manifesting as merciless or remorseless behavior in the pursuit of objectives, particularly when such actions involve disregarding the welfare, rights, or feelings of others.^[1]^[2] In psychological frameworks, it aligns closely with elements of the Dark Triad personality traits—narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy—where individuals exhibit callous manipulation, selfishness, and a strategic disregard for interpersonal harm to achieve dominance or advantage.^[3]^[4] Empirical studies link these traits, including ruthlessness, to elevated competitiveness and short-term gains in hierarchical or zero-sum contexts, such as sports or corporate environments, by fostering decisive action unencumbered by hesitation or altruism.^[4]^[5] However, evidence also indicates drawbacks, including eroded trust, follower disengagement, and diminished long-term performance, as ruthless tactics provoke backlash in interdependent or repeated interactions.^[6]^[7] In leadership, ruthlessness has enabled rapid ascent and organizational turnarounds in cutthroat sectors like automotive manufacturing, yet it correlates with higher risks of ethical lapses and unit-level dysfunction in structured settings like military or business teams.^[5]^[8] From a causal standpoint, its utility hinges on environmental demands: advantageous in resource-scarce or adversarial scenarios where empathy incurs costs, but maladaptive where cooperation yields mutual benefits, underscoring its adaptive variability rather than inherent virtue or vice.^[9]^[10]

Etymology and Definitions

Historical Origins

The term "ruthless" emerged in Middle English around 1330, denoting a lack of pity or compassion.^[11] It derives from "ruth," a noun signifying sorrow, repentance, or mercy, combined with the suffix "-less" indicating absence.^[12] "Ruth" itself traces to Old English "hrēow," meaning regret or pity, rooted in Proto-Germanic "*hreuwaną," which conveyed rueful emotion or remorse. This linguistic formation reflects a negation of empathetic restraint, aligning with early medieval contexts where mercy was often contrasted with decisive action in feudal or ecclesiastical writings.^[13] Early attestations appear in religious and moral texts, such as translations of biblical or homiletic works emphasizing divine judgment without leniency.^[11] By the 14th century, "ruthless" described unsparing behavior, as in characterizations of tyrants or warriors devoid of clemency, paralleling terms like "pitiless" but gaining specificity through its Germanic heritage.^[12] The antonym "ruthful," meaning compassionate or sorrowful, coexisted from the 13th century but declined after the 17th, leaving "ruthless" as the dominant unpaired form in modern English.^[14] Over centuries, the word's usage expanded beyond literal mercilessness to imply strategic amorality, evident in 19th-century literature depicting industrialists or conquerors, though its core etymological sense of pity's absence persisted without semantic shift.^[1] This evolution underscores a cultural valuation of compassion as a default virtue in Anglo-Saxon traditions, where its negation highlighted exceptional severity.^[12]

Core Meanings and Variations

Ruthlessness denotes the quality of acting without pity, compassion, or mercy, particularly when pursuing personal or organizational objectives that may inflict harm on others. Dictionaries consistently define it as deriving from "ruthless," an adjective describing behavior that is merciless or cruel, with no regard for the suffering caused.^[1] ^[15] This core sense emphasizes a deliberate indifference to ethical constraints imposed by empathy, enabling decisive action unhindered by moral qualms about consequences to victims.^[16] While the primary meaning centers on interpersonal cruelty or pitilessness, variations arise in contextual usage, where the term shades toward pragmatic efficiency rather than overt sadism. For instance, in strategic or competitive domains, ruthlessness may connote unrelenting resolve and elimination of obstacles without sentimentality, as seen in descriptions of "ruthless determination" in high-stakes environments like business negotiations or military tactics.^[17] Synonyms such as mercilessness, heartlessness, and brutality highlight gradations: mercilessness implies targeted lack of forgiveness, while savagery evokes more visceral violence, reflecting how the concept adapts to describe either calculated detachment or unrestrained ferocity.^[18] These nuances persist across English usage, though the term invariably carries a negative valence tied to the forfeiture of humane restraint.^[19]

Psychological Dimensions

Links to Personality Traits

Ruthlessness, characterized by a willingness to disregard others' welfare for personal gain, correlates strongly with the Dark Triad of personality traits: Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy.^[20] These traits, assessed via measures like the Short Dark Triad (SD3) scale, reflect interpersonal antagonism and self-interested behavior, with ruthlessness emerging as a core feature, particularly in psychopathy's callous-unemotional dimension. Empirical studies using self-report and observer ratings consistently show that individuals scoring high on Dark Triad traits exhibit reduced empathy and heightened manipulativeness, enabling ruthless actions in competitive or hierarchical contexts.^[3]^[21] Psychopathy, in particular, encompasses facets of emotional detachment and instrumental aggression, where ruthlessness manifests as calculated exploitation without remorse. Meta-analyses of psychopathy inventories, such as the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R), link these traits to negative correlations with prosocial behaviors, with effect sizes indicating moderate to strong associations (r ≈ -0.40 to -0.60) between psychopathic features and interpersonal warmth.^[22] Machiavellianism amplifies this through strategic duplicity and cynicism toward moral norms, often prioritizing long-term self-advancement over ethical constraints, as evidenced in longitudinal studies of decision-making under scarcity.^[3] Narcissism contributes via grandiose entitlement, where ruthless tendencies arise in response to perceived threats to self-image, though this is less consistent across subtypes.^[20] In the Big Five model, ruthlessness inversely relates to low Agreeableness, which encompasses compassion and cooperation; disagreeable individuals display toughness and competitiveness, traits that can veer into selfishness and callousness.^[23] Correlations between low Agreeableness and Dark Triad scores range from r = -0.30 to -0.50 in large-sample surveys, suggesting a shared variance in antagonism. Conscientiousness shows a weaker, sometimes negative link, as high impulsivity (low Conscientiousness) in psychopathy facilitates uninhibited ruthlessness, though orderly subtypes may channel it adaptively.^[22] These associations hold across diverse populations, including non-clinical samples, but are moderated by context, with cultural factors influencing expression.^[4] Peer-reviewed research prioritizes these models over anecdotal accounts, underscoring genetic and environmental contributions to trait stability, with heritability estimates for Dark Triad facets around 40-60%.^[10]

Empirical Research Findings

Empirical studies operationalize ruthlessness as a facet of psychopathic and Machiavellian personality traits within the Dark Triad framework, defined by callousness, deceitfulness, and instrumental aggression toward others for self-advancement.^[3] Research consistently links high ruthlessness scores to low empathy and moral disengagement, with psychopathy subscales measuring fearless dominance and self-centered impulsivity predicting exploitative behaviors in social and professional contexts.^[10] For instance, Machiavellianism, encompassing cynicism and ruthless manipulation, correlates with disregard for conventional morality and strategic deception, as evidenced in personality assessments like the MACH-IV scale.^[24] In organizational psychology, ruthlessness demonstrates adaptive outcomes in hierarchical environments. A study of psychopathic traits in the workplace found that ruthless manipulation exhibited a positive zero-order correlation with monthly salary, independent of other factors like education, indicating that such traits facilitate resource acquisition and promotion in competitive settings.^[25] Meta-analytic evidence further reveals that mental toughness, when intertwined with Dark Triad elements, amplifies ruthlessness, associating it with irresponsibility and interpersonal antagonism that can enhance individual performance but impair long-term team dynamics.^[10] Conversely, psychopathic ruthlessness shows negative ties to stress vulnerability, with high scorers displaying immunity to anxiety-driven moral constraints.^[22] Experimental manipulations provide causal insights into ruthlessness. Administration of lorazepam, a benzodiazepine anxiolytic, hardened participants' interpersonal moral judgments, reducing utilitarian concerns and increasing acceptance of ruthless outcomes in hypothetical dilemmas, suggesting anxiety inhibition underlies callous decision-making.^[26] However, empirical validation of elevated ruthlessness in stereotypically ruthless groups, such as organized crime members, remains absent, with no confirmed overrepresentation of psychopathic traits despite cultural depictions.^[27] These findings underscore ruthlessness as a double-edged trait: empirically tied to short-term gains via reduced inhibition but risking relational and ethical costs, with heritability estimates from twin studies placing psychopathic components around 40-60%.^[3]

Evolutionary and Biological Foundations

Manifestations in Nature

In the natural world, behaviors exhibiting ruthlessness—characterized by the elimination of competitors or kin without regard for their welfare to maximize reproductive success—emerge as evolutionarily adaptive strategies. These include infanticide, cannibalism, and intraspecific aggression, which prioritize genetic propagation over communal harmony. Such actions are driven by selection pressures favoring individuals who secure resources and mating opportunities at the expense of others, as evidenced in various taxa.^[28]^[29] Infanticide exemplifies this in social mammals like lions (Panthera leo), where incoming coalition males systematically kill cubs sired by predecessors to terminate lactational amenorrhea in females, hastening their own breeding opportunities. This behavior, documented across African savanna populations, results in up to 25-50% cub mortality from such takeovers, with males assessing cub vulnerability based on age and kinship cues. Empirical observations from long-term studies in the Serengeti confirm its prevalence, countering claims of it being a statistical artifact by highlighting direct behavioral responses to tenure threats. Female lions mitigate risks through synchronized breeding and group defense, yet the strategy persists due to its net fitness gains for perpetrators.^[30]^[31]^[32] Cannibalism manifests similarly as a resource-acquisition tactic, particularly under nutritional stress or high competition, allowing cannibals to convert conspecifics into biomass for growth and reproduction. In amphibians like damselfly larvae, adults prey on juveniles to reduce future rivals, enhancing per capita resource access; this is modeled as an evolutionarily stable strategy when juvenile density exceeds thresholds. Filial cannibalism occurs in fish species such as smallmouth bass, where parents consume partial broods to reallocate energy during scarcity, boosting overall offspring survival rates by 10-20% in experimental settings. Sexual cannibalism in arachnids, including orb-weaving spiders, provides females with protein gains post-mating, increasing egg production by up to 30%, though males evolve counter-adaptations like feigning death. These patterns underscore cannibalism's role in asymmetric power dynamics, favoring dominant individuals.^[29]^[33]^[34] Parasitic manipulation further illustrates ruthless exploitation, as seen in nematodes preyed upon by fungi like Arthrobotrys oligospora, which forms constricting rings to ensnare and digest hosts alive, optimizing nutrient extraction in soil ecosystems. In vertebrates, toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma gondii) alters rodent behavior to increase predation risk by cats, its definitive hosts, thereby completing life cycles; infection rates reach 30-50% in wild mice, amplifying transmission without regard for intermediate host viability. Such interspecific tactics, while not intraspecific, reveal causal mechanisms where manipulators hijack host physiology for propagation, embodying selection for unyielding opportunism.^[35]^[36]

Adaptive Roles in Human Survival

In ancestral human environments characterized by chronic resource scarcity, high pathogen loads, and frequent intergroup conflict, traits associated with ruthlessness—such as callousness, low empathy, and willingness to exploit or aggress—likely enhanced individual survival and reproductive success by facilitating rapid decision-making and opportunistic resource acquisition.^[37] These traits align with a "fast" life-history strategy, where organisms prioritize immediate reproduction and risk-taking over long-term investments in cooperation or offspring care, a pattern observed across species in unpredictable ecologies.^[38] Empirical models suggest that such strategies evolved because hesitation or excessive concern for others' welfare could prove fatal in contexts demanding swift, self-prioritizing actions, like defending territory or seizing mates.^[39] Anthropological data from small-scale societies provide direct evidence of ruthlessness's adaptive value. Among the Yanomami people of the Amazon, males designated as "unokai"—those who had killed an enemy in raid or revenge—achieved markedly higher reproductive output, with Chagnon's longitudinal observations revealing that unokai averaged 2.5 times more wives and nearly three times more children than non-unokai peers.^[40] This correlation persisted despite the risks of retaliation, indicating that the status and alliances gained through demonstrated ruthlessness outweighed mortality costs, thereby propagating genes for aggressive dispositions.^[41] Similar patterns appear in other hunter-gatherer groups, where participation in lethal violence correlated with elevated mating success, underscoring how ruthlessness enabled dominance in zero-sum competitions for limited partners and provisions.^[42] From a genetic standpoint, psychopathic traits—encompassing interpersonal callousness and instrumental aggression, core components of ruthlessness—may represent frequency-dependent adaptations, thriving at low prevalences in nomadic bands where a minority of bold, unempathetic individuals could lead raids or enforce group cohesion during crises.^[43] Cross-national studies further link elevated Dark Triad traits (narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy) to ecological harshness, such as high inequality and mortality risks, suggesting calibration to ancestral pressures where empathy-constrained behavior maximized fitness by minimizing exploitation by rivals.^[44] However, these advantages were context-specific; in stable, cooperative settings, excessive ruthlessness incurred social exclusion, balancing its prevalence in populations.^[37]

Philosophical and Ethical Perspectives

Classical and Early Modern Views

In ancient Greek thought, ruthlessness manifested in political realism, as exemplified by Thucydides' account of the Melian Dialogue in 416 BCE, where Athenian envoys dismissed appeals to justice, asserting that "the strong do what they can and the weak suffer what they must," prioritizing imperial power over moral considerations.^[45] This reflected a pragmatic acceptance of harsh measures to maintain dominance, contrasting with idealistic portrayals in philosophy. Aristotle, in the Nicomachean Ethics (circa 350 BCE), treated brutality—akin to uncontrolled ruthlessness—as a vice stemming from morbid dispositions or excess, opposing it to virtues like self-control and proper emotional balance, where pity (eleos) served as a mean between cruelty and deficiency.^[46] Roman philosophers emphasized clemency (clementia) as a stabilizing virtue for rulers, viewing unchecked ruthlessness as tyrannical. Cicero, in works like Pro Marcello (46 BCE), advocated humane treatment of enemies in war, promoting clemency to foster loyalty without weakness, distinguishing it from cruelty that invites rebellion.^[47] Seneca, in De Clementia (55–56 CE), advised Emperor Nero that clemency opposes cruelty—an "atrocious mindset" in penalties—and requires rulers to temper justice with restraint, not emotional pity, to preserve authority and public order, as excessive mercy invites disorder while savagery erodes legitimacy.^[48] Early modern thinkers shifted toward endorsing calculated ruthlessness for political efficacy. Niccolò Machiavelli, in The Prince (1513), Chapter 17, argued that well-used cruelty—executed decisively at once, as by Cesare Borgia in unifying Romagna around 1500—restores order more effectively than misguided clemency, which, as in Florence's handling of Pistoia, permits chaos; he deemed it safer for princes to be feared than loved, provided hatred is avoided by sparing citizens' property.^[49] Thomas Hobbes, in Leviathan (1651), portrayed human nature in the state of nature as inherently selfish and prone to "war of all against all," necessitating an absolute sovereign to suppress innate cruelty through coercive power, framing ruthlessness as a default impulse curbed only by overriding authority.^[50]

Modern Ethical Analyses

In consequentialist frameworks, particularly utilitarianism, ruthlessness can be ethically defensible when it maximizes overall welfare, as actions are evaluated by their outcomes rather than inherent rightness. For instance, during the COVID-19 pandemic, state triage protocols prioritizing patients likely to derive the most benefit were critiqued as "ruthless utilitarianism" for potentially allocating scarce resources away from vulnerable groups, such as Black and Latinx patients who faced higher mortality risks—3.5 times and nearly twice that of White patients, respectively—raising concerns of disparate impact and legal liability under civil rights laws.^[51] However, proponents argue such decisions prevent greater harm, aligning with empirical evidence that utilitarian calculations in crises save more lives net, though they risk eroding public trust if perceived as discriminatory.^[51] Deontological ethics, rooted in Kantian principles, rejects ruthlessness as it instrumentalizes individuals, treating them as means to ends rather than ends in themselves, violating the categorical imperative to respect human dignity universally.^[52] This view holds that duties like non-maleficence apply absolutely, precluding actions that harm innocents for strategic gains, even if consequentially beneficial; for example, authoritarian leaders' purges or suppressions, while consolidating power short-term, foster moral disengagement and dehumanization, undermining legitimacy over time.^[52] Empirical observations from historical cases, such as Stalin's or Mao's regimes, support this by showing how such tactics erode civic cohesion and invite backlash, prioritizing rule adherence over outcome optimization.^[52] Virtue ethics frames ruthlessness as a character flaw, antithetical to virtues like compassion and justice, which cultivate eudaimonic flourishing through balanced dispositions rather than extreme instrumentalism.^[53] In this tradition, habitual ruthlessness—willingness to sacrifice others without malice—corrupts the agent's moral integrity, fostering vices that prioritize self-interest over relational harmony, as seen in analyses where it enables short-term dominance but leads to isolation and instability.^[53]^[52] Thomas Nagel's 1978 analysis highlights tensions in public morality, where institutional roles demand ruthlessness incompatible with private scruples, such as authorizing harms for collective security that one would personally abhor, challenging the unity of moral personality and risking compartmentalization of ethics.^[54] Contemporary extensions, like those in authoritarian leadership studies, conclude ruthlessness offers tactical advantages—deterrence and decisiveness—but constitutes moral failure by subverting empathy and rights, with data from regime analyses indicating long-term governance fragility due to eroded trust and ethical corrosion.^[52] These perspectives underscore that while ruthlessness may yield verifiable efficiencies in high-stakes contexts, its ethical costs often outweigh benefits under scrutiny from human rights frameworks dominant since the post-World War II era.^[52]

Ruthlessness in Practice

In Leadership and Competition

In leadership, ruthlessness enables executives to prioritize organizational imperatives over individual sentiments, facilitating swift eliminations of underperforming elements and aggressive resource reallocation. Psychopathic traits, which include a pronounced lack of empathy and propensity for dominance, are estimated at 12% prevalence among senior corporate leaders, versus approximately 1% in the general population, indicating a selective advantage for hierarchical ascent in competitive arenas.^[55] ^[56] This pattern aligns with empirical correlations between such traits and ruthless self-advancement, which positively predict dominant leadership emergence.^[57] Longitudinal research demonstrates that psychopathy contributes to superior career trajectories, with affected individuals reaching upper echelons of organizations and securing higher financial outcomes over 15-year spans.^[58] Similarly, Machiavellianism—marked by cynical pragmatism and manipulative strategizing—associates with advanced leadership levels and elevated career satisfaction, as evidenced in analyses of German business professionals controlling for tenure and firm size.^[58] These traits underpin decisive actions, such as mass layoffs or adversarial mergers, which can yield short-term competitive gains by streamlining operations amid market pressures. In business competition, ruthlessness manifests through unyielding tactics like predatory pricing, intellectual property exploitation, or workforce attrition to undercut rivals, often amplifying success in zero-sum environments. Dark triad attributes foster this by curbing altruism and bolstering intimidation in negotiations, thereby inhibiting cooperative concessions that erode market position.^[58] For example, psychopathic tendencies correlate with fearless risk-taking and charisma that propel figures like certain tech innovators to dominance, though outcomes hinge on contextual fit.^[58] Meta-analytic syntheses of Machiavellian leadership across 163 samples and over 510,000 participants reveal neither uniform reward nor penalty, but conditional efficacy moderated by political skill, which channels predatory instincts into adaptive, high-performance behaviors during intense rivalries.^[59] Such dynamics underscore ruthlessness's utility in volatile sectors, where empathy-constrained decisions preserve agility against entrenched competitors.

Historical Case Studies

Genghis Khan (c. 1162–1227), originally named Temüjin, exemplified ruthlessness in consolidating power among Mongol tribes and expanding his empire through calculated terror. After escaping captivity and allying with key figures, he systematically eliminated rivals, including ordering the execution of the Merkits who had captured his wife in 1204 and betraying former ally Jamukha by boiling him alive in 1206 following his proclamation as Great Khan.^[60] This internal purging unified fractious nomadic groups under a merit-based system, enabling conquests that killed an estimated 40 million people—about 10% of the world's population at the time—via mass slaughters designed to demoralize enemies, such as stacking skulls into pyramids outside captured cities to induce preemptive surrenders.^[61] During the 1219–1221 invasion of the Khwarezmian Empire, after the shah's envoys killed Mongol ambassadors, Genghis razed cities like Nishapur and Merv, reportedly slaughtering over 1.7 million in the latter alone, though these figures from Persian chroniclers may reflect exaggeration for propaganda; the tactic's effectiveness lay in its psychological impact, minimizing prolonged sieges and facilitating the empire's rapid growth to 9 million square miles by his death.^[60]^[61] Joseph Stalin (1878–1953) demonstrated ruthlessness in the Great Purge of 1936–1938, a campaign to eliminate perceived threats to his rule within the Soviet Communist Party, military, and society. Triggered by fears of internal dissent and external enemies, Stalin orchestrated show trials convicting old Bolsheviks like Nikolai Bukharin and Lev Kamenev of fabricated treason, resulting in their executions; declassified Soviet archives confirm at least 681,692 executions during this period, with millions more arrested and sent to Gulag labor camps where mortality rates exceeded 10% annually due to starvation and forced labor.^[62] This purge decimated the Red Army's officer corps, executing or imprisoning 35,000 of 80,000 senior officers, which contributed to early Soviet setbacks in World War II, yet it centralized power under Stalin, enabling industrialization via the Five-Year Plans that boosted steel production from 4 million tons in 1928 to 18 million by 1940, albeit at the cost of 5–7 million famine deaths in Ukraine (Holodomor, 1932–1933) enforced through grain seizures to break peasant resistance.^[62]^[63] Stalin's methods, including NKVD quotas for arrests, reflected a paranoid calculus prioritizing loyalty over competence, sustaining his dictatorship until his death.^[62] Alexander the Great (356–323 BCE) employed ruthless tactics to suppress rebellions and secure his empire after succeeding Philip II in 336 BCE. Upon quelling the Greek city-state revolt, he razed Thebes in 335 BCE, killing 6,000 inhabitants and selling 30,000 into slavery as a warning to other poleis, which ensured nominal loyalty during his Persian campaigns; this preemptive brutality, combined with scorched-earth policies, facilitated victories like the Granicus (334 BCE) and Issus (333 BCE).^[64] During the Siege of Tyre (332 BCE), after a seven-month resistance, Alexander crucified 2,000 survivors and threw 6,000 into the sea, tactics drawn from Persian precedents but amplified to deter coastal strongholds, enabling his fleet's dominance and advance to Egypt.^[65] Such measures, while alienating some Macedonian troops—as seen in the 327 BCE mutiny at the Hyphasis River—underpinned conquests spanning 2 million square miles, though his death at 32 left the empire fragmented due to succession struggles unmitigated by his unyielding personal command.^[64]

Criticisms and Consequences

Ethical and Moral Objections

Ethical objections to ruthlessness frequently invoke deontological frameworks, positing that it inherently violates duties to respect human dignity by instrumentalizing individuals as means to strategic ends rather than treating them as autonomous ends in themselves. This aligns with Kantian imperatives, which prohibit actions that dehumanize others through calculated disregard for their rights and welfare, even under pressures of necessity or competition.^[52] Such approaches argue that ruthlessness constitutes a moral failure by prioritizing outcomes over categorical moral rules, fostering a logic where dissenters or subordinates are expendable, thus eroding the foundational reciprocity essential to ethical interpersonal relations.^[52] From a virtue ethics standpoint, ruthlessness undermines the cultivation of character traits necessary for human flourishing, as it desensitizes agents to suffering and impairs self-knowledge through habitual complicity in harm. Virtuous individuals, by contrast, prioritize empathy and accountability, avoiding behaviors that stupefy moral reflection or rationalize cruelty via dehumanization.^[66]^[52] This perspective holds that persistent ruthlessness not only distorts the agent's integrity but also perpetuates systemic vices, such as bureaucratic indifference, where leaders institutionalize violence under the guise of efficacy, ultimately hindering personal and communal eudaimonia.^[66] Moral critiques further contend that ruthlessness contravenes principles of justice and equity embedded in religious traditions, such as Christian teachings emphasizing compassion and the imago Dei, which deem the willful infliction of harm without remorse as antithetical to divine commands against exploiting the vulnerable.^[67] These objections highlight how ruthlessness, by normalizing transactional relations over covenantal bonds, risks broader ethical decay, including the erosion of trust and legitimacy in social structures.^[52]

Empirical Evidence of Drawbacks

Empirical research links ruthlessness, often operationalized through dark triad traits like Machiavellianism and psychopathy, to adverse organizational outcomes, including increased counterproductive work behaviors and diminished employee well-being. A study of 347 employees found that leaders' Machiavellianism positively predicts perceived abusive supervision, which in turn mediates higher levels of counterproductive work behaviors such as sabotage and withdrawal.^[68] Similarly, Machiavellian tendencies facilitate emotional manipulation, correlating with subordinates' negative emotions, eroded self-confidence, burnout, and reduced workplace performance.^[69]^[70] These patterns contribute to broader issues like employee distress, emotional exhaustion, and elevated turnover intentions.^[71] In competitive sectors, ruthlessness yields short-term advantages but long-term underperformance. Analysis of 152 hedge fund managers revealed that those scoring higher on dark triad traits—encompassing psychopathic and Machiavellian elements—achieved significantly lower risk-adjusted returns, averaging 0.95% annually from 2005 to 2015 compared to 2.1% for lower-trait peers, alongside greater investment errors.^[72]^[73] Meta-analytic evidence across multiple studies confirms dark triad traits' modest to substantial negative associations with multisource-rated job performance and positive links to counterproductive behaviors, undermining team cohesion and ethical compliance.^[74]^[75] Ruthless leadership also erodes subordinate career progression and organizational stability. Leaders exhibiting dark triad traits, including psychopathy, impair social exchanges, provoking retaliatory actions and reducing employees' objective career success metrics like promotions and salary growth.^[76]^[77] Primary psychopathy in leaders further damages interpersonal relationships, fostering distrust and hindering sustained collaboration essential for innovation and adaptability.^[78] These effects persist across hierarchies, with reduced leader performance in non-executive roles amplifying systemic risks like fraud propensity among psychopathic executives.^[79]

Cultural Depictions

In Literature and Media

In William Shakespeare's Macbeth (c. 1606), ruthlessness manifests as the driving force behind the protagonist's murderous ascent to power, where he eliminates rivals including King Duncan and Banquo without remorse, illustrating how such traits erode moral boundaries and invite downfall. Lady Macbeth's manipulation, goading her husband toward "unsex me here" to embrace pitiless action, exemplifies the psychological toll of endorsing cruelty for ambition.^[80] This portrayal aligns with classical tragedy's caution against unchecked ruthlessness, as Macbeth's regime devolves into paranoia and isolation, culminating in his defeat at Dunsinane in 1057 (per historical interpolation).^[80] Modern literature extends this theme to anti-heroes navigating survival or dominance. In Cormac McCarthy's Blood Meridian (1985), the character Judge Holden embodies transcendent ruthlessness, theorizing violence as an eternal principle while scalping adversaries across the 1840s American frontier, a depiction drawn from historical Apache-Mexican conflicts but amplified for philosophical inquiry into human savagery.^[81] Such figures succeed temporarily through sheer brutality—Holden evades death repeatedly—yet the narrative critiques their worldview as fostering endless war, unsupported by empirical redemption. In film and television, ruthlessness often characterizes villains or flawed protagonists in power struggles. The Godfather trilogy (1972-1990), adapted from Mario Puzo's 1969 novel, depicts Michael Corleone's evolution into a mafia don who consolidates control via assassinations, such as the 1945-1955 New York family wars, prioritizing familial legacy over ethics. Critics note this as glorifying strategic mercilessness, with Michael's 1979 baptism-murder montage symbolizing moral inversion.^[82] Similarly, in Game of Thrones (2011-2019), Tywin Lannister wields ruthlessness to preserve house dominance, orchestrating the Red Wedding massacre of 300 men in 271 AC (Westerosi calendar), a tactic rooted in medieval feuds but condemned for its betrayal.^[83] These media examples highlight ruthlessness's short-term efficacy in hierarchical conflicts, though long-term portrayals emphasize isolation and vendettas, as with Corleone's alienated end.^[84]

Societal and Ideological Portrayals

In contemporary Western societies, ruthlessness is often portrayed as a double-edged trait essential for success in hyper-competitive domains such as business and politics, yet fraught with ethical peril. Empirical studies indicate that traits associated with ruthlessness, including elements of the Dark Triad (psychopathy, Machiavellianism, narcissism), are disproportionately prevalent among corporate executives, with psychopathy rates estimated at 4-12% in CEOs compared to 1% in the general population, suggesting a societal mechanism that selects for or tolerates such behaviors in pursuit of organizational dominance.^[85] This portrayal aligns with cultural narratives glorifying "cutthroat" ambition, as seen in biographies of figures like Steve Jobs, who was described by colleagues as willing to betray allies for innovation goals, framing ruthlessness as a catalyst for breakthroughs amid stagnant alternatives. However, this admiration coexists with widespread condemnation, particularly in media and psychological discourse, where it is linked to eroded trust and interpersonal harm, with research showing that unchecked ruthlessness correlates with higher rates of workplace toxicity and long-term leadership failure.^[86] Ideologically, ruthlessness finds endorsement in realist traditions emphasizing power dynamics and survival, such as Machiavellian statecraft, where it is depicted not as moral aberration but as pragmatic necessity for securing collective interests against adversaries. Political realists argue that in anarchic international systems, leaders must prioritize efficacy over sentiment, as evidenced by historical analyses of figures like Otto von Bismarck, whose unification of Germany involved calculated deceptions and suppressions justified as advancing national stability over individual scruples.^[54] Conversely, liberal and humanitarian ideologies portray ruthlessness as antithetical to progress, associating it with authoritarian excess and systemic violence; for instance, studies on extremist ideologies link it to mass atrocities, where it manifests as a tool for enforcing ideological purity rather than adaptive strategy.^[87] Recent empirical work in political psychology reinforces this critique, finding that ruthless tactics yield short-term gains but net negatives in democratic contexts, as they undermine coalitions and public legitimacy, with collaborative virtues outperforming force in sustaining influence over time.^[88]^[89] In authoritarian frameworks, ruthlessness is ideologically rationalized as strategic utility for regime consolidation, with analyses of leaders like Vladimir Lenin highlighting its role in suppressing dissent to achieve revolutionary ends, though often at the cost of internal purges that destabilized outcomes.^[52] This view persists in some populist movements, where it is aestheticized as defiant strength against perceived elite softness, yet academic scrutiny reveals it as prone to moral failure, fostering cycles of paranoia and inefficiency absent counterbalancing institutions. Sources advancing such portrayals, including those from progressive outlets, may underemphasize ruthlessness's instrumental successes in high-stakes survival scenarios, reflecting a bias toward empathetic governance models that prioritize equity over decisive action. Overall, these ideological divides underscore a causal tension: ruthlessness enables rapid power accrual but risks backlash when societal norms shift toward accountability and reciprocity.

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Ruthless definition: without pity or compassion; cruel; merciless.. See ... ruthlessness noun. Discover More. Word History and Origins. Origin of ruthless.
[16]
RUTHLESSNESS | English meaning - Cambridge Dictionary
He behaved with utter ruthlessness. There was a certain ruthlessness about her. See. ruthless.
[17]
Ruthlessness - Definition, Meaning & Synonyms - Vocabulary.com
and the characteristic of acting this way is ruthlessness. A football player's ...
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RUTHLESSNESS definition and meaning | Collins English Dictionary
Definition of 'ruthlessness'. COBUILD frequency band. ruthlessness. a noun derived from ruthless. Collins English Dictionary. Copyright ©HarperCollins ...
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Effect of Narcissism, Psychopathy, and Machiavellianism on ...
Feb 21, 2019 · ... dark triad that consists of narcissism, psychopathy and Machiavellianism. ... The Dark Triad, the Big Five, and the HEXACO model. Pers. Individ ...
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How Machiavellianism, Psychopathy, and Narcissism Affect ...
Apr 12, 2019 · The three elements of the dark triad include Machiavellianism, psychopathy ... For individuals with dark triad, their ruthlessness ...
[22]
Psychopathic personality traits stress immunity and social potency ...
Mar 27, 2023 · ... Big Five personality traits (64), and maladaptive personality traits ... ruthlessness and an intention to manipulate others), (2) ...
[23]
Big Five Personality Model - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
In Canada, Hart and Hare (1994) found that psychopathy was most strongly (negatively) correlated with Agreeableness and Conscientiousness. ... ruthless and aloof ...
[24]
Machiavellianism on quality of life: The role of lifestyle, age, gender ...
Machiavellianism is an undesirable personality trait, and its hallmark characteristics are cynicism, ruthlessness, an ignorance of morality, deception, and ...
[25]
[PDF] Psychopathy facilitates workplace success - Semantic Scholar
Ruthless manipulation had a positive zero-order correlation with monthly salary as well, but it did not have an independent contribution to the prediction of ...
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A dose of ruthlessness: Interpersonal moral judgment is hardened ...
A dose of ruthlessness: Interpersonal moral judgment is hardened by the anti-anxiety drug lorazepam. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 142(3), 612– ...
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Mafia and psychopathy - PubMed
In popular culture, Mafia members are often portrayed as ruthless, callous and remorseless, but there is no empirical research on their personality traits.
[28]
In the Jungle - PMC - NIH
For lions, infanticide takes place as a result of the fierce competition among males for a position of leadership in the social structure of lions, which is ...
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The evolution of targeted cannibalism and cannibal-induced ...
Aug 23, 2021 · Cannibalism is one such strategy; by killing and consuming their intraspecific competitors, cannibals enhance their own performance.
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Understanding lion infanticide - Africa Geographic
Jan 4, 2019 · Infanticide in lions is common, and here we will briefly look into the theories as to why lions, both males and females, commit such an act.
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[PDF] Infanticide Is No Fallacy - College of Biological Sciences
Although our view of lion infanticide is largely statistical, the magnitude of the effect is huge, and the lions are highly sensi- tive to the associated risks ...
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[PDF] Adaptation of female lions to infanticide by incoming males
We show how these responses may reduce the frequency with which females lose offspring to infanticidal males, thus in- creasing their own lifetime reproductive ...<|separator|>
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Parent-offspring cannibalism throughout the animal kingdom
Jun 24, 2022 · These forms of cannibalism are thought to provide adaptive benefits to cannibals under a range of circumstances, primarily by allowing parents ...
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The selective forces behind sexual cannibalism - EMBO Press
Jan 17, 2023 · Sexual cannibalism, whereby females eat males after copulation, does make sense from an evolutionary point of view and is even sustained by natural selection.Male Cannibalism · A Convenient Snack · Selective Forces At Work<|control11|><|separator|>
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Meet the fungus that can transform into a carnivorous predator
Dec 12, 2023 · In the case of Arthrobotrys oligospora, it entails transforming into a merciless predator. ... These predators are nature's pest control ...
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ANIMAL SUFFERING, EVOLUTION, AND THE ORIGINS OF EVIL
Jun 1, 2014 · Finally, one might ask why parasites should reap the evolutionary benefits of such ruthlessly selfish behaviors—taking “a tremendous toll of ...<|separator|>
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Is it good to be bad? An evolutionary analysis of the adaptive ... - NIH
One of the most commonly used measures is the Dark Triad, which is a construct of three non-pathological, socially aversive personalities: Machiavellism, ...
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A life history approach to understanding the Dark Triad - ScienceDirect
Researchers adopting an evolutionary perspective have conceptualized the Dark Triad as an exploitative interpersonal style reflective of a fast life history ...
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Oct 4, 2021 · According to this view, the risk-taking, opportunistic, and callous traits of psychopaths increased their reproductive success in past ...
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... violence, might affect reproductive success. Chagnon found (4) that 44% of Yanomamö males over age 25 had earned the designation unokai, meaning they had ...
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Anthropology: Tribal warfare - Nature
Feb 20, 2013 · Chagnon goes on to describe how he learned about Yanomami ... violence on reproductive success; and repeated the process over decades of research.
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Life histories, blood revenge, and reproductive success among the ...
May 19, 2009 · She maintains that Yanomamo male coalitional violence, like that of the Waorani, is ultimately all about revenge. However, she also suggests ...
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The Dark Triad Traits from a Life History Perspective in Six Countries
Aug 29, 2017 · The Dark Triad traits are characterized by grandiosity and self-centeredness (i.e., narcissism), manipulation and cynicism (i.e., ...
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Is it good to be bad? An evolutionary analysis of the adaptive ...
Aug 11, 2022 · Callous–unemotional (CU) traits are a constellation of traits related to lack of empathy, guilt, low empathy and interpersonal callousness, ...
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Solved How did Cicero view the treatment of enemies during - Chegg
Jun 27, 2024 · ... cruelty to ensure submissionWar should be conducted with humanity, showing clemency whenever possibleEnemies are not entitled to any form of ...
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Chapter 17: Concerning Cruelty and Clemency, and Whether it is ...
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Jul 11, 2022 · According to Thomas Hobbes, human nature is essentially cruel and selfish, and the only way to subdue humanity's evil impulses is through power.
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Ruthless Utilitarianism? COVID-19 State Triage Protocols May ...
Ruthless Utilitarianism? COVID-19 State Triage Protocols May Subject Patients to Racial Discrimination and Providers to Legal Liability. Am J Law Med. 2021 ...
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the ethics of ruthlessness: strategic utility or moral failure in ...
May 13, 2025 · In many such cases, ruthlessness is presented not as cruelty for its own sake but as strategic necessity. The jus ca on o en relies on existen ...
[53]
Wickedness and Vices | A Theory of Virtue - Oxford Academic
Ruthlessness can be much more serious, though it is not a form of malice. The word 'ruthless', in its broadest sense, can signify any willingness to sacrifice ...
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RUTHLESSNESS IN PUBLIC LIFE (Chapter 4)
Summary. The great modern crimes are public crimes. To a ... Ruthlessness in Public Life. Type: Chapter; Title: Ruthlessness in Public Life; Authors: Thomas Nagel ...
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Senior leaders are up to 12x more likely to be psychopaths ... - Fortune
Apr 26, 2025 · ... psychopathy: “My colleagues and I found in our research that 12% of corporate senior leadership displays a range of psychopathic traits ...
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Empirical studies ... Furthermore, every one of the Dark Triads was positively correlated with ruthless self-advancement and dominant leadership, and negatively ...
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Why Bad Guys Win at Work - Harvard Business Review
Nov 2, 2015 · In addition, dark triad traits tend to enhance competitiveness, if only by inhibiting cooperation and altruistic behaviors at work. In addition, ...
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In the Service of the Prince: A Meta‐Analytic Review of Machiavellian Leadership
### Summary of Meta-Analytic Findings on Machiavellian Leadership
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The Brutal Brilliance Of Mongol Leader Genghis Khan - HistoryExtra
Feb 22, 2019 · Yes, he was a ruthless killer, but the Mongol leader was also one of the most gifted military innovators of any age.
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The Mongol Khans - National Geographic Education
May 30, 2025 · ... Genghis Khan (universal ruler). With ruthless cunning, he overtook his rivals and rose to become the first Great Khan of the Mongols. He ...
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Stalin's Great Purge: Gulags, Show Trials, and Terror | TheCollector
Apr 14, 2023 · Stalin's most ruthless henchmen were disposed of by the new Khrushchev regime, although Khrushchev himself was allegedly complicit in at least ...
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7 Atrocities Soviet Dictator Joseph Stalin Committed | HowStuffWorks
Jan 29, 2020 · He later became the unquestioned and de facto dictator of the Soviet Union and was shockingly ruthless when it came to killing his people. Yet ...
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Siege of Thebes - Alexander's Campaign
Siege Tactics: Alexander employed various siege tactics ... Legacy of Alexander's Rule: The siege established Alexander's reputation as a decisive and ruthless ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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3 Times Alexander the Great Wasn't So Great
Feb 10, 2020 · The famed king of Macedon and military leader could be ruthless and cruel, especially when he dealt with Tyre, Gaza and Persepolis.Missing: tactics | Show results with:tactics
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[PDF] Don't be Cruel: Cruelty, Complicity, Self-Knowledge, and Growth
Apr 2, 2024 · This essay, bringing the perspective of classical virtue ethics to the modern ethical problem of mass incarceration, argues that our cruelty ...<|separator|>
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Moral Standards and Goodness Can't Exist Without God
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Leader's Machiavellianism and employees' counterproductive work ...
The results suggest that Machiavellian positive influence counterproductive work behavior through a mediating role of perceived abusive supervision.
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Emotional manipulation in the workplace - ScienceDirect.com
These findings suggest that emotional manipulation is a mechanism through which Machiavellianism is related to negative workplace outcomes, and that personality ...
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Emotional Manipulation in the Workplace: The Machiavellian Playbook
May 8, 2024 · Over time, these negative emotions can erode self-confidence and lead to burnout, which harms personal well-being as well as performance at work ...
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The Emotional Machiavellian: Interactions Between Leaders and ...
Sep 7, 2022 · Machiavellianism in organisations relates to unethical actions, employee dissatisfaction, distress, emotional exhaustion, turnover and other ...
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Hedge Fund Managers With Psychopathic Tendencies Make for ...
It is widely assumed that psychopathic personality traits promote success in high-powered, competitive contexts such as financial investment.Missing: ruthless | Show results with:ruthless
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The best hedge fund managers are not psychopaths or narcissists ...
Oct 19, 2017 · Hedge fund managers higher in "dark triad" personality traits -- psychopathy, narcissism, and Machiavellianism -- perform more poorly than their peers.
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(PDF) A meta-analysis of the dark triad and work outcomes: A social ...
Aug 10, 2025 · The traits of Machiavellianism consist of a lack of empathy, emotional reactivity, a strong focus on achieving one's own goals at the expense of ...
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Relationship Between Leadership, Personality, and the Dark Triad ...
Mar 3, 2025 · Additionally, leaders with high levels of Dark Triad traits experience reduced performance, especially in lower hierarchical roles. It was found ...
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In Leaders We Trust, or Should We? Supervisors' Dark Triad ...
(2020) argue that leaders' DT decreases the quality of social exchanges with their subordinates and it triggers retaliatory and counterproductive behaviors ...
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The Mask of Sanity? Leader Primary Psychopathy and the Effects of ...
Apr 22, 2024 · Furthermore, the presence of primary psychopathy in leaders has been found to negatively affect employees, damaging interpersonal relationships ...Missing: executives | Show results with:executives
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Fraud and corporate psychopaths: The proposition for reintroducing ...
There is strong evidence that corporate psychopaths – ruthless people who willingly engage in fraud and even enjoy outwitting and stealing from others – are ...
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[PDF] A Study of Lady Macbeth's Cruelty - ERIC
There are more than 30 peer-reviewed academic journals hosted under the hosting platform. Prospective authors of journals can find the submission instruction on ...
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[PDF] The Summit of Violence: Cruelty in the work of Artaud and Bataille
Peer reviewed. eScholarship.org. Powered by the California Digital Library ... perfect literary example of 'pure cruelty,' demonstrate the values and ...Missing: ruthlessness | Show results with:ruthlessness
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40 Greatest TV Villains of All Time - Rolling Stone
Sep 4, 2019 · Cyborgs and serial killers, crime bosses and capitalist pigs, literal demons and just plain dickheads: Evil takes many forms on television, ...
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32 Most Ruthless Villains In TV History - Cinemablend
Aug 26, 2025 · Vern Schillinger (J.K. Simmons) is the personification of evil on Oz. The racist prisoner was ruthless, but he was also weak in a lot of ways, ...
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Do ruthless people really get ahead? - BBC
Jan 3, 2016 · So, to get ahead, does it matter what 'type' of ruthless you are? Previous evidence had suggested that psychopathy is more common among CEOs.Missing: empirical | Show results with:empirical
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The Dark (and Ruthless) Side of Mental Toughness
Jun 4, 2016 · We tend to believe mental toughness can be helpful in many life situations. But it can turns into ruthlessness in those with Dark Triad traits.
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Extremist Ideologies and the Roots of Mass Atrocities - Just Security
Oct 14, 2022 · Perhaps killings by Islamic State in Syria and Iraq were not primarily efforts to implement a jihadist moral and political order, but a ruthless ...
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Why ruthlessness is a net negative in politics - Vox
May 14, 2018 · Why ruthlessness is a net negative in politics. Our research finds that collaborative, compassionate leadership actually yields its own ...Missing: ideological | Show results with:ideological
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Why ruthlessness is a net negative in politics
May 15, 2018 · What's the right way to exert political influence? Is it more effective to be selfless and virtuous, or forceful and ruthless?Missing: ideological | Show results with:ideological